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Department
o
f Architecture & Building Science
University of Nairobi
PSYCHOSOCIALLY SUPPORTIVE DESIGN
A CRITIQUE OF RETREAT CENTRES IN KENYA
The University of Nairobi
Department of Architecture & Building Science
School of the Built Environment
PSYCHOSOCIALLY SUPPORTIVE DESIGN
A CRITIQUE OF RETREAT CENTRES IN KENYA
A research thesis presented to the Department of Architecture & Building Science in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of Bachelor of Architecture
by
Opiyo Barry Paul
Opiyo Barry PaulOpiyo Barry Paul
Opiyo Barry Paul
B02/30731/2015
February 2020
ii
Dedication
To God,
the Source and Giver of all life, knowledge and wisdom
for the benefit and joy of all man.
iii
Declaration
I hereby, declare that this thesis is my original work and that, to the best of my knowledge, has not been submitted in any other university or institution
of higher learning in any form for the attainment of a diploma or degree.
This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the examination requirement for the award of the Bachelor of Architecture degree, in the Department of
Architecture and Building Science at the University of Nairobi.
Author: (Sign)………………………………………………………………….…. Date: ………………………………………………………………….
OPIYO BARRY PAUL | B02/30731/2015
Supervisor: (Sign)………………………………………………………………… Date: ………………………………………………………………….
ARCH. CALEB MUTALI
Supervisor: (Sign)………………………………………………………………… Date: ………………………………………………………………….
ARCH. PENINAH MUTONGA
Year Master: (Sign)………………………………………………………………. Date: …………………………………………………………………
ARCH. NORBERT MUSYOKI
Chairman, Department of Architecture and Building Science, School of the Built Environment
ARCH. MUSAU KIMEU
(Sign)………………………………………………………………………………. Date: …………………………………………………………………
iv
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest and sincerest gratitude to God, the Master Architect, who has granted me life, health and intellect that I too may
have a role in a far greater plan and extend the blessing to all humanity with the contents herein and acquaint all with ‘the wondrous works of Him which
is perfect in knowledge.’
To my kind and loving parents, none of this would be possible without the both of you and through you I have been richly blessed. You have supported
me in all ways possible and I am eternally grateful to you for all that you have done for me.
To my brothers, Albert, Nico and Andy, your encouragement, prayers and patience through it all has been instrumental in getting me this far and I truly
appreciate you.
To my supervisors, Arch. Caleb Mutali and Arch. Peninah Mutonga, thank you for your insight and guidance all through this journey that has culminated
in the delivery of this thesis. Under your tutelage, I have been challenged to have big and bold aspirations as I have been exposed to a depth of
knowledge that was freely and limitlessly given to me. I will forever be thankful for this experience.
To my able lecturers from the Department of Architecture, thank you for your guidance through the entire duration of the course. A special thank you to
Arch. Adnan Mwakulomba, Dr. Yusuf Ebrahim, Mr. Kahare Miano, Arch. June Kidenda, Arch. Florence Nyole, Arch. Bob Muhia, Arch. Margaret Njoroge
and Dr. Maurice Oyugi who made a special impact and last impression that contributed to the shaping of my experience.
A special thank you Mr. Jackson Kilambya and Mr. Ayub Ambei both of Brackenhurst, Mr. Willy Mwadilo of Sarova Salt Lick Game Lodge, Joseph of
Diani Reef Beach Resort and Spa and my cousin Fenner Omolo who made it possible for me to conduct my fieldwork at the different retreat facilities.
I would like to thank Arch. Paul Oburu for your instrumental role in inspiring me to strive for excellence and dare to be different. Through you I have
learned more than just architecture. Thank you!
To my dearly beloved friends who have stood by me in prayer, support and encouragement, it does not go unnoticed and appreciated. You have all
been very special and unbelievably supportive through it all. A special thank you to Moses Nguma, Nicollette Ochola, Edward Okoth, Nasha Wambui
and Gloria Opiyo for the impact you have all had on me as a person thus far.
To all my classmates with whom I laboured through the entire duration of our stay at the University, thank you for making this experience memorable.
You are highly appreciated. A special thank you to Mark Kiarie, Robert Otieno, Ken Kigundu, Billy Onyango, Ibrahim Oriaro, Julie Waringa, Simon
Wachira, Sharon Abungu, Sharon Njiru, Viva Kanana, Joy Ouma, Faith Kimeli, Sophia Nthuku, Abigail Wahome, Nawal Mohammed, Kevin Murimi,
Nayanka Ondili, Malcolm Malawi, Delvin Muganda, Gatonye Mwaura and Maryam Omar that I specially bonded with.
Whilst every effort has been made to acknowledge all contributions, I cannot possibly acknowledge all the immense support received throughout that
has brought me this far. May God abundantly bless you all for what you have done to and for me
v
Table of Contents
Preface
Dedication ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ii
Declaration ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- iii
Acknowledgements ----------------------------------------------------------------- iv
Table of Contents --------------------------------------------------------------------- v
List of Figures & Tables ------------------------------------------------------------- ix
Abstract ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- xvi
1 INTRODUCTION --------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 Background of Study ----------------------------------------------------- 2
1.2 Problem Statement ------------------------------------------------------- 3
1.3 Research Aims & Objectives -------------------------------------------- 4
1.4 Research Questions ------------------------------------------------------- 4
1.5 Justification of Study ----------------------------------------------------- 4
1.6 Significance of Study ----------------------------------------------------- 5
1.7 Assumptions of Study ---------------------------------------------------- 6
1.8 Scope of The Study ------------------------------------------------------- 6
1.9 Limitations of The Study ------------------------------------------------- 6
1.10 Literature Reviewed ------------------------------------------------------- 7
1.10.1 Literature Reviewed of Published Books ----------------------- 7
1.10.2 Literature Reviewed of Published Journals and Papers ---- 8
1.10.3 Literature Reviewed of Previous Theses ------------------------ 9
2 LITERATURE REVIEW: HEALTH PROMOTION AND
RESTORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS --------------------------------------------- 10
2.1 Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------- 11
2.2 Historical Evolution of Health Promotion -------------------------- 12
2.2.1 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion ------------------------ 13
2.3 Impact of The Physical Environment on Health and Well-Being
14
2.3.1 Mind-Body Relationship in Promotion of Health and Well-
Being 14
2.3.2 Architecture & Cognition ---------------------------------------- 15
2.4 Restorative Environments & Retreat Centres---------------------- 16
2.5 Synthesis ------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
3 LITERATURE REVIEW: SALUTOGENSIS AND RESTORATIVE
ENVIRONMENTS ------------------------------------------------------------------ 19
3.1 Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------- 20
3.2 Theory of Salutogenesis: History and Meaning ------------------- 20
3.2.1 Sense of Coherence (SOC) -------------------------------------- 23
3.2.1.1 Comprehensibility ---------------------------------------------- 23
3.2.1.2 Manageability---------------------------------------------------- 24
3.2.1.3 Meaningfulness ------------------------------------------------- 24
3.3 Psychosocially Supportive Design: Application of Salutogenesis
to Architecture -------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
3.3.1 Comprehensibility Through Architecture -------------------- 25
3.3.2 Manageability Through Architecture -------------------------- 27
3.3.3 Meaningfulness Through Architecture ------------------------ 27
3.4 General Principles of Salutogenic Design ------------------------- 28
3.4.1 Culture --------------------------------------------------------------- 28
3.4.2 Aesthetics & Décor ------------------------------------------------ 29
3.4.3 Daylighting ---------------------------------------------------------- 29
vi
3.4.4 Sound, Music & Noise Control --------------------------------- 30
3.4.5 Thermal Comfort -------------------------------------------------- 30
3.4.6 Colour ---------------------------------------------------------------- 31
3.4.7 Ergonomy ----------------------------------------------------------- 31
3.4.8 Materials & Texture ----------------------------------------------- 31
3.5 Key Principles of Salutogenic Design ------------------------------- 32
3.5.1 Active Design ------------------------------------------------------- 32
3.5.1.1 Incorporation of Mixed Land Uses ------------------------- 35
3.5.1.2 Use of Well-Designed and Connected Pedestrian Path
Networks at The Human Scale ------------------------------------------ 35
3.5.1.3 Provide Sidewalks and Enticing, Pedestrian-Oriented
Streetscapes ----------------------------------------------------------------- 36
3.5.1.4 Provision of Infrastructure to Support Biking------------- 36
3.5.1.5 Design of Visible and Enticing Staircases ----------------- 37
3.5.1.6 Incorporation of Less Prominent Elevator Design ------ 38
3.5.1.7 Provision of High-Quality Spaces for Multi-Generational
Play & Recreation ----------------------------------------------------------- 38
3.5.1.8 Build Play Spaces for Children ------------------------------ 39
3.5.2 Social Support Design -------------------------------------------- 39
3.5.2.1 Provision for Attractive and Inviting Meeting Spaces -- 41
3.5.2.2 Provision for Spaces for Social and Cultural Activity
Participation ----------------------------------------------------------------- 41
3.5.2.3 Pedestrian-Friendly Footpaths and Socially Enhancing
Street Patterns -------------------------------------------------------------- 42
3.5.2.4 Provision for Safe and Sociable Spaces ------------------- 42
3.5.2.5 Provision for High Quality Parks and Recreational
Facilities 42
3.5.2.6 Provision for Various Activities for Different Groups and
Encourage Inclusivity ------------------------------------------------------ 43
3.5.3 Biophilic Design ---------------------------------------------------- 43
3.5.3.1 Environmental Features --------------------------------------- 45
3.5.3.2 Natural Shapes and Forms ----------------------------------- 46
3.5.3.3 Natural Patterns and Processes ----------------------------- 48
3.5.3.4 Light and Space ------------------------------------------------- 50
3.5.3.5 Place – Based Relationships ---------------------------------- 52
3.5.3.6 Evolved Human-Nature Relationships -------------------- 54
3.6 Synthesis ------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY -------------------------------------------- 59
4.1 Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------- 60
4.2 Research Purpose -------------------------------------------------------- 60
4.3 Research Design --------------------------------------------------------- 60
4.4 Sampling Design --------------------------------------------------------- 61
4.5 Sampling Criteria -------------------------------------------------------- 61
4.6 Sample Unit of Analysis ------------------------------------------------ 62
4.7 Sample Frame ------------------------------------------------------------ 62
4.8 Sample Size --------------------------------------------------------------- 63
4.9 Data Collection ----------------------------------------------------------- 63
4.9.1 Primary Data (Field Study) --------------------------------------- 63
4.9.2 Secondary Data ---------------------------------------------------- 64
4.10 Data Analysis and Presentation -------------------------------------- 64
4.11 Limitations of Study ----------------------------------------------------- 65
5 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ---------------------------- 66
5.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------- 67
vii
5.2 Brackenhurst Eco-Conferences Centre ----------------------------- 67
5.2.1 Historical Background -------------------------------------------- 67
5.2.2 Site Description ---------------------------------------------------- 69
5.2.3 Active Design ------------------------------------------------------- 69
5.2.3.1 Mixed Land Uses ----------------------------------------------- 69
5.2.3.2 Pedestrian Path Design and Connectivity ---------------- 71
5.2.3.3 Biking Infrastructure ------------------------------------------- 72
5.2.3.4 Staircase Design ------------------------------------------------ 72
5.2.3.5 Multi-Generational Play & Recreation --------------------- 72
5.2.4 Social Support Design -------------------------------------------- 73
5.2.4.1 Attractive and Inviting Meeting Spaces & Socially
Enhancing Pedestrian Paths --------------------------------------------- 73
5.2.4.2 Safe and Sociable Spaces ------------------------------------ 73
5.2.4.3 Inclusive recreation and Well-Designed recreational
facilities 73
5.2.5 Biophilic Design --------------------------------------------------- 84
5.2.5.1 Environmental Features --------------------------------------- 84
5.2.5.2 Natural Shapes and Forms ----------------------------------- 87
5.2.5.3 Natural Patterns and Processes ----------------------------- 88
5.2.5.4 Light and Space ------------------------------------------------- 90
5.2.5.5 Place-Based Relationships ----------------------------------- 90
5.2.5.6 Evolved Human-Nature Relationships --------------------- 91
5.2.6 Psychosocially Supportive Design Performance Summary
95
5.3 Sarova Salt Lick Game Lodge ---------------------------------------- 96
5.3.1 Historical Background -------------------------------------------- 96
5.3.2 Site Description ---------------------------------------------------- 96
5.3.3 Active Design ------------------------------------------------------- 99
5.3.3.1 Pedestrian Path Design and Connectivity ----------------- 99
5.3.3.2 Staircase Design ------------------------------------------------ 99
5.3.3.3 Multi-Generational Play & Recreation -------------------- 100
5.3.4 Social Support Design ------------------------------------------ 101
5.3.4.1 Provision for High-Quality, Attractive and Inviting
Meeting Spaces & Recreational Facilities --------------------------- 101
5.3.4.2 Provision for Pedestrian Friendly and Socially Enhancing
Walkways ------------------------------------------------------------------- 102
5.3.4.3 Provision for Safe & Sociable Spaces -------------------- 102
5.3.5 Biophilic Design -------------------------------------------------- 103
5.3.5.1 Environmental features -------------------------------------- 103
5.3.5.2 Natural Shapes and Forms --------------------------------- 105
5.3.5.3 Natural Patterns and Processes --------------------------- 105
5.3.5.4 Light and Space ----------------------------------------------- 108
5.3.5.5 Place-Based Relationships ---------------------------------- 109
5.3.5.6 Evolved Human-Nature Relationships ------------------- 111
5.3.6 Psychosocially Supportive Design Performance Summary
115
5.4 Diani Reef Beach Resort & Spa ------------------------------------- 116
5.4.1 Historical Background ------------------------------------------ 116
5.4.2 Site Description -------------------------------------------------- 116
5.4.3 Active Design ----------------------------------------------------- 116
5.4.3.1 Incorporation of Mixed Land Uses ------------------------ 116
5.4.3.2 Pedestrian Path Design and Connectivity --------------- 118
viii
5.4.3.3 Provision for Pedestrian-oriented and enticing Sidewalks
and Streetscapes ---------------------------------------------------------- 118
5.4.3.4 Staircase Design ----------------------------------------------- 119
5.4.3.5 Less Prominent Elevator Design --------------------------- 119
5.4.3.6 Provision of High-quality Spaces for Multi-generational
Play and Recreation ------------------------------------------------------- 119
5.4.3.7 Provision of Play Spaces for Children --------------------- 120
5.4.4 Social Support Design ------------------------------------------- 120
5.4.4.1 Provision for Attractive and Inviting Meeting Spaces - 120
5.4.4.2 Provision for Spaces for Social and Cultural Activity
Participation ---------------------------------------------------------------- 120
5.4.4.3 Provision for Pedestrian-friendly Footpaths and Socially
Enhancing Street Patterns ----------------------------------------------- 121
5.4.4.4 Provision for Safe and Sociable Spaces ------------------ 121
5.4.4.5 Provision for High Quality Parks and Recreational
Facilities 121
5.4.5 Biophilic Design -------------------------------------------------- 122
5.4.5.1 Environmental features --------------------------------------- 122
5.4.5.2 Natural Shapes and Forms ---------------------------------- 123
5.4.5.3 Natural Patterns and Processes ---------------------------- 124
5.4.5.4 Light and Space ------------------------------------------------ 126
5.4.5.5 Place-Based Relationships ---------------------------------- 127
5.4.5.6 Evolved Human-Nature Relationships -------------------- 129
5.4.6 Psychosocially Supportive Design Performance Summary
134
6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS --------------------- 135
6.1 Introduction -------------------------------------------------------------- 136
6.2 Conclusions ------------------------------------------------------------- 137
6.2.1 Active Design ----------------------------------------------------- 137
6.2.2 Social Support Design ------------------------------------------ 138
6.2.3 Biophilic Design -------------------------------------------------- 138
6.3 Recommendations ---------------------------------------------------- 139
6.3.1 Active Design Recommendations ---------------------------- 139
6.3.2 Social Support Recommendations --------------------------- 139
6.3.3 Biophilic Design Recommendations ------------------------ 140
6.3.4 Recommendations for Further Research ------------------- 140
References -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 141
ix
List of Figures & Tables
Fig. 1.1 The hustle and bustle of cities as seen in Nairobi traffic. ------------------------------- 2
Fig. 1.2 The mind-body connection is a hidden root of illness where the health of one
can affect the health of the other. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
Fig. 1.3 Tony Molleapaza Rojas Children’s Hospital, Peru by EGM Architects. -------------- 2
Fig. 1.4 Mental fatigue arising from stress affects well-being. ----------------------------------- 3
Fig. 1.5 Healing environments facilitate for mental healing. ------------------------------------- 3
Fig. 1.6 Nairobi as an example of a busy cluttered and undesirable environment which
individuals return to after seeking retreat in healing environments. --------------------------- 3
Fig. 1.7 An observation of the difference in the two environments can shed light on what
ought to be done to ensure we are ever in psychosocially reinforcing environments. ---- 4
Fig. 1.8 An investigation into the architecture for retreat reveals the principles that are to
be considered for psychosocially supportive design. ---------------------------------------------- 4
Fig. 1.9 In understanding architecture for retreat the principles are better understood for
application in all architecture. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Fig. 1.10 All architecture, regardless of the building function should contribute to the
well-being of its inhabitants.------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 5
Fig. 1.11 Psychosocially Supportive architecture uses a preventive care strategy towards
health promotion. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5
Fig. 1.12 Design for physical activity as a core component of psychosocially supportive
design. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Fig. 1.13 'Social balconies' to satisfy a need for social support design as a core
component of psychosocially supportive design. --------------------------------------------------- 6
Fig. 1.14 Biophilic design as a core component of Psychosocially Supportive Design. --- 6
Fig. 1.15 How the Built Environment Shapes Our Lives-------------------------------------------- 7
Fig. 1.16 The Handbook of Salutogenesis ------------------------------------------------------------ 8
Fig. 1.17 Healing Spaces: The Science of Space and Well-Being ------------------------------- 9
Fig. 2.1 The specialized agency of The UN that is concerned with international public
health. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Fig. 2.2 Health is the core to human happiness as it sets precedence for one to thrive in
whatever they desire. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Fig. 2.3 A holistic and comprehensive approach to health as opposed to just biomedical
interventions. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 11
Fig. 2.4 WHO Pillars of Health Promotion which focus on disease and illness prevention.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
Fig. 2.5 The determinants of health as per the Health Field Concept in The Lalonde
Report of 1974 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Fig. 2.6 Alma-Ata Declaration at an international conference on primary health care held
in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan in the Soviet Union from September 6 to September 12, 1978 13
Fig. 2.7 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion emblem adopted at the first international
conference on health. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13
Fig. 2.8 The National Congress of Brazil by Oscar Niemeyer; the built environment is a
sector within which the health promotion agenda can be propagated. ----------------------14
Fig. 2.9 Crown Sky Garden, Lurie Children’s Hospital ---------------------------------------------14
Fig. 2.10 What we perceive with our senses serves as stimuli to the brain which results in
chemical/ electrical changes in the human brain. --------------------------------------------------15
Fig. 2.11 Psychological experiences contribute to the allostatic load positively or
negatively thus draw the body into a response to the brain communication. ---------------15
Fig. 2.12 Architecture can shape our cognition, emotion and action for both positive and
negative outcomes. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Fig. 2.13 Salk Institute by Louis Khan; A carefully crafted and composed work of
architecture that has a positive effect on the psychology of a human being. ---------------16
Fig. 2.14 A socio-physical environment can contribute to resource restoration required
to cope with daily life. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16
Fig. 2.15 Mhondoro Game Lodge; a game excursio retreat. ------------------------------------17
Fig. 2.16 Vajrasana Buddhist Retreat by Walters & Cohen Architects as a Spiritual
Retreat. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17
Fig. 2.17 Navutu Dreams Resort & Wellness; a scenic retreat -----------------------------------17
Fig. 2.18 Sarova Salt Lick Game Lodge; A game excursion retreat ----------------------------18
Fig. 2.19 Bethany Retreat House; a spiritual retreat -----------------------------------------------18
Fig. 2.20 Forest Resort; A scenic Retreat -------------------------------------------------------------18
Fig. 3.1 Israeli-American medical sociologist, Prof. Aaron Antonovsky (19 Dec, 1923 – 7
July, 1994) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
Fig. 3.2 An assets approach toward health and wellness -----------------------------------------20
Fig. 3.3 The Salutogenic concept that puts the state of health of well-being as a point on
a continuum and forces supporting or inhibiting better health act by influencing a
component known as the sense of coherence(SOC). Forces that support better health
are called Generalised Resistance Resources (GRRs) whereas those inhibiting are called
Generalised Resistance Deficits (GRDs). --------------------------------------------------------------21
Fig. 3.4 The Salutogenic Health Model ---------------------------------------------------------------22
Fig. 3.5 A sense of coherence of one's circumstance is vital in coping with their allostatic
load (stress level) at any given time. -------------------------------------------------------------------23
Fig. 3.6 Forces working against a strong sense of Coherence are Generalised Resistance
Deficits --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
Fig. 3.7 Forces working in favour of a strong sense of coherence are Generalised
Resistance Resources. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
Fig. 3.8 The sense of coherence is determined by three core components of an
individual’s perception of their surrounding circumstances; Comprehensibility,
Manageability and Meaningfulness. -------------------------------------------------------------------24
x
Fig. 3.9 Prof. Alan Dilani, founder of the International Academy for Design and Health
(IADH) and the journal, World Health Design, coined the term Psychosocially Supportive
Design as an application of salutogensis to the design of the physical environment. ---- 25
Fig. 3.10 Ambiguity in design increases the possibility of perceptual distortion thus
making architecture less comprehensible. ----------------------------------------------------------- 25
Fig. 3.11 The success of Alvar Aalto's Saynatsalo Town Hall is largely due to its
association with familiar languages, concepts, forms, materials, objects, textures,
emotions and expectations within its geographical context and even beyond thus it
increases its likelihood of comprehension. ---------------------------------------------------------- 26
Fig. 3.12 Four Seasons Hotel, Montreal restaurant lounge by Atelier Zébulon Perron; A
careful balance in the sensorial stimulation arising from a given space gives just enough
to aid comprehensibility and identity whilst preventing distortion that would otherwise
arise in overly stimulating environments. ------------------------------------------------------------- 26
Fig. 3.13 Postmodern architectural theories seek to intentionally confuse and in most
cases are not favourable in the quest to achieve environmental comprehensibility. ------ 27
Fig. 3.14 The New Reich Chancellery by Albert Speer for its time was a magnificent
structure that disempowered Hitler's allies and foes alike giving his forces an impression
of invincibility. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 27
Fig. 3.15 Central Wolfe Campus by HOK; Incorporation of nature in the built
environment creates an opportunity for social support as well as evolved human-nature
relationships that give rise to meaning. -------------------------------------------------------------- 28
Fig. 3.16 The Thread by Toshiko Mori; The forms, finishes and relationships of buildings
when used to communicate the cultural aspects of a given people positively impact
human health. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
Fig. 3.17 Islamic Cultural Centre, Wuppertal, Germany - In order to aid the establishment
of a strong sense of belonging, an architectural piece ought to conform as much as
possible to the culture. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
Fig. 3.18 Aesthetic elements evoke complex cognitive and emotional processes that
satisfy the viewer. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
Fig. 3.19 Natural light has positive effects on the psychological well-being by linking
users to the outside world and satisfying a need to be a part of happenings beyond the
confines of interior space. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
Fig. 3.20 There are sounds that can promote health and vice versa. Sensitive
consideration to buffer undesirable sound and let in desirable sound works toward
developing a strong SOC. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
Fig. 3.21 A 230ft long sea organ in Croatia by architect Nikola Bašić takes advantage of
the Adriatic sea waves to produce random soothing rhythmic tunes. ------------------------ 30
Fig. 3.22 Evaporative cooling as passive strategy to provide thermal comfort within a
building. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 31
Fig. 3.23 Olea All Suite Hotel by BLOCK722 architects+: the material finish in any given
project determines the colour of a building. The familiarity of the colours and textures
increases the likelihood of comprehension to reinforce one’s SOC. -------------------------- 31
Fig. 3.24 The Salutogenic Design Framework -------------------------------------------------------32
Fig. 3.25 Active design seeks to increase the physical fitness levels among space users
by design that make physical activity in a place possible. ----------------------------------------32
Fig. 3.26 The generally recommended minimum time spent in physical activity in both
adults and children. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33
Fig. 3.27 Levels of physical activity as of 2016. ------------------------------------------------------33
Fig. 3.28 Graph showing percentage of deaths associated with inadequate physical
activity in the United States ------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
Fig. 3.29 Graph showing the potential of built environment improving physical activity
levels of space users. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
Fig. 3.30 Miasteczko Wilanow District - Warsaw, Poland -----------------------------------------35
Fig. 3.31 Bjarke Ingels-designed apartment towers and public beach planned for
Williamsburg, Brooklyn New York incorporates a mix of land uses that increases the
distances travelled by people and by extension the physical activity. ------------------------35
Fig. 3.32 Facilities such as racks, lanes and bike storage support the active lifestyles of
cyclists. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
Fig. 3.33 Mariahilfer Straße in Vienna, Austria by Bureau B+B Urbanism and Landscape
Architecture was redesigned as pedestrian oriented streetscape. ----------------------------36
Fig. 3.34 Making a stair an enticing destination by incorporating unusual design details
such as a slide next to a staircase by RMW, turned the stair into a fun zone. Interactive
elements in particular increase stair use. -------------------------------------------------------------37
Fig. 3.35 Visual highlights such as lighting on a stair as well as conspicuous stair designs
make the stair a beacon. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
Fig. 3.36 Making the stairs visible even though they may be fire escape stairs makes
them much more attractive than if within opaque enclosures. ----------------------------------37
Fig. 3.37 Arbor House Development; The main entrance was relocated to make
elevators less prominent and stairs more prominent. ---------------------------------------------38
Fig. 3.38 Well designed recreation spaces shape a given community's identity for the
better by servicing social connections. ----------------------------------------------------------------39
Fig. 3.39 Support for children who are generally the most physically active group in the
society is key in successful active design. ------------------------------------------------------------39
Fig. 3.40 Social interactions is an important factor in promotion of one's health and well-
being. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
Fig. 3.41 The understanding of proxemics is key in designing for social support. ---------40
Fig. 3.42 The built environment provides immense opportunity of bringing people
together at convergence points. -----------------------------------------------------------------------40
Fig. 3.43 The built environment ought to be socially reinforcing in order to successfully
support well-being. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
Fig. 3.44 Use of aesthetic, decorative and visually pleasing elements to slow down traffic
to create social contact.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------41
Fig. 3.45 Cultural Centre in Nevers by Ateliers O-S Architectes; uses the bleachers at the
front of the building as a tiered public square that can be used by local residents. ------41
xi
Fig. 3.46 An urban garden by OFL Architecture in Favara, Italy creates a socially
enhancing street response that caters for the pedestrian. --------------------------------------- 42
Fig. 3.47 Safety and security within spaces through lighting and activity makes them
more socially favourable. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
Fig. 3.48 Shenzhen Talent Park by AUBE; Well designed and pleasing parks and
recreational facilities generate more human interest that results in more social
interaction ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 42
Fig. 3.49 Inclusive recreation spaces enhance the crossing over of social networks
between different generations that reinforce the social support within a community. --- 43
Fig. 3.50 Biophilia is the human love of nature. ----------------------------------------------------- 43
Fig. 3.51 The dialogue between human beings and the natural world. ---------------------- 43
Fig. 3.52 The benefits of biophilia ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 44
Fig. 3.53 Plants integration in architecture improve comfort, happiness, well-being and
efficiency. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
Fig. 3.54 Water incorporated in architecture has the satisfies the human affinity for a
homely experience. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 45
Fig. 3.55 Presence of animals evokes pleasure and stimulation. ------------------------------- 45
Fig. 3.56 The ability of natural materials to reveal the actions of natural processes gives a
peculiar satisfaction. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
Fig. 3.57 Kandalama Hotel by Geoffrey Bawa has multiple facades covered in plant
matter that blends the structure with the surrounding context. -------------------------------- 46
Fig. 3.58 People tend to have a strong affinity for outdoor views that connect the space
users to the outside world. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46
Fig. 3.59 A Bamboo Cathedral at Green School Bali in Bali, Indonesia structure mimics
the natural tree structural support. -------------------------------------------------------------------- 47
Fig. 3.60 A building staircase imitates a natural shell form. -------------------------------------- 47
Fig. 3.61 Nature inspired forms tend to resist straight lines. ------------------------------------ 47
Fig. 3.62 ICD-ITKE Research Pavilion 2013-14 by ICD-ITKE University of Stuttgart is a
biomimetic investigation of natural fiber composite shells and the development of novel
robotic fabrication methods for fiber reinforced polymer structures. ------------------------- 48
Fig. 3.63 The Kunsthaus Graz musuem by Peter Cook and Colin Fournier has been
termed as a baby hippo, sea slug, porcupine, whale and a "Friendly Alien"due to its
biomorphic, indefinable something, a hybrid, strange and familiar at the same time. --- 48
Fig. 3.64 Norman & Doris Fisher House (1967) by Louis Khan is a house finished in cedar
wood cladding and masonry stone which bring a high aesthetic value due to the
materials revealing the age and change the materials have undergone. -------------------- 49
Fig. 3.65 Courtyard House by RMA Architects in Awas, India uses the courtyard as
central focal point around which the whole house is organized. ------------------------------- 49
Fig. 3.66 Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad by Louis Khan exhibits
complementary contrasts in the play between light and shadow. ----------------------------- 50
Fig. 3.67 Oriente Station, Lisbon by Santiago Calatrava exhibits orderly variation of a
basic pattern in emulation of fractals that occur in nature. -------------------------------------- 50
Fig. 3.68 Daylight House by Takeshi Hosaka Architects, Yokohama, Japan filters skylight
to natural light the entire house. -----------------------------------------------------------------------50
Fig. 3.69 Etham South Project by Wolveridge Architects uses screens to manipulate light
and give it a shape and form. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------51
Fig. 3.70 Jungle Keva by Jaquestudio uses visual and physical connectivity to the outside
in order to satisfy the users. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------51
Fig. 3.71 Fallingwater by F. L. Wright has a geographical connection in its response to
the site by stepping down the steep slope and its cantilevering over the river below. ---52
Fig. 3.72 Changchun Culture of Water Ecology Park by W&R GROUP seeks to reinforce
the existing ecosystem on site. -------------------------------------------------------------------------52
Fig. 3.73 The Islamic residential architecture tends to screen spaces cultural intervention
to maintain privacy. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------52
Fig. 3.74 Msambweni Beach house uses makuti roofing and coral rag in its finishes which
are both indigenous to the Kenyan coast. -----------------------------------------------------------53
Fig. 3.75 Robbie House by F. L. Wright, a prairie style house takes its form from
America’s native biophysical prairie context. --------------------------------------------------------53
Fig. 3.76 Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp by Le Corbusier takes on the life of its site
and its history and thus plugs into the spirit of the place. ----------------------------------------53
Fig. 3.77 A sense of security and protection from potential threats to well-being make
one's surrounding manageable. ------------------------------------------------------------------------54
Fig. 3.78 Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, Italy - A mastery of ordered
complex elements is desirable. -------------------------------------------------------------------------54
Fig. 3.79 Al Bahar towers by Aedas Architects in Abu Dhabi offers protection from the
harsh sun through sun shading and orientation thus making spaces manageable. -------54
Fig. 3.80 Rural House by RCR Arquitectes opts for a sensitive and minimal intervention;
revealing mastery and control in building within the natural environment. ------------------55
Fig. 3.81 Therme Vals by Peter Zumthor incorporates the natural environment with
architecture with evokes exploration and discovery. ----------------------------------------------55
Fig. 3.82 Church of Light by Tadao Ando uses light and shadow to evoke the reverential
feeling. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------55
Fig. 3.83 Under Pohutukawa House by Herbst Architects seeks to maintain the
Pohutakawa tree forest around and even draws inspiration from the tree forms. ----------56
Fig. 3.84 Tree House by Malan Vorster Architecture Interior Design inspires curiosity and
enticement by its integration with its natural environment. --------------------------------------56
Fig. 4.1 Arjiju Resort, Laikipia, Kenya - The research seeks to describe what constitutes
salutogenic architecture in Kenyan retreat centres.------------------------------------------------60
Fig. 4.2 A case study research strategy is used in conducting this research. ----------------60
Fig. 4.3 To achieve the desired results, probabilistic sampling methods are used in this
study -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------61
Fig. 4.4 Due to the size of the samples available, the cluster sampling method is used.-61
Fig. 4.5 The sample unit of analysis in the study is the retreat serving centres and
developments. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------62
xii
Fig. 4.6 The sample frame from which samples are selected are the 3 designated retreat
typologies in Kenya as per this study. ----------------------------------------------------------------- 62
Fig. 4.7 One retreat facility from each sample clusters that make up the sample frame is
selected as a representation of each cluster.-------------------------------------------------------- 62
Fig. 4.8 Samsung Galaxy S8 SM-G950F smartphone used in data collection and analysis.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 63
Fig. 4.9 AvidPower Laser Distance Meter (70m) used in physical measurement of spaces.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 63
Fig. 4.10 The Canon EOS 600D digital single-lens reflex camera and Canon PowerShot
SX530 HS Digital Camera used in photgraphic data collection. -------------------------------- 63
Fig. 4.11 S Health (left) and PlantNet (right) mobile applications as used in data analysis.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 64
Fig. 4.12 Time constraints served a hurdle in conducting the study. -------------------------- 65
Fig. 4.13 Financial constraints in conducting the study reduce the possible locations
available for study and the number of visits that could be made to certain retreat
facilities. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 65
Fig. 4.14 Ease of access to conduct study in certain spaces and facilities was limited by
management and administration. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Fig. 5.1 Location map of retreat case studies. ------------------------------------------------------ 67
Fig. 5.2 Brackenhurst Eco-Conferences Centre ----------------------------------------------------- 67
Fig. 5.3 Brackenhurst Eco-Conferences Centre Location, context and site extents. ------ 68
Fig. 5.4 Three trees farm became a source for battle-weary British soldiers during World
War I which marked its beginning as a retreat destination.-------------------------------------- 69
Fig. 5.5 The land on which the retreat presently sits on was originally farm land. --------- 69
Fig. 5.6 Brackenhurst site plan showing different land uses, paths and active design data
along paths. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
Fig. 5.7 Path finished in cement screed beside the Shimba Cottage. ------------------------ 71
Fig. 5.8 Approach to Muturi Conference Room ---------------------------------------------------- 71
Fig. 5.9 Saunders Auditorium Front facade and approach -------------------------------------- 71
Fig. 5.10 Mountain biking is one of the special services offered at the facility. ------------- 72
Fig. 5.11 Grand stair entrance to the facility clubhouse ------------------------------------------ 72
Fig. 5.12 Brackenhurst basketball, tennis and volleyball courts --------------------------------- 72
Fig. 5.13 Children's playground and sand pit next to the play garden ----------------------- 73
Fig. 5.14 Brackenhurst's Blue Sky High ropes team building space. -------------------------- 73
Fig. 5.15 Outdoor breakout meeting space next to Saunders Auditorium and Clark
Chapel -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
Fig. 5.16 Aberdares Cottage Approach -------------------------------------------------------------- 74
Fig. 5.17 Aberdares Cottage Living Area ------------------------------------------------------------- 74
Fig. 5.18 Aberdares Cottage Bedroom Area -------------------------------------------------------- 74
Fig. 5.19 Aberdares Cottage Floor Plan -------------------------------------------------------------- 74
Fig. 5.20 Aberdares Cottage Perspective ------------------------------------------------------------ 74
Fig. 5.21 The Blackroom serves as an independent meeting space or a breakout space
to Saunders Auditorium ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------75
Fig. 5.22 The Blackroom Meeting Room is located in the Saunders Auditorium building
and is named after its characteristic black linoleum square tiles. -------------------------------75
Fig. 5.23 The space is naturally lit on one side by 4 windows -----------------------------------75
Fig. 5.24 Blackroom Meeting Room Floor Plan -----------------------------------------------------75
Fig. 5.25 Blackroom 3D perspective -------------------------------------------------------------------75
Fig. 5.26 Clubhouse Floor Plan --------------------------------------------------------------------------76
Fig. 5.27 Clubhouse 3D Aerial Perspective ----------------------------------------------------------76
Fig. 5.28 Clubhouse approach from Mutugi Conference Room --------------------------------76
Fig. 5.29 Clubhouse side facade. -----------------------------------------------------------------------76
Fig. 5.30 The clubhouse approach from the Harrell Tea Room. --------------------------------76
Fig. 5.31 Dining Room B serves as the main Dining Area for the facilities residents. -----77
Fig. 5.32 The choice of furniture and finishes used inside the dining complements the
antigue architecture well preserved and evokes feelings of satisfaction and pleasure as
one experiences the patina of time embodied in this space. -----------------------------------77
Fig. 5.33 The dining area is characterised by natural tones and finishes that have been
preserved from the original construction. ------------------------------------------------------------77
Fig. 5.34 Dining Room Lighting Fixture Detail ------------------------------------------------------77
Fig. 5.35 Dining Room B Interior Elevation-----------------------------------------------------------77
Fig. 5.36 Dining Room B floor plan. --------------------------------------------------------------------77
Fig. 5.37 The visual transparency between the cyber lounge and the gift shop evokes
interest and thus generates human traffic between the two spaces. --------------------------78
Fig. 5.38 View of Cyber Lounge -------------------------------------------------------------------------78
Fig. 5.39 Gift Shop Interiors are finished naturally except for a wall done in broken tile
pieces as an aesthetic feature revealing plant and animal motifs. -----------------------------78
Fig. 5.40 Sectional Perspective of Clubhouse -------------------------------------------------------78
Fig. 5.41 Clubhouse Sectional Perspective -----------------------------------------------------------79
Fig. 5.42 Muna Tree Cafe Servery ----------------------------------------------------------------------79
Fig. 5.43 Muna Tree Cafe dining area (Dining Room A) ------------------------------------------79
Fig. 5.44 Dining Room C Entrance from Lobby -----------------------------------------------------79
Fig. 5.45 Muna Tree Cafe Entrance from Lobby ----------------------------------------------------79
Fig. 5.46 Muna Tree Cafe: Dining Room A view from Cyber lounge and side access to
clubhouse. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------79
Fig. 5.47 Farmhouse A approach and entrance. ----------------------------------------------------80
Fig. 5.48 Farmhouse A interior --------------------------------------------------------------------------80
Fig. 5.49 Some of the beds in the dormitory are made from polished logs to retain their
natural aesthetic and reveal the aging process that the timber members have gone
through --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80
Fig. 5.50 Farmhouse A Floor Plan ----------------------------------------------------------------------80
Fig. 5.51 Farmhouse A 3D perspective ----------------------------------------------------------------80
Fig. 5.52 The Harrell Tea Room interiors -------------------------------------------------------------81
xiii
Fig. 5.53 The Harrell Tea Room Exterior -------------------------------------------------------------- 81
Fig. 5.54 The Harrell Team room internal finishes are all timber giving it a more homely
aesthetic. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81
Fig. 5.55 Harrell Tea Room 3D perspective ---------------------------------------------------------- 81
Fig. 5.56 Harrell Tea Room Sectional Perspective-------------------------------------------------- 81
Fig. 5.57 Harrell Tea Room Floor Plan ---------------------------------------------------------------- 81
Fig. 5.58 Ngong' Cottage floor plan ------------------------------------------------------------------ 82
Fig. 5.59 Ngong' Cottage living area. ----------------------------------------------------------------- 82
Fig. 5.60 Ngong' cottage interior showing kitchen, dining and decker bed. --------------- 82
Fig. 5.61 Ngong Cottage Exterior---------------------------------------------------------------------- 82
Fig. 5.62 Ngong' cottage 3D Perspective ------------------------------------------------------------ 82
Fig. 5.63 Ngong' Cottage 3D perspective ----------------------------------------------------------- 82
Fig. 5.64 Room 305-308 perspective ------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
Fig. 5.65 Typical Room Layout perspective ---------------------------------------------------------- 83
Fig. 5.66 Room 305-308 Plan perspective ------------------------------------------------------------ 83
Fig. 5.67 Room 305-308 Floor Plan --------------------------------------------------------------------- 83
Fig. 5.68 Room 305 interior ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
Fig. 5.69 Room 305-308 exterior ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 83
Fig. 5.70 Brackenhurst is well populated by fauna due to the commitment of the facility
in preservation of their ecosystem. -------------------------------------------------------------------- 84
Fig. 5.71 Natural water hole along the road to the Brackenhurst facility. -------------------- 86
Fig. 5.72 Cyber Lounge showing natural finishes --------------------------------------------------- 86
Fig. 5.73 Outdoor meeting area and ampitheatre situated on a slope to take advantage
of terrain. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
Fig. 5.74 Outdoor Concrete bench and art piece between Clark chapel and Saunders
Auditorium filled with botanical motifs. -------------------------------------------------------------- 87
Fig. 5.75 Gift shop back wall decorated in broken tile with motifs depicting nature. ----- 87
Fig. 5.76 Concrete Bench that depicts the springing and progress of life in nature ------ 87
Fig. 5.77 Crescent concrete bench next to Saunders Auditorium and Clark chapel. ------ 88
Fig. 5.78 Author sitted on the spiralling concrete bench outside the Muturi and Lion's
Den Meeting spaces. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 88
Fig. 5.79 The main dining room is well preserved and in it seen the patina of time and
age of the facility. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 88
Fig. 5.80 Clubhouse approach from main entrance. ----------------------------------------------- 89
Fig. 5.81 Site aerial photograph. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 89
Fig. 5.82 Saunders Auditorium Approach showing the front façade and porch as a
transition space between the exterior and interior. ----------------------------------------------- 89
Fig. 5.83 The buildings at Brackenhurst are finished in white paint if not a natural finish
which in turn reflects light to darker areas that are shaded by the dense tree canopies. 90
Fig. 5.84 The Muna Tree Cafe dining area is characterised by large windows closely
spaced between columns so as to create a strong link to the outside and make a small
space more spacious. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 90
Fig. 5.85 Light Pools in the cyber lounge -------------------------------------------------------------90
Fig. 5.86 The Brackenhurst built environment is designed for the natural environment to
stand supreme and the built environment as servant space. ------------------------------------91
Fig. 5.87 The buildings in the retreat facility are built using locally available and sourced
materials. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
Fig. 5.88 Forest seating within the forested section of the development inspires
adventure and elicits curiosity and enticement. ----------------------------------------------------91
Fig. 5.89 Taita Hills Wildlife Sanctuary entrance. ---------------------------------------------------96
Fig. 5.90 Google earth image showing the lodge on the plains below Taita hills. ---------96
Fig. 5.91 Sarova Salt Lick Game Lodge ---------------------------------------------------------------96
Fig. 5.92 Sarova Salt Lick Lodge location, context and site extents. ---------------------------97
Fig. 5.93 Sarova Salt Lick Game Lodge site plan and active design data --------------------98
Fig. 5.94 The suspended walkways are as much a part of the game viewing experience.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
Fig. 5.95 Human scale is maintained due to the perceived ground plane being raised
above ground. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
Fig. 5.96 Main staircase that services all levels from the main building. ----------------------99
Fig. 5.97 Elevated viewing deck at reception lounge and lobby for game viewing ------ 100
Fig. 5.98 Sisal rope wrapped around staircase railing. ------------------------------------------ 100
Fig. 5.99 Afrocentric Wall sconce in staircase shaft sheds warm light into the stairwell. 100
Fig. 5.100 View of a herd of elephants coming in for an evening drink as seen from a
bridge linking two villages. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 101
Fig. 5.101 Lodge guests viewing elephants at the elevated reception lounge. ----------- 101
Fig. 5.102 Sunken lounge opposite reception with fireplace. --------------------------------- 101
Fig. 5.103 Bura Restaurant buffet servery organised around the sloped glazing that
visually links the sunken reception lounge and restaurant. ------------------------------------ 102
Fig. 5.104 Bura Restaurant dining area is arranged around a panoramic view of the
watering hole. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 102
Fig. 5.105 Bridge-like suspended walkways link all the buildings on site. ------------------ 102
Fig. 5.106 The artificial watering hole is well designed to ensure safety and security of
the lodge guests as they interact with the wildlife. ---------------------------------------------- 103
Fig. 5.107 Water is the reason for the inception of the lodge due to the presence of the
natural watering hole. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 103
Fig. 5.108 The lodge is equally committed to raising awareness of indigenous flora. -- 103
Fig. 5.109 The materials used in construction and finishing of the lodge are largely
natural as depicted in the image of Vuria Lounge and terrace. ------------------------------- 104
Fig. 5.110 The central building epitomises view by use of extensive glazing to create
panoramic views. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 104
Fig. 5.111 The lodge rises above the watering hole to respond to the geology and
landscape by not interfering with existing natural phenomena. ------------------------------ 104
Fig. 5.112 The lodge is built using circular forms with no orthogonal buildings. --------- 105
xiv
Fig. 5.113 The lodge accommodation units sit on stilts that resemble structural support
in trees. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105
Fig. 5.114 The original timber shingles used on the roof reveal age and the change that
the lodge has undergone. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 105
Fig. 5.115 The play between light and shadow as a result of the chain effect between
villages and bridges and lightly coloured walls and darker roofs mimics the characteristic
contrast in the natural environment. ----------------------------------------------------------------- 106
Fig. 5.116 The bridges and courtyards between the villages act as transition zones that
experientially link the built and natural environment. ------------------------------------------- 106
Fig. 5.117 The lodge is organised around the central common building and the watering
hole. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 106
Fig. 5.118 3D perspective of Village plan cut through. ----------------------------------------- 107
Fig. 5.119 Village Cluster Floor Plan ----------------------------------------------------------------- 107
Fig. 5.122 3D perspective of Village cluster-------------------------------------------------------- 107
Fig. 5.122 Village Cluster Floor Plan ----------------------------------------------------------------- 107
Fig. 5.122 3D perspective of Lodge Villages linked by bridge. ------------------------------- 107
Fig. 5.123 The panoramic views facilitate for natural light. ------------------------------------ 108
Fig. 5.124 The skylight over the sunken lounge provides a light pool for the deep seated
dark lounge. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 108
Fig. 5.125 The wall sconces in the tunnel leading to the viewing bunker sheds warm light
to complement the red carpet finish on the ground. ------------------------------------------- 108
Fig. 5.126 The barrier between the indoors and outdoors are blurred at the lodge to
merge the built and natural environments. -------------------------------------------------------- 109
Fig. 5.127 View of Taita hills rolling in the background of the watering hole around which
Salt lick is organised. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 109
Fig. 5.128 Traditional Taita homestead and hut forms. ----------------------------------------- 109
Fig. 5.129 Materials used in the lodge both within and outside are sensitively selected to
ensure complementary relation to the context. -------------------------------------------------- 110
Fig. 5.130 The lodge design seeks to complement the ecology of the landscape and not
interrupt it. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 110
Fig. 5.131 Elephants at the water hole in front of the elevated deck at the reception. - 111
Fig. 5.132 View from bunker; The intimacy between man and nature is reinforced by the
close relationship created by close range viewing of game from spaces created by the
lodge. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 111
Fig. 5.133 Wildlife huddled around the underground bunker ensures safety for both the
viewers and animals. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 111
Fig. 5.134 The feeling of viewing game from otherwise impossible circumstances is an
awe inspiring that elicits a new found appreciation for life and it’s Source. --------------- 112
Fig. 5.135 Photograph of Diani Reef Beach Resort by night upon completion. ---------- 116
Fig. 5.136 Aerial photograph showing the entirety of Diani Beach Resort and Spa. ---- 116
Fig. 5.137 Diani Beach Resort & Spa location, context and site extents. ------------------- 117
Fig. 5.138 Active design data based on the author's place of residence in the resort and
dominant circulation routes. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 118
Fig. 5.139 The pedestrian experienced is greatly enhanced by the abundance of plant
life on site along these routes. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 118
Fig. 5.140 The resort offers a highly sensual experience by use of natural materials and
elements such as water. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 118
Fig. 5.141 Beach Volleyball at the resort beach front -------------------------------------------- 119
Fig. 5.142 Tennis courts on site provide a space for recreation for all ages. -------------- 119
Fig. 5.143 The swimming pools are popular as spaces for multi-generational play as seen
in the image of residents engaging in water polo. ----------------------------------------------- 119
Fig. 5.144 The Coco Jumbo Kids Club -------------------------------------------------------------- 120
Fig. 5.145 Diani Reef Beach Resort & Spa Reception and lounge. --------------------------- 120
Fig. 5.146 Baobab Tree at the centre of the courtyard around which the resort was
designed. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 120
Fig. 5.147 A life-size chess board and pieces to facilitate for high quality recreation and
active design as you approach the beach. --------------------------------------------------------- 121
Fig. 5.148 The monkeys at the resort though pleasant to watch can be unmanageable
and harass residents. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 121
Fig. 5.149 Plant conservation prompts reveal the commitment of the resort toward care
for the botanical environment. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 122
Fig. 5.150 Fish are incorporated in the resort water features to evoke the pleasure that
arises from interactions with animals in the built environment. ------------------------------- 122
Fig. 5.151 The use of water as landscaping element greatly adds to the aesthetic and
quality of the resort. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 122
Fig. 5.152 The resort is built on a high coral cliff and stepped along its terrain.---------- 123
Fig. 5.153 Seaward view of ocean from resort. ---------------------------------------------------- 123
Fig. 5.154 As a result of successful sitting of the resort on the coral cliff, plants have
grown on the coral cliff and thus give a facade greening effect. ----------------------------- 123
Fig. 5.155 Animal motif carving on a plant motif within the resort interior. ---------------- 124
Fig. 5.156 The Coral Rock Cafe extends outdoors in to a cantilevered wooden deck that
is supported off the cliff on tree like timber structure. ------------------------------------------ 124
Fig. 5.157 The resort is built by use Swahili-style arched openings. ------------------------- 124
Fig. 5.158 The merging of the built environment and the natural coral rock embodies the
patina of time. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125
Fig. 5.159 The resort is organised around courtyards which serve as central focal points.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125
Fig. 5.160 The covered walkways and cantilevered decks serve as transitional spaces
bridging the outdoors and interiors. ---------------------------------------------------------------- 125
Fig. 5.161 The transition spaces make the interior spaces more spacious by visually
linking the interior spaces to the outdoors. -------------------------------------------------------- 126
Fig. 5.162 View of room interior fitted with warm light ------------------------------------------ 126
xv
Fig. 5.163 Zuri Bar as an inside-outside space has an enhanced appeal to resort
residents. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127
Fig. 5.164 Free-form swimming pool shapes the space and makes the courtyard more
interesting. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127
Fig. 5.165 The preservation of the pre-existing natural environment ecologically &
geographically connects the resort to its place. -------------------------------------------------- 127
Fig. 5.166 Some of the walls in the resort are clad in locally sourced coral rag from the
coral reef. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
Fig. 5.167 Picture of woven coconut palm leaf soffit. -------------------------------------------- 128
Fig. 5.168 Structural timber members in the reception are wrapped in sisal rope at the
bolted joints to conceal the less pleasant bolts and tap into the indigenous theme of the
resort. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
Fig. 5.169The intuitive and nurturing design of the resort impresses a feeling of safe and
protected environment. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 129
Fig. 5.170 The integration of the coral rock as an isand into the pool design is enticing
and inspires curiosity in the space user. ------------------------------------------------------------ 129
Fig. 5.171 The use of nature in the form of landscape and trees offer a sense of security
and protection. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 129
Fig. 5.172 The resort design is an attempt to touch the earth lightly and preserve the
environmental character as much as possible. ---------------------------------------------------- 130
Fig. 5.173 The context within which the resort set offers a great natural attraction and the
resort takes full advantage both in views and physical setting of the resort. -------------- 130
Fig. 5.174 The merging of the natural and built brings about an abundance of
information and intellectual stimulation that in turn elicits desire of exploration and
discovery. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 130
Fig. 5.175 Diani Reef Beach Resort room floor plan. -------------------------------------------- 131
Fig. 5.176 Room Interior Photograph --------------------------------------------------------------- 131
Fig. 5.177 Room Interior Photograph --------------------------------------------------------------- 131
Fig. 5.178 Photograph showing balcony and view from room. ------------------------------- 131
Fig. 5.179 Diani Reef Beach Resort room 3D Perspective -------------------------------------- 131
Fig. 5.180 Diani Reef Beach Resort room 3D Perspective -------------------------------------- 131
Tables
Table 1: Summary of Active Design and Social Support Design Guidelines ---------------- 57
Table 2: Summary of Biophilic Design Elements and Attributes ------------------------------- 58
Table 3: Inventory of some of the flora identified at Brackenhurst ---------------------------- 85
Table 4: Summary of Brackenhurst Eco-Conferences Centre Active & Social Support
Design Performance --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
Table 5: Summary of Brackenhurst Eco-Conferences Centre Biophilic Design
Performance ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 94
Table 6: Summary of Salt Lick Lodge Active & Social Support Design Performance ---- 113
Table 7: Summary of Salt Lick Lodge Biophilic Design Performance ------------------------ 114
Table 8: Summary of Diani Reef Beach Resort & Spa Active & Social Support Design
Performance ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 132
Table 9: Summary of Diani Reef Beach Resort & Spa Biophilic Design Performance --- 133
xvi
Abstract
In an attempt to temporarily get away from life’s stresses and the fast-paced life that characterizes life in the 21st Century, people withdraw from their
regular occupation and take vacations for purposes of recreation or tourism. This is made possible by special facilities that focus on retreat as their sole
duty and aim in order to satisfy a need that most if not all people have. However, the relief is short lived and people eventually return to the very
circumstances that heaped enough pressure on them for them to need a vacation at a special retreat facility. If only the experience at the retreat
facilities could be replicated in the day to day life and environment of all individuals then the retreat experience would be more abundant and life’s
stressors would possibly be less.
This research seeks to investigate the retreat environment in Kenya, herein termed as psychosocially supportive design, with the aim of deducing the
feasibility of a replication of such restorative environments in non-retreat specialised settings. Building on existing information regarding the design and
planning of restorative environments, the study asks; Is it possible to have a non-retreat related built environment such as in offices and cities that is
generally restorative and can such an environment be created.
Based on the review of literature concerning health promotion and psychosocially supportive design, a critical analysis of given retreat facilities is
conducted to investigate which peculiar qualities make the given facilities retreat oriented and how do they perform as retreat facilities. The results show
that active design, social support design and biophilic design are the key components that actively make a place restorative.
It is therefore recommended that if psychosocial support, as realised through active design, social support design and biophilic design, is made a
deliverable at inception of any given project, regardless of the building function, the resultant built environment will be restorative.
1
1 INTRODUCTION
Background of Study
Problem Statement
Research Aims & Objectives
Research Questions
Justification of Study
Significance of Study
Assumptions of Study
Scope of Study
Limitations of Study
Literature reviewed
Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
2
1.1 Background of Study
As the human race rapidly develops into a more sophisticated civilization each day, the activities of
daily living pick up the pace and this has shaped the world into a very busy place, particularly in the
more developed areas and metropolitan places (Fig. 1.1).
However, one thing that cannot be rushed or changed are the laws of nature that sustain life on this
planet. We human beings, though rapidly trying to invent and innovate in order to achieve what we
believe as our highest expression of intellect in whatever field we engage in, are subject to the laws of
nature. Exposure to the hustle and bustle to keep up with the rapidly changing world eventually takes
its toll on the body and retreat becomes necessary. If the call by nature to retreat is ignored, then
disease, which is an effort of nature to free the system from conditions that result from a violation of the
laws of health (White, 1905), sets in and we are struck by ailment.
Modern medicine with all its dynamic and progressive technology has done wonders for the human
race. Time and accuracy of diagnosis, prevention of disease and treatment of disease have all improved
considerably over the last century however, the frequency of cases of illness does not reflect the major
advancement in the medical field. This starts a conversation on what more could possibly be done to
ensure societal health and wellness is directly proportional to the increase of knowledge in the medical
field. Ancient medicine takes us back to the study of the complex relationship between body and mind
as pertains to health (Fig. 1.2). Here in lies the difference. Whereas medicine today is focused on
pathogenesis which is focused on origin and development of disease, the answer to physical illness
may be in shifting focus from pathogenesis to how we can fortify the human body from external factors
that result in mental and physical illness; ‘Salutogenesis’ a term coined by medical sociologist Prof.
Aaron Antonovsky in 1979. Salutogenesis is a medical approach to health that focuses on factors that
support our well-being and health rather than factors that cause disease.
According to the Transportation Research Board Special Report 282 (2005) while examining the
influence of the built environment on physical activity, it was deduced that the built environment is a
pivotal determinant of health and quality of life by directly or indirectly influencing active lifestyles that
in turn influence people’s physical, mental and social health and well-being. (S.C Brown et al., 2009;
Titze, 2010; Villanueva et al., 2013). Physical activity in this case is just one of many other ways in which
the built environment influences health.
The evidence is increasingly showing that built environments (Fig. 1.3) have an impact on our well-
being and, based on the environmental and socioeconomic context within which we exist, is likely to
Fig. 1.1 The hustle and bustle of cities as seen in Nairobi traffic.
Source: https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/ traffic
Source: https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/ trafficSource: https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/ traffic
Source: https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/news/ traffic -
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capacitycapacity
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busesbuses
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arrivearrive
arrive-
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-from
fromfrom
from -
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-south
southsouth
south -
--
-africa
africaafrica
africa
Fig. 1.2 The mind-body connection is a hidden root of illness
where the health of one can affect the health of the other.
Source: https://www.consciouslifestylemag.com/mind
Source: https://www.consciouslifestylemag.com/mindSource: https://www.consciouslifestylemag.com/mind
Source: https://www.consciouslifestylemag.com/mind-
--
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bodybody
body -
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connectionconnection
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Fig. 1.3 Tony Molleapaza Rojas Children’s Hospital, Peru by
EGM Architects.
Source
SourceSource
Source :
: :
: https://a rchello .com/project/ childrens
https://archello.com/project/childrenshttps://archello.com/project/childrens
https://archello.com/project/childrens-
--
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hospit alhospit al
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designdesign
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
3
influence our individual actions to improve lifestyle and health status (Glasgow Centre for Population
Health, GCPH, 2013).
It is in the salutogenic model that architecture and the built environment comes in play because it is
architecture that shapes our internal and external environments which directly alter the human
psychology. The relationship between stress, health and well-being in a person can be influenced
positively or negatively by manipulation of the human psychology through architecture.
As pertains to architecture, Alan Dilani (2007) emphasizes that qualities of our physical environment
ought to meet the functional efficiency needs as well as be psychosocially supportive design so that our
built environment enhances and creates conditions that set-in motion health processes.
1.2 Problem Statement
In an ideal situation, architecture should not be a part of the environmental stressors which contributes
to mental stress that leads to deterioration of mental and physical health (Fig. 1.4). Every work of
architecture should support the health of its users and positively manipulate the human mind into
production of hormones that boost our vital force. Psychosocially supportive design ought not to be
confined to hospitals and retreat and wellness centres such that architecture meant to heal is only
confined to already ill people or only people aware of the necessity preventing illness by elimination of
environmental stressors. Psychosocially supportive architecture needs to pervade in our entire
environment for the human being to thrive.
Presently, retreat centres all around the world aim to psychologically heal their occupants from their
respective stressors and provide an escape from the hustle and bustle of making a living. People who
are aware of the importance of healing the mind for the benefit of overall health and well-being go on
wellness retreats where they are withdrawn from their environmental stressors and they place
themselves in a different environment (Fig. 1.5) where they are rejuvenated and re-energized. This is an
unfortunate circumstance because the larger population in Kenya are not able to access such centres
due to two main factors, lack of finances or ignorance of the impact of mental health on the physical
well-being. In some cases, even the places meant aren’t carefully thought out in design for their core
function.
Unfortunately, once people come back from their retreats, they go back to the same unhealthful
conditions (Fig. 1.6) experienced before they went to the retreat centres. Such people will eventually
need to retreat again to a stress-free centre to rejuvenate hence the beginning of a vicious cycle.
Furthermore, this is only for the small population of people who are aware and capable of visiting
retreat centres. For the larger population of people, they will continue to live and experience
Fig. 1.4 Mental fatigue arising from stress affects well-being.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://claritychi.com/m ental
https://clari tychi.com/men talhttps://clari tychi.com/men tal
https://clari tychi.com/men tal-
--
-fatigue/
fatigu e/fatigue/
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Fig. 1.5 Healing environments facilitate for mental healing.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.ludwigs.nl/destination
https://www.ludwigs.nl/destinatio nhttps://www.ludwigs.nl/destinatio n
https://www.ludwigs.nl/destinatio n-
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Fig. 1.6 Nairobi as an example of a busy cluttered and
undesirable environment which individuals return to after
seeking retreat in healing environments.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://commonpurpose.o rg/blog/archive/cscleaders
https://commonpurpose.org/blog/archive/cscleadershttps://commonpurpose.org/blog/archive/cscleaders
https://commonpurpose.org/blog/archive/cscleaders-
--
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
4
unhealthful environments until their immunity succumbs to the surrounding pressure. Then and only
then will they be put in a healing environment to recuperate before they return to previous conditions
they were in before illness and the cycle begins again.
An investigation into psychosocially supportive design in retreat centres and its principles (Fig. 1.8)
would seek to understand what retreat centres have or should have in order for them to be effective in
healing the mind. Once the principles are established and understood, the lessons can be ploughed
back into architecture (Fig. 1.7) as a whole and how they can be taken into account for all work of
architecture to ensure psychosocially supportive architecture recessively aids healthful conditions as
opposed to the vicious cycle that alternates between sickness and health with no constancy.
1.3 Research Aims & Objectives
The principal objective of this study is to investigate the incorporation of the salutogenic theory in
architectural design of retreat centres. This study also aimed to achieve the following sub-objectives:
1. To define and explain psychosocially supportive design.
2. To document the architectural design principles that go into retreat centre design.
3. To determine how psychosocially supportive design can be incorporated into other architectural
design and not restricted to restorative or healing environments.
1.4 Research Questions
1. What is psychosocially supportive design?
2. What architectural framework constitutes psychosocial support in retreat centre design?
3. How can psychosocial support be achieved in all architectural design not confined to restorative
or healing environments?
1.5 Justification of Study
The focus in the past has been on how to provide architecture for healing within healing environments
like hospitals and rehabilitation centres but upon further investigation of the ongoing discussion on
health and wellness, we realize that, as much as possible, all architecture should be used as a tool to
influence health filled living.
Fig. 1.7 An observation of the difference in the two
environments can shed light on what ought to be done to
ensure we are ever in psychosocially reinforcing environments.
Source: Author
Source: AuthorSource: Author
Source: Author
Fig. 1.8
An investigation into the architecture for retreat reveals
the principles that are to be considered for psychosocially
supportive design.
Source:
Source:Source:
Source:
https://www.v
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isualatelier8.com/a rchitecture/2019/11/4/neriandhuisualatelier8.com/a rchitecture/2019/11/4/neriandhu
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
5
Not only sick people deserve to be placed in environments that reinforce their vitality. Seemingly
healthy people also ought to have the privilege of having their health sustained in conducive and
health supportive spaces. The results of this study will provide insights and information on the adoption
of salutogenic principles in all aspects of architecture not only restricted to health environments (Fig.
1.10).
According to Ray Pentecost, who is an architect and president of the International Academy for Design
& Health (IADH), “The projects that don’t have it [psychosocially supportive design strategies] are
going to fall out of favour in the same way that construction for fire safety became more than an
option,…When clients understand how much healthier their world could be, the architects who aren’t
doing it [practising salutogenic architecture] won’t stay around…”
1.6 Significance of Study
In understanding psychosocially supportive design, we can better understand how the human mind
perceives architecture and in turn produce architecture that contributes to its society positively by
influencing the general health and immunity of a people by not being a part of the environmental
stressors that so easily beset us psychologically and eventually physically.
Retreat centres being the epitome in terms of places people go to in order to experience
psychosocially supportive design so as to rest from the hustle of contemporary life, ought to rightfully
set a standard for all design in the built environment to emulate.
The adoption of a psychosocially supportive approach to design puts in place a preventive care
strategy (Fig. 1.11) that shifts attention from pathogenesis to a more holistic understanding and
evolution towards a healthier society (Dilani. 2015; Karaca, 2018)
If at all policies that require our built environment to undergo a paradigm shift in order for it to
contribute toward a healthier society, we ought to understand fully what is lacking and what needs to
added, subtracted or improved.
Knowledge of psychosocially supportive design (Fig. 1.9) in architecture, as it relates to retreat and its
strategies will educate the relevant authorities on what retreat centres do in order to be considered
retreat destinations and how the same strategies can be incorporate into built environments that we
encounter in day to day living.
Lessons learned once ploughed back to the retreat centres and eventually all our physical environs, a
great solution to vitality and health in society will have been set in motion. Collectively, money, time
Fig. 1.9 In understanding architecture for retreat the principles
are better understood for application in all architecture.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.yatze r.com/Island
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Fig. 1.10 All architecture, regardless of the building function
should contribute to the well-being of its inhabitants.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.portfoliomagsg.com/article/the
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Fig. 1.11 Psychosocially Supportive architecture uses a
preventive care strategy towards health promotion.
Source: https://www.tripsavvy.com/hanna
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
6
and other resources will have been greatly spared to be channelled into other pertinent challenges that
any contemporary society runs into.
1.7 Assumptions of Study
For purposes of this study, environmental stressors termed as Generalised Resistance Deficits in the
salutogenic approach to architecture that are not directly or indirectly linked to architecture and design
may be given mention but ignored as part of the in-depth study. The study will fully focus on
architecture as a possible influence in the state of well-being.
Though, well-being can be affected by a myriad of things including pathogens and social stress linked
to human interactions and relationships, these factors will not be addressed and will be assumed
constant in every society and individual. Design related factors as pertains to the physical environment
will be given sole priority as the source of stress notwithstanding the existence of other major sources
of stress in life.
1.8 Scope of The Study
Design for psychosocial support being a broad field of study, the design strategies that comprise of
psychosocially supportive design that will be under investigation in this study are:
1. Active Design
2. Social Support Design
3. Biophilic Design
For purposes of this study, retreat centres in Kenya will be under scrutiny and considering the manner
of retreat in the location of study, any other establishments generally considered retreat centres or
visited as places of retreat Such establishments include national park/reserve lodges, coastal hotels and
lodges.
1.9 Limitations of The Study
The limitations to the study revolve around financial constraints, limited permission to conduct research
and limited time. Some reading materials online require purchase and were not readily availed to the
author and the time availed for the field study is not sufficient for a conclusive in-depth study of
salutogenic architecture and all its principles.
Fig. 1.12 Design for physical activity as a core component of
psychosocially supportive design.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://faulknerb rowns.com/latest/opinion/promoting
https://faulk nerbrowns.com/latest/opinio n/promotinghttps://faulk nerbrowns.com/latest/opinio n/promoting
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Fig. 1.13 'Social balconies' to satisfy a need for social support
design as a core component of psychosocially supportive
design.
Source: https://archinect.com/news/article/150095104/these
Source: https://archinect.com/news/article/150095104/theseSource: https://archinect.com/news/article/150095104/these
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Fig. 1.14
Biophilic design as a core component of Psychosocially
Supportive Design.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://hospitali tyinsights.ehl.edu/biophilic
https://hospi talityi nsights.ehl.edu/biop hilichttps://hospi talityi nsights.ehl.edu/biop hilic
https://hospi talityi nsights.ehl.edu/biop hilic-
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
7
1.10 Literature Reviewed
1.10.1 Literature Reviewed of Published Books
1. Welcome to Your World: How the Built Environment Shapes Our Lives (2017), Sarah
Williams Goldhagen
This book examines and illustrates the influence of the built environment on our lives. The book
explains how the built environment profoundly shapes the narratives we tell ourselves and
construct out of our daily lives. It holds a mirror to show the physical environments that we have
made and illustrates ways to rethink and design our worlds to be less soul deadening and more
enlivening to human bodies and minds, communities and polities.
2. Healing Spaces: The Science of Place and Well-Being (2009), Esther Sternberg
The author seeks to immerse readers in the discoveries that have revealed a complicated
working relationship between our senses, emotions and immune system. The argument brought
forth is that if our senses can induce healing then our place in nature is of critical importance.
The discoveries in this book point to possibilities of design for neighbourhoods, hospitals and
communities that promote health and healing for all.
3. The handbook of Salutogenesis (2017), Jan A. Golembiewski et. al
The book is an in-depth survey of Salutogenesis showing the history, breadth and strengths of a
salutogenic perspective on health promotion, health care, and wellness. From there, experts
and scholars from different fields describe a range of real-world applications within and outside
health contexts such as in architecture.
4. Health, Stress and Coping (1979), Aaron Antonovsky
This book forms the foundation of the salutogenic concept and pieces together the concept of
‘health-ease’ over ‘dis-ease’ which has to do with pathogenesis. The author looks at stress from
an extremely wide perspective without emphasizing any particular stressor but poses the
question, “What are the origins of health?” without denying the accomplishment of
pathogenesis in promoting health.
5. The Hidden Dimension (1990), Edward T. Hall
The book is an examination of various cultural concepts of space and how differences among
them affect modern society. The author introduces the science of “proxemics” and
demonstrates how man’s use of space can affect personal business relations, cross-cultural
exchanges, architecture, city planning, and urban renewal.
Fig. 1.15 How the Built Environment Shapes Our Lives
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.amazo n.in/Welcome
https://www.amazon.in/Welc omehttps://www.amazon.in/Welc ome
https://www.amazon.in/Welc ome-
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
8
1.10.2 Literature Reviewed of Published Journals and Papers
1. Start Making Sense; Applying A Salutogenic Model to Architectural Design for Psychiatric
Care (2010), Jan A. Golembiewski
This paper aims to look into the significance of architectural design in psychiatric care facilities.
It suggests a strong correlation between perceptual dysfunction and psychiatric illness, and also
between the patient and his environment. It aims to show that architecture should be
sympathetic and does not exacerbate the psychosis.
2. Psychosocially Supportive Design: A Salutogenic Approach to Design of the Physical
Environment (2009), Prof. Alan Dilani, Ph. D.
This article seeks to shed light on factors in the physical environment that could promote health,
well-being and increase an organization’s productivity and profitability. Furthermore, it raises
the need to systematically conduct more empirical studies that investigate and verify the
salutogenic model and identify a range of wellness factors in psychosocially supportive design
that in turn promotes health and well-being.
3. Salutogenic Approach for Designing Restorative Environments (2018), Elif Karaca
This journal seeks to demystify salutogenic architecture and its application by putting together
different strategies and understanding, from various experts and scholars, of salutogenic
approaches to design of restorative environments. It outlines the basic principles of salutogenic
design and the merits carried in the practice of salutogenic architecture.
4. Salutogenic Design: The neurological basis for health promoting environments (2012), Jan
Golembiewski
The author argues that architecture embodies narratives that may either support or work against
a state of good health hence, he debunks the neurological theory for it to be used in explaining
why salutogenic environments work toward improving health outcomes.
5. Does the Built Environment influence Physical Activity: Examining the Evidence (2005),
Transportation Research Board (Institute of Medicine of the National Academies),
Washington D.C
This special report aims to investigate the role that the built environment has in engagement of
individuals in physical exercise and activity in the society. The conclusions set forth argue that
physical activity is important for health and inadequate physical activity being a major challenge
can be largely prevented by active design principles in the built environment.
Fig. 1.16 The Handbook of Salutogenesis
Source: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Handbook
Source: https://www.amazon.co.uk/HandbookSource: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Handbook
Source: https://www.amazon.co.uk/Handbook-
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Mittelmark/dp /3319791443
Psychosocially Supportive Design: Introduction
9
1.10.3 Literature Reviewed of Previous Theses
1. Neuroscience and Architecture: The Science of Space and Well-Being (2013), Mutinda
Brian M. University of Nairobi
The author of this thesis sought to understand the implications of health and brain function in
architecture. He argued it is largely considered the next frontier in architecture because it
suggests the possibility of a new evidence-based design system to lead to a healthy built
environment. The author argues that spaces are presently designed in a myopic utilitarian
manner that is counterproductive with particular emphasis on classrooms and hospitals.
2. Architecture for Retreat: Extracts from Environmental Psychology (2010), Tirop Andrew K.
University of Nairobi
The thesis looks at contemporary life in the urban setting to be a source of stress due to fast
paced life and a need for retreat, self-reflection and self-preservation arises. In response to
these conditions, the author looks at theories related to environmental psychology in order to
propose application of the lessons learned in architecture for retreat. The three theories
covered include; Biophilia theory, Attention Restoration Theory and Psycho-Physiological Stress
Recovery.
3. Place Meaning in Architecture: Designing a Retreat Centre for Youth (2003), Maganga
Aggrey M. University of Nairobi
This thesis focuses on the genius loci of a place and its ability to directly facilitate retreat
through its authenticity of identity. The author looks at design interventions in architecture that
give a place its identity such as colour, texture, shape and form, light, visual appropriateness
and personalization.
4. Sensory Phenomenon in Space (2013), Chwire Charles C. University of Nairobi
The author seeks to raise need for a re-sensualized architectural approach basing it on the
argument that a good portion of existing architecture doesn’t satisfy the entire spectrum of
senses and is thus soul deadening. To do this, the author goes into an in-depth study of the
sense of taste, sight, touch, sound and smell as pertains to architecture in an attempt to explain
how the architecture relates to the aforementioned senses and what ought to be done to create
a satisfying sensuous experience in architecture.
5. Tectonics: Architecture for the Senses (2010), Kabogo Edward T. University of Nairobi
The thesis investigates how employing available materials and building technology with
integrity to their properties and using meaning to tie them together can create a rich
experience in spaces.
Fig. 1.17 Healing Spaces: The Science of Space and Well-Being
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://ww
https://wwhttps://ww
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w.amazon.co.uk/Healingw.amazon.co.uk/Healing
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Sternberg/dp/0674057481
10
2 LITERATURE REVIEW: HEALTH
PROMOTION AND RESTORATIVE
ENVIRONMENTS
Introduction
Historical Evolution of Health Promotion
Impact of the Physical Environment on Health and Well-being
Restorative Environments and Retreat Centres
Synthesis
Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
11
2.1 Introduction
As defined by the WHO, health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity. From this definition it is clear that being presently free from
any disease or ailment is not the ultimate guarantee of perfect health. In the recent past, it has come to
the attention of the international community that biomedical interventions, in and of themselves are not
entirely a guarantee of better health in our societies.
It is no secret that health is a fundamental part of life on planet earth for mankind. The success of
whatever systems we put in place to organize ourselves into countries, governments and organizations
heavily lean on the health and well-being of the population in question. According to the WHO, as
pertains to health and development, better health is central to human happiness (Fig. 2.2) and well-
being and it makes a contribution to economic progress because healthy populations live longer, are
more productive and save more.
With the undisputable evidence on the importance on health to mankind, the spending on healthcare
in relatively successful countries that understand this clearly depicts the pivotal nature of health in their
various societies. As seen in the WHO Global Health Expenditure Database, approximately 10% of the
GDP in most developed countries (US 17.07%; Canada 10.53%; UK 9.76%; Sweden 10.93%; Denmark
10.35%) comprises of their current health expenditure. For developing countries like Kenya, the current
health expenditure is at 4.55% of GDP (WHO, 2016). For developing countries like Kenya, the current
health expenditure is at 4.55% of GDP.
From these statistics, it is a no brainer that health and well-being in any country is very important to the
respective governments and as a result a large amount of their expenditure goes toward better
healthcare. However, given the opportunity, these governments would gladly spend less on healthcare
if at all the health standards could continue to be improved at a smaller cost so as to have more money
to channel into less successful areas of their various economies. In this school of thought, the idea and
concept of ‘health promotion’ came into existence and discussion.
The health of an individual is heavily linked to social, economic and political factors outside the domain
of the health sector. These factors largely shape the circumstances in which people grow, live, work and
age as well as the systems put in place to deal with health needs ultimately leading to inequities in
health between and within countries (Kumar and Preetha, 2012). It is for this reason that attaining the
highest possible health standard does not depend so much upon biomedical interventions but on a
comprehensive, holistic approach (Fig. 2.3) that must ‘empower individuals and communities to take
Fig. 2.1 The specialized agency of The UN that is concerned
with international public health.
Sour
SourSour
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ce: ce:
ce: https://www.un.org/youthenv oy/2013/09/who
https://www.un.org/youthenvoy/201 3/09/whohttps://www.un.org/youthenvoy/201 3/09/who
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Fig. 2.2 Health is the core to human happiness as it sets
precedence for one to thrive in whatever they desire.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://we llnessk een.com/importance
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Fig. 2.3 A holistic and comprehensive approach to health as
opposed to just biomedical interventions.
Source:
Source: Source:
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
12
actions for their own health, foster leadership for public health, promote intersectoral action to build
healthy public policies and create sustainable health systems in the society’ (Kumar and Preetha, 2012)
2.2 Historical Evolution of Health Promotion
The term ‘health promotion’ is generally considered a relatively new term but the concept and idea of
health promotion has been around for as long as the human race has been concerned with
improvement of public health (Cragg, Davies and Macdowall, 2013). According to Virginia Berridge
(2010), the term ‘health promotion’ was first used at a global policy level in the 1980s and it is
commonly accepted that the basic concepts as relates to ‘health promotion have been developed over
the last two decades (Tountas, 2009) however, it’s roots and origins date as far back as the 19th century
under different ancient world civilisations and the Greek in particular long before the germ theory of
disease had been formulated (Kumar and Preetha, 2012).
Henry Ernest Sigerist (1891-1957) a swiss medical historian was the first man to coin the term ‘health
promotion’ in 1945. He defined four major tasks of medicine as; promotion of health, prevention of
illness, restoration of the sick and rehabilitation (Kumar and Preetha, 2012). Sigerist observed that
promotion of health obviously tended toward disease and illness prevention but it was not enough as
special protective measures were needed for effective prevention to occur (Fig. 2.4).
The term ‘health promotion officially came into national and international policy when it found
reflections in the Ottawa Charter for health promotion 40 years later after it was coined by Sigerist in
1945.
In 1974, the Canadian government published the ‘New Perspective on the Health of Canadians’ report
by Marc Lalonde hence commonly referred to as the Lalonde report (Fig. 2.5). In this report the
conventional biomedical concept of health was challenged and it was the cornerstone that resulted in
international debate on the role of nonmedical determinants of health. The Lalonde report argued that
major health related challenges like cardiovascular diseases, cancers and road accidents among other
challenges were unmanageable by the biomedical approach and sought to replace it with ‘Health field
concept’. In the health field concept, four health fields were considered as the determinants of health
and disease; lifestyle, health care organization, human biology and environment.
Though highly criticized by sceptics as a gimmicky strategy in the Canadian government’s health care
systems, the report was eagerly accepted internationally by other nations like the US, UK and Sweden
among others who in turn went ahead to publish other similar reports (Kumar and Preetha, 2012).
Fig. 2.4 WHO Pillars of Health Promotion which focus on
disease and illness prevention.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: http://www 9.who.i nt/healthpromotion/en/
http://www9.w ho.int/ healthpromotion/en/http://www9.w ho.int/ healthpromotion/en/
http://www9.w ho.int/ healthpromotion/en/
Fig. 2.5 The determinants of health as per the Health Field
Concept in The Lalonde Report of 1974
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.slideserve.com/bernadette/introd uction
https://www.slideserve.com/bernad ette/introductionhttps://www.slidese rve.com/bernad ette/introduction
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
13
Possibly the greatest backing on the concept of health promotion came in the 1978 Alma Ata
declaration (Fig. 2.6) which acknowledged promotion and protection of a population’s health as
essential to sustained economic and social development that contributes to better quality of living and
world peace. Due to growing expectations from the international community on the idea of health
promotion, WHO partnered with Canada to host an international conference in 1986 which produced
the ‘Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion’ and set precedence for subsequent conferences on the
same concept.
2.2.1
2.2.12.2.1
2.2.1 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion
The charter defined health promotion as “the process of enabling people to increase control over, and
to improve, their health.” The charter goes on to state that, “to reach a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being, an individual or group must be able to identify and to realize aspirations,
to satisfy needs, and to change or cope with the environment. Health is, therefore, seen as a resource
for everyday life, not the objective of living…. Therefore, health promotion is not just the responsibility
of the health sector, but goes beyond healthy life-styles to well-being.” (WHO, 1986) (Fig. 2.7)
The charter proposed for the international community to advocate for health actions that brought
about supportive political, economic, social, cultural, environmental, behavioural, and biological factors
for health which enabled a given population have control of factors that influenced their health.
A number of health promotion conferences by the WHO have since been held and have further
developed the concept. Such conferences include:
1. Adelaide (1988) – focused on all government sectors such as agriculture, education etc.
considering health as an essential factor when formulating healthy public policy.
2. Sundsvall (1991) – highlighted that poverty and deprivation affecting millions in degraded
environments affected health.
3. Jakarta (1997) – highlighted poverty, low status of women, civil and domestic violence as major
threats to health.
4. Mexico (2000) – called on the international community to address social determinants of health
in order to achieve health related millennium development goals.
5. Bangkok (2005) – identified four commitments to make health promotion central to national
government and corporate operations globally.
6. Nairobi (2009) – called for urgent need to implement already identified action points in health
promotion like leadership and community involvement.
Fig. 2.6 Alma-Ata Declaration at an international conference on
primary health care held in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan in the Soviet
Union from September 6 to September 12, 1978
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://ci rculatingnow.nlm.nih.gov/20 19/10/10/the
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Fig. 2.7 Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion emblem adopted
at the first international conference on health.
Source:
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
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Based on the several conferences, a multi-sectoral stakeholder approach in health promotion includes
participation from different ministries, public and private sector institutions, civil society, and
communities all under the endorsement and guidance of the Ministry of Health (Kumar, 2012).
2.3 Impact of The Physical Environment on Health and Well-
Being
The physical environment is the setting in which the human race operates and sectors that have
anything to do with the physical environment begin to become of keen interest in the goal towards
health promotion and their potential in contributing positively or negatively. As pertains to the physical
environment, the built environment refers to the man-made environment ranging in scale from
buildings to parks. Majority of human activity revolves around the built environment comprising of
architecture and related interdisciplinary fields.
Research indicates that the manner in which our physical setting is designed, planned and manipulated
can and will affect our physiological and psychological health and well-being (Fig. 2.8). In order to draw
the parallels, a basic and foundational understanding of human perception of the built environment
and its subsequent consequences in the human body is necessary (Fig. 2.9).
2.3.1
2.3.12.3.1
2.3.1 Mind-Body Relationship in Promotion of Health and Well-Being
For many years, philosophers and scientists have alienated the mind from the body and vice versa but
as has been demonstrated through biofeedback in medical research, what we think and feel indeed
influences the response of our bodies and the mind and body are intimately connected (Moyers and
Grubin, 1993).
“The mind is its own place, and in itself can make a Heav’n of Hell, a Hell of Heav’n” ~ John Milton,
Paradise Lost
There are four information processing systems that interact in the human body; the mind (brain
function), the endocrine system (hormonal feedback system), the nervous system (communication
network between mind (brain) and body) and the immune system (defence system against foreign
invasions). These four systems are in constant and continual communication with each other (Maier,
Watkins and Fleshner, 1994; Ray, 2004). The science that incorporates these four information systems
has been termed as psychoneuroimmunology.
In an attempt to understand psychosocial moderators of immune functions, a study was conducted
where immune system function was monitored under stressful conditions and the health/illness
Fig. 2.8 The National Congress of Brazil by Oscar Niemeyer; the
built environment is a sector within which the health promotion
agenda can be propagated.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.voanews.com/arts
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Fig. 2.9 Crown Sky Garden, Lurie Children’s Hospital
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.behance.net/gallery/27073875/crown
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
15
changes were tracked. Forty first year medical students were observed for a year during which the
effectiveness of their immune systems was monitored before and during exam periods. It was predicted
that the examinations would be stressful and thus impair their immune system functions which would
result in an increase in infectious illnesses. The prediction was accurate and the stress weakened the
immune systems of the students which led to more infections and illnesses. (Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser,
1987; Ray, 2004)
Scientists have over the years explored the chemical links between mind (brain) and body to better
understand their intimate relationships. According to Candace Pert, former chief of the Brain
Biochemistry Section of the National Institute of Mental health (USA), molecules known as
neuropeptides provide the crucial link. They are strung together like a strand of pearls and act as
messengers linking with specific receptor molecules as though guided by antennas tuned to the brain.
The neuropeptide activity fluctuates with our states of mind hence Candace Pert refers to them as
‘biochemical units of emotion which translate emotions into bodily events’ (Moyers and Grubin, 1993).
Based on this, it is literally true to conclude that our thoughts, feelings and beliefs are chemical and
electrical activity in the nervous system resulting in changes in our mind/brain (Fig. 2.10). As we change
our minds, we are changing our biology. A psychological experience, is all in the mind, however, the
mind being part of brain function draws the body into a response to the brain regardless of the
experience being positive or negative, imaginary or real (Ray, 2004). Hence, the biblical reference in
Proverbs 23:7, “For as he thinketh in his heart, so is he…”
The determinant of the impact of anything on the psychoneuroimmunology of a person boils down to
stress/ allostatic load that is key in upsetting important health-related homeostatic systems such as the
equilibrium between the body and a pathogen (Bremner, 1999; Ray, 2004). Stress is a result of excess of
demands in relation to resources required to adapt and cope with the demands. When a person a can
neither apply available resources nor acquire new resources to offset demands, stress turns chronic.
(Hartig, 2004)
Different experiences evoke directly proportional mind-body responses that either reduce or increase
stress (Fig. 2.11). Positive emotions alleviate stress and sustain life by powerfully influencing well-being
and vice versa (Goldhagen, 2017).
2.3.2 Architecture & Cognition
A few years ago, technological advancements required to aid in analysis and study of the human brain
and its functions had not been realised but now, in the wake of a spate of innovation in technology,
unprecedented insight and precision has come into the study of the human brain.
At the helm of understanding the link between architecture and cognition is in two relatively new but
Fig. 2.10 What we perceive with our senses serves as stimuli to
the brain which results in chemical/ electrical changes in the
human brain.
Source: Eyes of The Skin; Architecture a nd the Senses
Source: Eyes of The Skin; Architecture a nd the Senses Source: Eyes of The Skin; Architecture a nd the Senses
Source: Eyes of The Skin; Architecture a nd the Senses –
––
–
Juhani Pallasmaa (2012)
Juhani Pallasmaa (2012)Juhani Pallasmaa (2012)
Juhani Pallasmaa (2012)
Fig. 2.11 Psychological experiences contribute to the allostatic
load positively or negatively thus draw the body into a response
to the brain communication.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://2012books.lardbucket.org/boo ks/an
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
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revolutionary scientific disciplines; cognitive neuroscience and cognitive neuropsychology (Goldhagen,
2017).
Architecture is multi-sensory and involves several realms of sensory experience which fuse into each
other (Pallasmaa, 2012). The basis of experience therefore is on our sensory perceptions and internal
thoughts which work hand in hand to determine how we respond upon making sense of our
environment (Goldhagen, 2017).
Though experience is subject to different individuals, cognition is not. Our thoughts are largely as a
result of our bodies which are shaped by our environments hence our internal cognition happens
outside of our conscious awareness and it is a product of the intimate interaction between mind, body
and environment (Fig. 2.12). The body is no mere receptacle but there is constant dialogue with the
mind, conscious and subconscious, on processing of our internal and external environments.
(Goldhagen, 2017).
Psychosocially supportive design comprising of thoughtfully composed ordering systems and
sensuously active spaces, materials and textures among many other elements of good design (Fig. 2.13)
result in coherent places with a positive effect on the psychology of a human being. (Goldhagen, 2017)
Through our senses, architecture experienced can shape our cognition, emotion and action for better
or for worse (Fig. 2.12).
The manner in which architecture is composed and how its users will experience it determines the
stress load that will be placed upon the users of the space. Poor design results in subconscious stress
and the associated bodily response is degenerative to health and well-being.
2.4 Restorative Environments & Retreat Centres
With or without architecture, human beings inevitably deplete resources required to cope with daily life
demands. These demands vary widely from physical to psychological and when they become
unmanageable, both psychological and physical health are in jeopardy (Hartig, 2004) as has been
demonstrated earlier.
The replenishing of depleted resources is not void of a socio-physical environment within which
restoration is more effectively achieved than in others (Fig. 2.14). Such environments can be more
effective in restoration support in two key ways; they have a relative absence of the perceived social
and physical demands and they have qualities promoting restoration (von Lindern, Lymeus and Hartig,
2016).
Fig. 2.12 Architecture can shape our cognition, emotion and
action for both positive and negative outcomes.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://ark
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Fig. 2.13 Salk Institute by Louis Khan; A carefully crafted and
composed work of architecture that has a positive effect on the
psychology of a human being.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://blogs.getty.edu/iris/inside
https://blogs.getty.edu/iris/insidehttps://blogs.getty.edu/iris/inside
https://blogs.getty.edu/iris/inside-
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Fig. 2.14 A socio-physical environment can contribute to
resource restoration required to cope with daily life.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: Photo by
Photo byPhoto by
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Asad Photo M aldivesAsad Photo M aldives
Asad Photo M aldives
from
fromfrom
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
17
Restoration in this case can therefore be defined as ‘the process of renewing, recovering, or re-
establishing physical, psychological, and social resources or capabilities diminished in ongoing efforts
to meet adaptive demands’ thus a restorative environment ‘an environment that permits and promotes
restoration’ (Hartig, 2004).
The definition of a retreat centre varies widely depending on mainly function of the particular retreat
centre. However, what does not vary is the concept and founding principle which is restoration.
Whether it be religious, social or physical, the idea behind retreat centres is provision for a change in
environment for its users to provide restoration.
In Kenya, there are several varied retreat destinations and types due to the different touristic ventures
that take place in the country that has tourism as its second largest source of foreign exchange. Beach
tourism, eco-tourism, cultural tourism and sports tourism are all part of the tourism sector in Kenya. For
purposes of this study, the retreat typologies in Kenya have been clustered under three typologies;
1. Spiritual Retreats: Established by religious groups and organisations that aim to provide their users
with an experience aimed at deepening their connection with their respective supreme or
supernatural being (Fig. 2.16 and Fig. 2.19).
2. Game excursion Retreats: Established as game viewing excursions nature walk retreats that aim to
put their users in withdrawn natural environments to observe and appreciate flora and fauna not
common to the urban setting (Fig. 2.15 and Fig. 2.20).
3. Scenic Retreats: Established with an aim of immersing their users in withdrawn locations around
particular scenery such as mountainous, coastal or forest regions which are in retired destinations
away from urban hustle and bustle of the city (Fig. 2.17 and Fig. 2.18).
2.5 Synthesis
In this chapter, the concept of health promotion is introduced and the increase in the acceptance of
health as not the mere absence of disease is discussed where a more holistic approach evolved and
many sectors outside the immediate health domain were scrutinized in order to establish the
relationship between health and our political, social, cultural, environmental, behavioural, and
biological factors. Through the inquiry into health promotion our physical environment (constituting of
architecture) is identified as a key factor in determining our physiological and psychological health and
well-being thus, environments which promote health termed as restorative environments and the
factors which make up such environments form the framework upon which retreat centres are planned,
designed and built to create psychosocially supportive environments.
Fig. 2.16 Mhondoro Game Lodge; a game excursio retreat.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.scottdunn.com/za/luxury
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Fig. 2.15 Vajrasana Buddhist Retreat by Walters & Cohen
Architects as a Spiritual Retreat.
Source:
Source:Source:
Source:
https://www.archd aily.com/7986 45/vajrasana
https://www.archdaily.com/ 798645/vajrasanahttps://www.archdaily.com/ 798645/vajrasana
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Fig. 2.17 Navutu Dreams Resort & Wellness; a scenic retreat
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://retreathub.com/property/navutu
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
18
For purposes of this study, only a foundational background is offered as pertains to the neuroscience
behind restorative environments. More in-depth analyses and studies on environmental psychology
and neuroscience as pertains to architecture have been put together breaking down the theories and
concepts behind restoration through environment. Two such dissertations include ‘Neuroscience and
Architecture: The Science of Space and Well-Being’ and ‘Architecture for Retreat: Extracts from
Environmental Psychology’ which were both presented at the University of Nairobi in 2013 and 2010
respectively.
Fig. 2.18 Sarova Salt Lick Game Lodge; A game excursion
retreat
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.booking.com/hotel/ke/saro va
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Fig. 2.19 Bethany Retreat House; a spiritual retreat
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.nashv illedominican.org/apostolate/where
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Fig. 2.20 Forest Resort; A scenic Retreat
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/366832332138706097/?lp=true
https://www.pinterest.com/ pin/366832332138706097/?lp= truehttps://www.pinterest.com/ pin/366832332138706097/?lp= true
https://www.pinterest.com/ pin/366832332138706097/?lp= true
19
3 LITERATURE REVIEW:
SALUTOGENSIS AND
RESTORATIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Introduction
Theory of Salutogenesis: History and Meaning
Psychosocially Supportive Design: Application of Salutogenesis to Architecture
General Principles of Salutogenic Design
Key Principles of Salutogenic Design
Synthesis
Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
20
3.1 Introduction
During the late 70s and the whole of the 80s when the concept of health promotion began to gain
global traction, different scientists and policy makers began to come up with strategies and concepts in
favour of health promotion and others in scepticism of the whole idea of health promotion. For one
particular medical sociologist, he was sceptical of the health promotion agenda due to the manner in
which it was being implemented and hence came up with the theory upon which he believed health
promotion could reach its full potential. This chapter focuses on the theory of Salutogenesis and its
architectural application which forms the basis of this dissertation.
3.2 Theory of Salutogenesis: History and Meaning
The term ‘salutogenesis’ was coined by a Prof. Aaron Antonovsky (1923-1994), an Israeli American
medical sociologist (Fig. 3.1), in his 1979 book Health, Stress and Coping as a theory and research
model focusing on the origins and assets of health as opposed to the origins of diseases and their
subsequent risk factors (Fig. 3.2); pathogenesis ((Antonovsky, 1979; Mittelmark et al., 2017; Karaca,
2018). He came to realise the need for a paradigm shift in how the health promotion agenda was to be
implemented and stated that there was a need to dial down on the pathogenesis route and instead
look into the origins of health.
In his initial work as a stress and coping survey researcher with foci on particular diseases, Antonovsky
came to the realisation that his interest had no starting point in a particular disease rather in “the illness
consequences of psychosocial factors howsoever these consequences might be expressed”
(Antonovsky, 1990; Mittelmark et al., 2017). Antonovsky came to the question ‘What makes people
healthy?’ and brought need to coin the term salutogenesis which is an amalgamation of the words
‘saluto’ for health (Latin) and ‘genesis’ for origins (Greek) (Antonovsky, 1979).
In the salutogenic model, health and illness are used as two poles on opposite ends of a
multidimensional continuum and in this case, the two poles are used as heuristic devices because
there’s no realistic achievement of absolute health or illness (Fig. 3.3). Pathogenesis asks, ‘why does a
person enter into a state of illness?’ whereas Salutogenesis asks ‘what are the factors pushing an
individual towards this end or that end of the continuum?’. The theory therefore side-lines the
health/disease dichotomy in favour of the health ease/ dis-ease continuum (Antonovsky, 1979).
According to Antonovsky, the primary premise and heart of the salutogenic model (Fig. 3.4) is a
construct termed as the sense of coherence (SOC
Fig. 3.1 Israeli-American medical sociologist, Prof. Aaron
Antonovsky (19 Dec, 1923 – 7 July, 1994)
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://snl.no/Aa ron_Antonovsky
https://snl.no/Aaron_Antonovskyhttps://snl.no/Aaron_Antonovsky
https://snl.no/Aaron_Antonovsky
Fig. 3.2 An assets approach toward health and wellness
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://eubirthresearch.files.wordpress.com/ 2018/03/bengt
https://eubir thresearch.files.wordpress.com/2018/03/bengthttps://eubir thresearch.files.wordpress.com/2018/03/bengt
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
21
Fig. 3.3 The Salutogenic concept that puts the state of health of well-being as a point on a continuum and forces supporting or inhibiting better health act by influencing a component known
as the sense of coherence(SOC). Forces that support better health are called Generalised Resistance Resources (GRRs) whereas those inhibiting are called Generalised Resistance Deficits
(GRDs).
Source: Author; Golembiewski (2010)
Source: Author; Golembiewski (2010)Source: Author; Golembiewski (2010)
Source: Author; Golembiewski (2010)
Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
22
Fig. 3.4 The Salutogenic Health Model
Source: Mit
Source: MitSource: Mit
Source: Mittelmark et. al (2017)
telmark et. al (201 7)telmark e t. al (2017)
telmark et. al (201 7)
Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
23
3.2.1 Sense of Coherence (SOC)
Antonovsky(1979) defines the sense of coherence as “…a global orientation that expresses the extent
to which one has a pervasive, enduring though dynamic feeling of confidence that one’s internal and
external environments are predictable and that there is a high probability that things will work out as
well as can reasonably be expected.” SOC is a crucial variable in explaining movement along the health
ease/dis-ease continuum.
The SOC reflects a person’s view of life and capacity to respond to stressful situations (Mittelmark et al.,
2017). In the salutogenic model of health, not only stressors are observed but their flip side too,
resources are also brought under scrutiny. The combined working of both resources and stressors
results in effects that create life experiences, characterized by consistency and load balance which
result in a strong or high SOC thus moving an individual toward health (Fig. 3.5).
Forces that support better health on the continuum, earlier termed as resources (Fig. 3.7), in the SOC
concept are called Generalised Resistance Resources (GRRs) whereas the stressors (Fig. 3.6) are called
Generalised Resistance Deficits (GRDs) and they work the inverse direction of better health and
facilitate deterioration. (Antonovsky, 1987; Golembiewski, 2010). A strong/high SOC predicts better
health and weak/low SOC predicts poor health.
According to Antonovsky (1987), there are 3 core components that determine one’s sense of
coherence; comprehensibility, manageability and meaningfulness. When confronted by a stressor, a
person with a strong SOC will; believe that the challenge is understood(comprehensibility), believe that
the resources required to cope are available(manageability) and wish to, be motivated to, cope
(meaningfulness) (Antonovsky, 1996).
3.2.1.1
3.2.1.13.2.1.1
3.2.1.1 Comprehensibility
ComprehensibilityComprehensibility
Comprehensibility
This refers to the cognitive dimension where the extent to which one perceives internal and external
stimuli as rationally understandable and as information that is orderly, coherent, clear and structured
rather than as noise – that is, chaotic, disordered, random, unexpected and unexplained (Mittelmark et
al., 2017; Karaca, 2018). An individual high on the sense of comprehensibility expects that looming
stimuli will be predictable or, at the very least will be orderable and explicable when they come as a
surprise. The desirability of stimuli/challenges in the Salutogenic model of health is not implied but
when things such as death, failure and war occur, a person high on the sense of comprehensibility can
and will make sense of them (Antonovsky, 1987).
Fig. 3.5 A sense of coherence of one's circumstance is vital in
coping with their allostatic load (stress level) at any given time.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://
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Fig. 3.6 Forces working against a strong sense of Coherence
are Generalised Resistance Deficits
Sour
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Fig. 3.7 Forces working in favour of a strong sense of
coherence are Generalised Resistance Resources.
Source:
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3.2.1.2
3.2.1.23.2.1.2
3.2.1.2 Manageability
ManageabilityManageability
Manageability
This refers to the instrumental/behavioural dimension where the extent to which one perceives that the
resources that are at one’s disposal are adequate to meet the demands posed by stimuli that bombard
the individual (Antonovsky, 1987; Mittelmark et. al, 2017; Karaca, 2018). There is a pervading belief that
resources to act are available and within one’s control (Jensen et al., 2017). Such an individual cannot
feel victimized by unfortunate events or feel that life has treated them unfairly hence they are able to
cope and not grieve endlessly (Antonovsky, 1987).
3.2.1.3
3.2.1.33.2.1.3
3.2.1.3 Meaningfulness
MeaningfulnessMeaningfulness
Meaningfulness
This refers to the motivational dimension where one feels that life makes sense emotionally, and that at
least some of the problems and demands posed in day to day life are worth investing energy in and are
worthy of commitment and engagement. The challenges are welcomed rather than taken on as
burdens that one would much rather do without though possibly tough and unpleasant (Antonovsky,
1987; Mittelmark et al., 2017; Karaca, 2018). This does not mean an untoward event is worthy of joy and
happiness but when such things happen to an individual high on the sense of meaningfulness, they will
willingly take up the challenge in determination to seek meaning in the challenge and overcome with
dignity (Antonovsky, 1987).
3.3 Psychosocially Supportive Design: Application of
Salutogenesis to Architecture
According to WHO (1986) as observed in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, “Health is created
and lived by people within the settings of their everyday life; where they learn, work, play and live.” This
statement alluded to the fact that built environments have a significant impact upon human health and
well-being hence the necessity to understand the relationship between health and the built
environment in order to bring the understanding to design.
In the 1990s, architect Prof. Alan Dilani (Fig. 3.9) suggested the use of Prof. Aaron Antonovsky’s
salutogenic theory to coin ‘Psychosocially Supportive design’, a theory and framework to promote
health through the design of the physical environment (Ziegler, 2014; Karaca 2018). The theory
proposes a model where health promotion is achieved through design within the physical environment,
particularly within healthcare facilities (Dilani, 2007).
Fig. 3.8 The sense of coherence is determined by three core
components of an individual’s perception of their surrounding
circumstances; Comprehensibility, Manageability and
Meaningfulness.
Source: Author
Source: AuthorSource: Author
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
25
Psychosocially supportive (salutogenic) design is all about encouraging active health rather than merely
treating illness (Mazuch, 2017) by creation of a preventive care strategy that changes the current focus
from risk factors to holistic understanding and evolution towards a healthier society. Salutogenic design
contexts promote and activate people physiologically, psychologically and socially in order to
strengthen one’s SOC. This is done by appealing to the human senses which in turn start mental
processes that result in reduced anxiety and promote positive psychological emotions fundamental in
health promotion (Dilani, 2015).
By use of the salutogenic model of health in building a framework for psychosocially supportive
architecture, the focus is turned toward an internalization process of the sense of coherence concept.
How does a design element become a generalised resistance resource or deficit (Maass, Lillefjell and
Espnes, 2017)? How can a design element develop a strong SOC? To answer these questions the 3
core components of a strong SOC must be brought under scrutiny.
3.3.1 Comprehensibility Through Architecture
This has to do with reading and understanding the environment (Karaca, 2018), the capacity to
understand and negotiate the contexts we find ourselves in (Golembiewski, 2017). Comprehensibility
has got to do with the sense of predictability and feelings of security felt by the individual thus the
design elements must support the predictability and security feelings (Karaca, 2018).
To maximise comprehensibility, ambiguity (Fig. 3.10) in design should be avoided to reduce the
possibility of perceptual distortion (Golembiewski, 2014). According to Ken Yeang (2015),
‘environmental comprehensibility’ requires environmental orderliness, predictability and legibility. An
example of this would be the use of legible and intuitive way finding to create visual order and
eliminate visual chaos that disorients a building user (Dilani, 2015).
Spatial cognition though very important in environmental comprehensibility is not all there is to this
component. Understanding of what objects are and what their functions are is also of great importance.
Object comprehension is a product of the filters of memory, culture and a pre-existing epistemology
(Hall, 1990; Searles, 1965). Users understand their context through association with familiar concepts,
languages, objects, forms, materials, textures, emotions and expectations. It is therefore important to,
as far as possible, provide a familiar environment in design (Golembiewski, 2017; Karaca, 2018).
According to James Gibson and other researchers who have delved into the ecological theory of
perception, perception (whether visual, acoustic, haptic, temporal or olfactory) is synthetic (Hall, 1990)
and for this reason, the relationship between comprehensibility and the environment that we draw
experience from is personal. Not everyone can gather the exact same information from the same
Fig. 3.9 Prof. Alan Dilani, founder of the International Academy
for Design and Health (IADH) and the journal, World Health
Design, coined the term Psychosocially Supportive Design as
an application of salutogensis to the design of the physical
environment.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source:
http://picssr .com/photos/dohogu/i nterest ing/page14?nsid=34878350@N06
http://picssr .com/photos/dohogu/i nterest ing/page14?nsid=34878350@N06http://picssr .com/photos/dohogu/i nterest ing/page14?nsid=34878350@N06
http://picssr .com/photos/dohogu/i nterest ing/page14?nsid=34878350@N06
Fig. 3.10 Ambiguity in design increases the possibility of
perceptual distortion thus making architecture less
comprehensible.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.arch2o.com/dichotomy
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
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experience (Hall, 1990) but in normal circumstances, the “gap” between a subjective experience and
the reality of the objective world is acceptable and is resolved without consideration (Golembiewski,
2010). Therefore, it is understandably important that the built environment should be designed to
reduce the possibility of perceptual distortion.
As per Jan Golembiewski (2010), cognitive scientists have counted at least thirteen distinct ways that
people comprehend the relative depth of space visually and several other ways when we include the
various tactile, thermal and acoustic perceptual systems. For purposes of this thesis, the perceptual
systems shall not be discussed in depth but samples of how provision can be made within our built
environment to strengthen comprehensibility shall be provided. Textured surfaces assist with textural
perception. Horizontal (or vertical) courses in masonry or timber assist linear perception. Various
objects in or internal (pieces of furniture, paintings, rugs, light fittings etc) and external (the presence of
trees, landscape features etc) assist with size and scale perception, the various perspectives of parallax
and other perspectives. All these perspectives support the same cognitive function, that is the
measuring and comprehension of space and therefore, the more provisions for these perspectives the
more successful design can be in reducing the likelihood of miscomprehension. ((Osmond, 1957, 1958;
Searles, 1960; Hall, 1990).
However, the purpose of a place or an object is not directly cognised. Comprehension is manufactured
through the filters of memory, culture and a pre-existing epistemology (Searles, 1965; Hall, 1990).
Human beings therefore understand their environs by association with familiar languages (Fig. 3.11),
concepts, forms, materials, objects, textures, emotions and expectations. Therefore, to provide a
familiar environment for users of spaces in order to increase the likelihood of comprehension and to
reinforce messages that aren’t likely to increase stress levels cannot be overstated.
A design team must consider visual, acoustic, haptic, temporal and olfactory sensibilities in their
designs, not just to avoid excessive sensory pollution (such as street sounds and kitchen smells) but to
avoid distortion generally and beyond perceptual distortion, they need to be aware of environmental
symbolism that might be amplified, de-contextualised or miscomprehended (Fig. 3.12).
In matters pertaining to environmental comprehensibility, other things that could come under scrutiny
might be the material palette. Could certain materials be considered ambiguous and be subject to
miscomprehension? Could ‘dishonesty to material’ such as veneer or printed timber be a source of
confusion to some individuals? Perhaps there are other advantages still for choosing real exposed
timber, stone, natural carpet and quality pressed brick; being ubiquitous the world over, they will
resonate with a wider range of cultural backgrounds. Natural materials are also replete with textures to
assist with difficulties in perceptual cognition.
Fig. 3.11 The success of Alvar Aalto's Saynatsalo Town Hall is
largely due to its association with familiar languages, concepts,
forms, materials, objects, textures, emotions and expectations
within its geographical context and even beyond thus it
increases its likelihood of comprehension.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source:
http://takehiko.scripts.mit.edu/4561_cgi/v12b/4561_lis t.cgi?semester=2018s
http://takehiko.scripts.mit.edu/4561_cgi/v12b/4561_lis t.cgi?semester=2018shttp://takehiko.scripts.mit.edu/4561_cgi/v12b/4561_lis t.cgi?semester=2018s
http://takehiko.scripts.mit.edu/4561_cgi/v12b/4561_lis t.cgi?semester=2018s
Fig. 3.12 Four Seasons Hotel, Montreal restaurant lounge
by Atelier Zébulon Perron; A careful balance in the sensorial
stimulation arising from a given space gives just enough to aid
comprehensibility and identity whilst preventing distortion that
would otherwise arise in overly stimulating environments.
Source:
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Source: https://www.ai
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
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Designers that adopt a salutogenic framework as a guiding theory might find it at odds with
architectural fashion. In an attempt to achieve environmental comprehensibility, some architectural
theories may not be favourable. Postmodern double readings, façadism, deconstructivism and tectonic
expressionism tend to be intentionally confusing (Fig. 3.13), but do not need to be abandoned
altogether. Obtaining, an even higher level of artistic expression in balance that still maintains
comprehensibility may be the epitome of the contemporary architectural theories.
3.3.2 Manageability Through Architecture
This has to do with how architecture enables one with the resources to meet their personal demands in
order to be effective in their actions. The most obvious architectural element wielding this core
component of SOC is form. Architectural form can psychologically amplify or deny power. A good case
scenario of this is in the New Reich Chancellery (Fig. 3.14) by German architect Albert Speer, Adolf
Hitler’s chief architect between 1933 and 1945. As narrated in The Edifice Complex, (Sudjic, 2006) in
1939, the disempowering ‘architectural stage set’ by Nazi architecture (New Reich Chancellery) caused
Emil Hacha, Czechoslovakia’s president to freely hand over the reins of his state to Germany without an
attempt to engage his well-equipped and technologically advanced army and arsenal that were in
position to defend Czechoslovakia’s borders. From the broadest elements of architecture such as form
to the minutest details such has door knobs or handles, architecture can with us or against us.
(Golembiewski, 2010)
The sense of control, of one’s environment and life circumstances, is very fortifying. (Golembiewski,
2010; Karaca 2018). Control of movement, lighting, ventilation, privacy, security, thermal comfort and
many other components that come together to make up architecture determine manageability. Some
design decisions may lead toward providing non-architectural interventions such design to provide for
social support the core principle in achieving manageability is for users to feel like they are influencing
what is happening around them and they are not victims of circumstances (Dilani, 2015).
3.3.3 Meaningfulness Through Architecture
This has to do with find meaning through the physical environment (Karaca, 2018) and because
meaning in life is essential to the maintenance of life through a strong SOC (Antonovsky, 1987), it
should be a pivotal concern for architects when designing (Golembiewski, 2017). Rarely ever do people
actively seek out meaning in life, but for an architect, providing a right context might inspire a search
for meaning or enrich one (Golembiewski, 2017).
According to Jan A. Golembiewski (2017), meaning “is illusive and difficult to provide for, as questions
of meaning steer pretty quickly to philosophical and cultural/social debate rather than to the simple
Fig. 3.13 Postmodern architectural theories seek to
intentionally confuse and in most cases are not favourable in
the quest to achieve environmental comprehensibility.
Source:
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Fig. 3.14 The New Reich Chancellery by Albert Speer for its
time was a magnificent structure that disempowered Hitler's
allies and foes alike giving his forces an impression of
invincibility.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.planetminecraft.com/project/neu e
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
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cause and effects so desirable in the physical sciences. Of all the sources of environmental meaning,
there is little doubt that it is primarily found in the social environment – in love and communication, in
family and in friendship” (Golembiewski, 2017). This being the case, to make provision for social
support is imperative in designing for environmental meaningfulness.
Meaningfulness also refers to a personal or cultural connection that can be enhanced by aesthetics or
spatial and programmatic considerations. (Golembiewski, 2010). For environmental meaningfulness,
provision of visual and aesthetic meaning, interest, satisfaction and attendant spaces for contemplating
in the environment are needed (Dilani, 2015).
Roger Ulrich has made important contributions as pertains to accessibility of the natural environment
and better health outcomes (Fig. 3.15). Though not explicitly stated in his research, it is likely that health
benefits derived from access to natural landscape occur as a result of meaning being so easily found in
nature (Golembiewski, 2017).
3.4 General Principles of Salutogenic Design
The general design principles and elements that support the salutogenic design process in developing
a sense of coherence are:
3.4.1 Culture
The culture of a society or community brings about a sense of belonging to the individuals. According
to Konlaan (Konlaan, 2001), participation in cultural activities positively impacts human health. In his
study he proves that there is a close link between being an active cultural consumer and an increase in
an individual’s health status rating (Dilani, 2015).
As stated by Stephen F. Kenney (Kenney, 1994) in a thesis on Cultural Influences on Architecture,
“Architecture is a manifestation of the cultural context in which it resides. The form and relationships of
buildings and spaces act as a kind of cultural marker (Fig. 3.16) that can be read, similar to the way one
might read a newspaper or road map for information, to describe the way of life and social status of its
inhabitants.”
Aspects of culture such as attitude toward privacy, family structure/hierarchy or role of women within
the society among many other aspects can influence architecture to respond to the varied complexities
of different cultures. For example, as pertains to the degree of privacy within a society, the attitude
toward nakedness of its people will determine the visual porosity and openness of their architecture to
the public. Modesty oriented attitudes result in more closed architecture and vice versa (Kenney, 1994).
Fig. 3.15 Central Wolfe Campus by HOK; Incorporation of
nature in the built environment creates an opportunity for
social support as well as evolved human-nature relationships
that give rise to meaning.
Sources:
Sources: Sources:
Sources: https://www.hok.com/news/2018
https://www.hok.com/news/2018https://www.hok.com/news/2018
https://www.hok.com/news/2018-
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Fig. 3.16 The Thread by Toshiko Mori; The forms, finishes and
relationships of buildings when used to communicate the
cultural aspects of a given people positively impact human
health.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.archd aily.co
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
29
The more that an architectural piece of work conforms to the culture within its immediate context, the
better the architectural edifice will aid its users in establishment of a strong sense of coherence through
meaning and comprehensibility (Fig. 3.17). It respects and relates to the attitude of the people it serves
and as a result a sense of belonging developed and strengthened.
3.4.2 Aesthetics & Décor
The concept of aesthetics having any impact on health appears to be widely regarded as a
superstitious & occult concept and is thus not nearly as widely accepted, however, this has been
scientifically tested and proven severally with findings that have defied the notorious belief such as a
30.8% faster recovery and 38% lower mortality in patients with psychiatric disorders exposed to sunlit
rooms (Golembiewski, 2017). When an individual is seemingly healthy, the exhibit a theoretical surplus
of resources and the idea of aesthetic impact seems to be far-fetched but when ill, any genuine
influence geared toward better or worse health is very important (Golembiewski, 2017).
When an individual observes or views drawings, paintings, sculptures or other artistic elements aimed
at offering aesthetic experiences, complex cognitive and emotional processes arise (Fig. 3.18). The
process of viewing, processing & understanding the art form in question the individual may experience
joy, participation or interest which may lead to positive stimuli, satisfying and rewarding the viewer
(Dilani, 2015). This in turn becomes a promoter of a strong SOC.
In the design of spaces, it then becomes of interest to architects to carefully and intelligently introduce
relevant art forms and ornaments that are geared toward rewarding the users of a space with aesthetic
experiences that strengthen their sense of coherence.
3.4.3 Daylighting
Research has it that daylight has positive effects on a human being’s psychological wellbeing and its
absence thereof can lead to physiological and psychological difficulties (Dilani, 2015).
Daylight is largely brought into architecture through windows and the amount or distribution
determined by window quantity and sizes. The windows bringing in daylight allow for users within a
building to have a link to the outer world and satisfying a user’s need for viewing seasonal variations
and happenings outside of the confines of an interior space (Fig. 3.19). On the flip side, rooms without
windows can exacerbate and affect human well-being negatively. As per Heerwagen and Orians (1986),
a study was conducted on blue collar workers who were denied access to windows and the result
showed that they experienced tension and were more negative toward their physical working
conditions as compared to their colleagues in offices with windows. (Dilani, 2015).
Fig. 3.17 Islamic Cultural Centre, Wuppertal, Germany - In
order to aid the establishment of a strong sense of belonging,
an architectural piece ought to conform as much as possible to
the culture.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.archilovers.com/projects/ 237275/islamic
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Fig. 3.18 Aesthetic elements evoke complex cognitive and
emotional processes that satisfy the viewer.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://worldarchitecture.org/article
https://world architecture.o rg/articlehttps://world architecture.o rg/article
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
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It is therefore undoubtable that daylighting allowed into a building can contribute to the
meaningfulness and manageability brought about by a work of architecture.
3.4.4 Sound, Music & Noise Control
The word noise by definition does not come with a positive connotation and this is because it is a result
of sound resulting from undesirable fluctuations. Such sound can psychologically disorient, irritate and
eventually harm the well-being of human beings. Research has it that noise causes irritation which leads
to stress and stress-related diseases. This is because it raises the cortisol level (Dilani, 2015). Cortisol is
the body’s main stress hormone which ideally has a function to boost your body in various ways when
under duress in order to cope before balance is restored. However, when the levels of cortisol are
higher than they need to be, it becomes a demerit that can derail the bodies most important functions
resulting in several health problems (Louise Chang, 2018).
According to Alan Dilani (2015), workers in less noisy environs require fewer coping strategies for
adapting to their physical environment and can therefore focus their energy and coping strategies on
other stressful events. It is for this reason that we can safely say that the physical auditory environment
can be vital in helping people cope with other stressors. Some sounds can promote health such as
music as it decreases the activation in the sympathetic nervous system and has on several occasions
been linked to promotion of human well-being.
The challenge of salutogenic design is in integration of spaces for musical experiences in the built
environment. For a designer considering acoustics and sound as a salutogenic element, there are two
options, to reinforce ones SOC by creating sounds or to buffer against noise (Fig. 3.20 and Fig. 3.21).
3.4.5 Thermal Comfort
The manageability of one’s environment as earlier discussed is very important in development of a
strong SOC. The ability to regulate one’s ambient conditions such as temperature is an example of
manageability of a given space. Research in work environments has shown that a lack of control of
one’s environment is stressful and associated with negative effects resulting from raised raring of
psychological stress.
It has been argued by several researchers that increased psychological stress ratings as a result of
environmental conditions such as temperature can be mitigated if people/ users are given ways to
increase their control over stressful conditions.
Fig. 3.19 Natural light has positive effects on the psychological
well-being by linki
ng users to the outside world and satisfying a
need to be a part of happenings beyond the confines of
interior space.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.wallpaper.co m/travel/kengo
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Fig. 3.20 There are sounds that can promote health and vice
versa. Sensitive consideration to buffer undesirable sound and
let in desirable sound works toward developing a strong SOC.
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.archd aily.com/5720 43/sono rous
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Fig. 3.21 A 230ft long sea organ in Croatia by architect Nikola
Bašić takes advantage of the Adriatic sea waves to produce
random soothing rhythmic tunes.
Source:
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
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Such an architectural intervention would be provision of windows to control air flow and thus
temperature or shading devices to allow for manipulation depending on the sun’s movement. Both
passive and active cooling/heating mechanisms all work toward handing thermal comfort control to a
user and this may increase the manageability of a space which in turn strengthens one’s SOC (Fig. 3.22).
3.4.6 Colour
Colours have an impact on brain activity and can create a sense of well-being. To designers, colour
should be of high interest as they carry with them aesthetic and cultural value which can reflect a
philosophy of a given entity or people (Fig. 3.23). Warm colours, vivid and bold in nature, have an
activating and evocative effect whereas cool colours are considered to have a calming effect (Dilani,
2015).
Due to the varying psychological effects of different colours, it is important for a designer to pay keen
attention when choosing hues to use in a given space as the selected colours will influence emotions
and perspectives of the building users. Colours should suit the contextual environment and represent
the type of room or message that is being conveyed.
3.4.7 Ergonomy
The use of ergonomically sound building components is key in the health promotion school of thought.
Anything within a building that is not ergonomically sound creates a safety hazard but also if the users
of the building are conscious of the hazard then their stress levels within the select hazardous space will
increase due to the potential occurrence of an accident. Ergonomically unfriendly design is
comprehended as unsafe and understood as out of one’s control. It therefore loses meaning as useful
due to its unmanageability and this all works toward a weakened SOC resulting from the stress
experienced (Stokols, 1992).
3.4.8 Materials & Texture
As earlier discussed in architecture for comprehensibility, ‘the purpose of a place or an object is not
directly cognised. Comprehension is manufactured through the filters of memory, culture and a pre-
existing epistemology (Searles, 1965; Hall, 1990). Human beings therefore understand their environs by
association with familiar languages, concepts, forms, materials, objects, textures, emotions and
expectations.
Fig. 3.22 Evaporative cooling as passive strategy to provide
thermal comfort within a building.
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Fig. 3.23 Olea All Suite Hotel by BLOCK722 architects+: the
material finish in any given project determines the colour of a
building. The familiarity of the colours and textures increases
the likelihood of comprehension to reinforce one’s SOC.
Source:
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Source: https://www.archd aily.com/9070 90/olea
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
32
Provision of a familiar environment in form of materials and textures (Fig. 3.23) for users of spaces in
order to increase the likelihood of comprehension and to reinforce messages that aren’t likely to
increase stress levels must be taken into account during the design process.
3.5 Key Principles of Salutogenic Design
Among the several design principles that constitute of a salutogenic framework (Fig. 3.24), three of the
principles stand out due to their impact on the idea of health promotion through design and how they
work together to holistically create a psychosocially supportive environment. The three principles are:
1. Active Design
2. Design for Social Support
3. Biophilic Design
3.5.1 Active Design
According to the Centre for Active Design which is the world’s leading non-profit organization using
design to foster healthy and engaged communities, defines active design as “an evidence-based
approach to development that identifies urban planning and architecture solutions to support healthy
communities.” Active design builds on health research by showing how design has an impact on the
physical, mental and social well-being of mankind (Fig. 3.25).
As the global population has developed into one of the most technologically advanced ages in earth’s
history, the physical demands of daily life on the human race in how they live, work and travel have
sharply reduced. As a result, the need and importance for physical activity has shone in a different light
as the absence of it has had undesirable effects on human life by becoming a leading cause of disease.
Active design principles are very important because some chronic disease arising from sedentary
lifestyle choices such as obesity, diabetes, heart disease, stroke and certain cancers are the greatest
epidemics of our time.
The statistics from the WHO, Centre of Active Design and other researchers have it that:
• Chronic diseases account for nearly 60% of all deaths worldwide.
• Physical inactivity is one of the key risk factors for chronic disease.
• Physical inactivity has replaced smoking as the leading cause of preventable death in the world.
Fig. 3.24 The Salutogenic Design Framework
Source:
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Fig. 3.25 Active design seeks to increase the physical fitness
levels among space users by design that make physical activity
in a place possible.
Source:
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
33
• Physical inactivity accounts for more than 3 million preventable deaths worldwide annually and
is implicated in causing 6% of coronary heart disease, 7% of diabetes, and 10% of colon or
breast cancer. (Gichu et al., 2018)
• In less than 2 generations, physical activity has dropped by 32%, where less than half of adults,
and children meet the recommended amount of physical activity per week.
• Chronic diseases account for global health care costs totalling $6.2 trillion in one year.
• This is the first generation in which ten-year olds are projected to have a shorter lifespan than
their parents if behaviours do not change.
• 1.4 billion people are not doing the recommended 150 minutes of moderate, or 75 minutes of
vigorous physical activity per week (Fig. 3.26 and Fig. 3.27).
• 15.4% of adult Kenyans are not as active as recommended by the WHO. (150 minutes of
moderate, or 75 minutes of vigorous activity per week)
Relationship B
Relationship BRelationship B
Relationship Between Physical Activity and Health
etween Physical Activity and Healthetween Physical Activity and Health
etween Physical Activity and Health
The Surgeon General’s report of 1996 reviewed the existing literature on the role of physical activity in
preventing disease. That review revealed an inverse association between physical activity and several
diseases that is “moderate in magnitude, consistent across studies that differed substantially in
methods and populations, and biologically plausible” People who are physically active have, on
average, lower annual direct medical costs and fewer hospital stays and physician visits, use fewer
medications, miss fewer days of work than physically inactive people.
Numerous studies were analysed to determine:
a) the consistency across studies of an association between physical activity and disease incidence;
b) the magnitude or strength of the association;
c) whether there was evidence that the level of activity preceded the development of disease;
d) the presence of a dose response relationship, that is, whether higher amounts of physical
activity conferred greater health benefits;
e) the biological plausibility of the relationship, that is, the underlying physiological mechanisms
that can explain why physical activity has a protective or restorative effect on specific health
outcomes.
The Surgeon General’s report concluded that physical activity is casually related to health outcomes
where increasing amounts of physical activity were linked to decreasing risk of disease. The strength of
the association is likened to the magnitude of the relationship between coronary heart disease and
smoking, hypertension or elevated cholesterol.
Fig. 3.26 The generally recommended minimum time spent in
physical activity in both adults and children.
Source:
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Fig. 3.27 Levels of physical activity as of 2016.
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Psychosocially Supportive Design: Literature Review
34
The listed benefits of regular physical activity according to reports (1996,2002) from the U.S Department
of Health and Human Services are as follows:
• Reduces feelings of depression and anxiety and promotes physiological well-being.
• Helps maintain a healthy weight and reduce obesity.
• Helps build and maintain healthy bones, muscles and joints.
• Reduces risk of premature deaths resulting from cardiovascular diseases (Fig. 3.28).
• Reduces risk of developing colon and breast cancer
• Reduces the risk of developing osteoarthritis and osteoporosis
• Reduces fall-related injuries among older adults.
• Reduces blood pressure for already hypertensive patients.
Role of the Built Environment in human physical activity
Role of the Built Environment in human physical activityRole of the Built Environment in human physical activity
Role of the Built Environment in human physical activity
There are a number of reasons that may cause one to fall below the ideal physical activity levels. Such
reasons include personal reasons (arising from disabilities, health impairments or lack of self-drive),
concerns for safety and security (unsafe and dangerous neighbourhoods), time and environmental
impediments (long distances between destinations or limited travel choices). To curb reasons
stemming from the environmental impediments, interventions to encourage greater physical activity
should be tailored to meet specific needs and the targeted population to be segmented accordingly.
The opportunities to tailor the built environment to accommodate physical activity are numerous but
the ease of such changes is subject to the nature of the interventions. Interventions that may hinge on
policy making such as zoning and land use interventions may face formidable barriers that are difficult
to overcome. More flexible & targeted approaches such as context-sensitive design, special overlay
districts, traffic calming measures and community policing – can be implemented more rapidly.
Construction of new buildings and developments also offers promising opportunities for creating more
activity-friendly environments (Fig. 3.29). The design considerations in a building affect the form of
community development and travel choices which are what form the basis for the active design
framework.
Fig. 3.28 Graph showing percentage of deaths associated w
ith
inadequate physical activity in the United States
Source:
Source: Source:
Source: https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2018/17_0354.htm
https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/20 18/17_0354.htmhttps://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2018/17_0354.htm
https://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/