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Method for in-field texture analysis of sugar beet roots using a handheld penetrometer
Abstract
Methodology for analysing textural properties of sugar beet roots in the laboratory has previously been established. It has been shown to be reliable and of value in exploring relationships between textural properties, damage rates, and storability of varieties. In this paper, a methodology for the assessment of textural properties in-field, prior to harvest, using an inexpensive handheld penetrometer is examined. Three sugar beet varieties were grown in Belgium, the Netherlands, and Sweden during 2019. Textural properties were assessed in-field with the handheld penetrometer 2, 1 and 0 months prior to harvest, and with the laboratory penetrometer directly after harvest. Comparison of the results showed generally strong correlations. A power analysis suggests a difference in mean Handheld Pressure of 0.10 MPa could be found significant within a large trial with a block design. The reliability of the handheld penetrometer was further assessed in the Swedish national variety trials over three years (2019-2021). Correlation coefficients of 0.86 and 0.94 were found between mean Handheld Pressure for 2019 and 2020, and 2020 and 2021 respectively. The handheld penetrometer can be applied as an economic means of quantifying differences in textural properties of sugar beet varieties. Clear operating procedure and training must exist.
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Mechanical properties of sugar beet are important during harvesting and processing. To potentially correlate mechanical properties with structural features of cell wall polymers, four different Beta varieties (Beta vulgaris L.) were characterized for their mechanical properties and cell wall composition. In addition, the influence of nitrogen fertilization was analyzed. Additional nitrogen fertilization only slightly influenced mechanical properties and cell wall composition. Hardly any structural differences of cell wall polysaccharides were observed for all Beta varieties. Slight differences in alcohol insoluble residue and protein contents, in amino acid profiles of proteins, and in esterification degree of pectins were found. The Beta varieties differed in their contents of cell wall bound phenolic components, and particularly in their dry matter contents. Analyses of mechanical properties of the Beta varieties demonstrated differences in tissue firmness and compressive strength. However, no evidence was found that the observed differences of cell wall composition are responsible for the divergent mechanical properties, with the exception of water contents that were higher in samples with less compressive strength.
Harvesting and cleaning of sugar beet lead to root damage, which increases storage losses due to wound healing and by causing entry points for pathogens. This study aimed at quantifying the effects of variety and site on the tissue strength of sugar beet roots, and moreover, to evaluate the impact of tissue strength on damage and storage losses. For this purpose, field trials with three varieties were carried out at six sites, three in Germany and the others in Belgium, the Netherlands and Sweden in 2018. Texture analysis and storage trials were conducted in Göttingen. Puncture and compression measurements revealed differences in tissue strength between varieties and sites. Drought stress during the vegetation period significantly reduced the tissue strength. Tissue strength of sugar beet roots turned out to be an environmental stable variety characteristic. It is not possible to draw conclusions from tissue strength to storage losses at a site, since many other factors, such as growing conditions, diseases and damage due to harvester settings have a strong impact. However, tissue strength might be an indicator for damage susceptibility and storage losses of sugar beet varieties.
Mechanical harvest and cleaning of sugar beet, followed by transport, often result in substantial root tip breakage and surface damage through mechanical impact (Gorzelany and Puchalski, 2000; Van Swaaij et al., 2003). The extent of damages from topping or defoliation and root tip breakage highly depends on the harvester settings, and therefore, on the The harvest of sugar beet leads to root tip breakage and surface damage through mechanical impacts, which increase storage losses. For the determination of textural properties of sugar beet roots with a texture analyzer a reliable method description is missing. This study aimed to evaluate the impact of washing, soil tare, storage period from washing until measurement, sample distribution and number of roots on puncture and compression measurements. For this purpose, in 2017 comprehensive tests were conducted with sugar beet roots grown in a greenhouse. In a second step these tests were carried out with different Beta varieties from a field trial, and in addition, a flexural test was included. Results show that the storage period after washing and the sample distribution had an influence on the puncture and compression strength. It is suggested to wash the roots by hand before the measurement and to determine the strength no later than 48 h after washing. For reliable and comparable results a radial distribution of measurement points around the widest circumference of the root is recommended for the puncture test. The sample position of the compression test had an influence on the compressive strength and therefore, needs to be clearly defined. For the puncture and the compression test it was possible to achieve stable results with a small sample size, but with increasing heterogeneity of the plant stand a higher number of roots is required. The flexural test showed a high variability and is, therefore, not recommended for the analysis of sugar beet textural properties.
This paper is an investigation via two experimental methods, of the textural properties of sugar beet roots during the storage period. In the work, sugar beet roots mechanical properties were evaluated during the post-harvest period – 1, 8, 22, 43, and 71 days after crop. Both experimental methods, i.e. compression test and puncture test, suggest that the failure strength of the sugar beet root increases with the storage time. The parameters obtained using the puncture test, are more sensitive to the storage duration than those obtained by way of the compression test. We also found that such mechanical properties served as a reliable tool for monitoring the progress of sugar beet roots storage. The described methods could also be used to highlight important information on sugar beet evolution during storage.
Efficient processing of sugarbeet in the sugar factory requires high concentration of sucrose and low concentrations of nonsucrose substances in the beet. During storage, changes in beet quality should be as low as possible. Storability will gain in importance when the storage period is to be prolonged to reduce fixed costs of the sugar factories. In this study, the storability of sugarbeet as affected by agronomic measures and storage conditions was evaluated. The effect of genotype, N application, topping, Cercospora beticola and Rhizoctonia solani infestation, root injuries and drought stress on changes in root weight, root quality and respiration rate of sugarbeet were investigated at different storage temperature and duration. The beets were grown in the field and stored under controlled conditions in the greenhouse or in climate containers. Genotypic differences in beet storability occurred, whereas N application, C. beticola, topping and bruising did not show a clear effect. Storability was impaired by drought stress and especially by visual root injuries and by R. solani. They increased both sucrose losses and the accumulation of melassogenic substances such as amino-N and invert sugar. These changes were accelerated at higher temperatures and increased with storage duration. From these findings, measures to optimize storage management by implication of agronomic measures are derived.
The performance of a newly developed firmness penetrometer (fruit quality tester — FQT), was evaluated over two growing seasons with poststorage apples against the Effegi, Magness-Taylor (MT) and electronic pressure tester with the speed control engaged (EPT-SC). The FQT was operated in the: (a) standard (FQT-Std); (b) MT (FQT-MT); and (c) EPT (FQT-EPT) modes with the latter two simulating the operation of the MT and EPT-SC devices, respectively. ‘Cortland’, ‘McIntosh’ and ‘Northern Spy’ fruit were stored for 3–14 months in controlled atmosphere (CA) conditions and were then held at room temperature for 1–7 days, following which firmness was measured by four operators with each of the six instruments or modes. The ten cultivar/storage/poststorage fruit lots were designated as either hard or soft if the poststorage firmness average for the lot was ≥ or <62.3 N (14 lbs), respectively. Highly significant instrument by operator interactions in both firmness categories indicated that the influence of operators on instrument performance was not consistent. However, when instrument means were compared for each operator, few differences were observed. The FQT-EPT and FQT-MT simulated the operation of the EPT-SC and MT, respectively, as comparable instrument averages differed by <1.0 N in both the hard and soft fruit groups. Ranking of instrument standard deviations and numeric ranges indicated that the MT generated the most variable and widely ranging firmness values in the hard apples, while the Effegi and the MT produced the most variable and widely ranging readings in the soft fruit, respectively. The standard deviations and ranges generated by the three FQT modes and the EPT-SC ranked middle to lowest in both firmness categories. Based upon the comparative evaluation criteria of similar means and relatively small standard deviations and ranges, the FQT performed as well or better than the other instruments tested.
There is some evidence that sugar beet root tissue strength affects damage susceptibility and storage losses. This study aimed at analyzing the effect of N application and of irrigation on tissue strength of sugar beet varieties, on root composition, and on root tip breakage and storage losses. For this purpose, field trials in six replicates with three sugar beet varieties were carried out with three N doses in The Netherlands and Belgium in 2018 and 2019, alternatively with three irrigation treatments in Sweden in 2018 and 2019. Results show a low impact of N application and irrigation on puncture resistance, tissue firmness and compressive strength of the roots, while varieties differed always stronger and significantly. Cell wall composition (pectin, hemicellulose, cellulose, lignin) did not differ markedly in roots from different environments (sites, years) and varieties, giving no explanation for differences in tissue strength. However, the percentage of cell wall material (AIR, marc) and of dry matter were higher in roots with higher tissue strength. Root tip breakage and sugar losses during storage tended to be lower when root compressive strength of varieties was higher. Hence, root tissue strength could serve as an indirect selection criterion for reduced damage susceptibility and improved storability of sugar beet varieties.
Mechanical properties of sugar beet roots are related to their damage susceptibility and storability. For selection in breeding, it is beneficial to identify stable traits that can be measured in young plants. Ten genotypes, nine sugar beet and one fodder beet, were grown in the field (harvest in August and November) and in the glasshouse for 14 weeks. The puncture resistance was measured using a texture analyser. Furthermore, the dry matter content was determined. Genotypic differences in puncture resistance of sugar beet roots could be determined in early growth stages and showed no relevant interaction to environment/growing conditions. The puncture resistance was closely related to the dry matter content of the root. Genotypic differences in puncture resistance are independent of growing conditions (field/glasshouse) and age of the plants (harvest date/growth stage). Puncture resistance is thus a potential trait for selection of genotypes with a high tissue strength. The dry matter content was identified as an easy-to-measure parameter for the preselection of genotypes.
Key message
Puncture resistance of sugar beet roots is a stable genotypic trait independent of growing conditions (field/glasshouse) and age of the plants and is closely related to the dry matter content.
Genetic variation in the tissue strength of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) roots has been found in recent studies. There are indications that tissue strength influences damage susceptibility and storability. The objective of this study was to analyse the impact of storage on tissue strength, to determine causes for differences in tissue strength and to find possible relations between tissue strength, damage susceptibility and storability of sugar beet genotypes. For this purpose, trials with six sugar beet genotypes were conducted in seven environments across Germany in 2018 and 2019, followed by a screening trial with 12 commercial genotypes at one location in 2020. Tissue strength changed during storage depending on the growing environment, but independently of the genotype; puncture resistance increased by 0.35 MPa. The genotypic tissue strength was mainly determined by the cell wall content (r² up to 0.97), less by the cell wall composition. For sugar beet genotypes, the relationship between tissue strength and storability could be explained by the fact that root tip breakage and subsequent storage losses tended to decrease with higher tissue strength, as shown by principal component analysis (PCA). Introducing tissue strength as a variety trait in breeding and official variety trials could thus contribute to reduced harvest and storage losses in the future.
Tissue strength of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) roots could be an interesting breeding target, as it is a possible indicator for storability and influences the manufacturing process. The objective of this study was to analyse the importance of genotype and environment and their interaction on three texture parameters (puncture resistance, tissue firmness, and compressive strength) and to investigate the range of tissue strengths of commercial sugar beet genotypes. For that purpose, two trial series were conducted with 6 sugar beet genotypes in 7 environments across Germany in 2018 and 2019. A screening was performed with 12 commercial genotypes at one site in 2020. Tissue firmness and compressive strength were closely correlated with the puncture resistance of sugar beet roots. The genotype effect was distinctly higher for the texture parameters than for yield and quality parameters, while the genotype by environment interaction was negligible, allowing a selection based on few sites. For both genotype and environment, compression strength was closely related to the relative sugar content of the beets. Commercial genotypes also covered a wide range of tissue strengths. These differences might affect harvest damage, storage losses, and subsequent processing steps in the factory. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved Tissue strength is largely determined by genotype Genotype by environment interaction on tissue strength is negligible Commercial genotypes differ considerably in tissue strength Tissue strength seems to have a causal relation to sugar content
A novel design for a handheld precision penetrometer with control of probe speed, angle and depth of penetration was developed and used to measure the firmness of rose apple and jujube samples. Its performance was compared with two traditional handheld penetrometers used in the produce industry, one with an analog force gauge and the other with a digital force gauge. The prototype instrument had penetration speeds of 4.49, 3.23 and 2.10 mm s⁻¹ when the force resisted at the probe tip were 0, 50 and 100 N, respectively. A performance study involving four human operators showed the prototype instrument performance was superior to either of the traditional penetrometers in terms of measurement precision. For rose apple samples, the range of error in firmness value were 0–9.81 N, 0–7.10 N and 0–1.60 N for traditional analog, manual digital and the prototype instrument, respectively. For jujube samples, the range of error in firmness value were 0–9.81 N, 0.20–10.00 N and 0–2.60 N for traditional analog, manual digital and the prototype instrument, respectively. Comparison in firmness value among four operators by statistical analysis with a paired sample t-test found that the effect of operator on firmness value was significant when measuring firmness on rose apple samples by traditional analog and manual digital instruments. There was no significant influence of operator when measuring firmness on rose apple and jujube samples by the prototype instrument.
Kiwifruit texture or firmness is critical to the commercial handling and eating quality of the fruit, with fruit acceptability based on firmness thresholds. Two aspects of kiwifruit firmness measurement have been investigated: i) the effect of speed of penetrometer probe movement before (approach speed) and during firmness measurement (measurement speed) and ii) a comparison of firmness values derived from compression, impact and acoustic impulse non-destructive measurements compared with a standard penetrometer measurement. Both series of experiments were repeated on fruit from two commercially available cultivars (‘Hayward’ and ‘Zesy002’ – commonly called Gold3). It is concluded that the approach speed did not affect the firmness value obtained, whereas a faster measurement speed increased the firmness value obtained for ‘Hayward’ and Gold3 fruit at <40 N firmness. The use of non-destructive firmness measurement techniques tended to give good overall relationships in line with penetrometer measurements of firmness. However, for any given penetrometer firmness value, it appears that the non-destructive value obtained may depend on when in storage the measurement was made. The cause of the storage-related variability in the relationship requires further investigation of both the biological and physical processes occurring.
Beta vulgaris is a member of the Chenopodiaceae and, like many others in the family is a halophyte. It is a highly variable species containing four main groups of agricultural significance: leaf beets (such as Swiss chard), garden beets (such as beetroot), fodder beets (including mangolds) and sugar beet. These are described in detail in Chapter 1. All groups have a diploid chromosome number of 18, although most current European sugar-beet varieties are triploid hybrids of diploid, male-sterile females and tetraploid pollinators (see Chapter 3). The storage organ of the sugar-beet plant is usually called the root, although only about 90% is actually root-derived, the upper 10% (the crown) being derived from the hypocotyl (Fig. 2.1). Selective breeding and improved agricultural practices have increased the fresh weight concentration of sucrose in the sugar-beet root to around 18%, and the dry weight concentration of sucrose to around 75%.
The term ‘agronomy’ is used in several senses. At a local and technical level it deals with husbandry, concentrating on the current ‘state of the art’. On a world scale it is an umbrella term used to cover the work of scientists from a number of disciplines, including soil science, plant breeding and crop protection. In this chapter it is used to encompass a critical appraisal of sugar-beet production practices against the background of plant and crop physiology and environmental science.
Flesh firmness is a characteristic used to indicate fruit quality. Experimental design and data analysis are important when comparing devices that measure fruit firmness. We compared the Effegi penetrometer operated by hand, mounted in a drill press and then opera ted by hand, and mounted on a motorized drive and operated remotely; the hand-operated EPT pressure tester; the Instron with an Effegi probe; and a hand-operated prototype of the twist tester. Devices varied in operator differences and precision. Comparisons between devices were at the within-fruit level of variability and, therefore, more precise than comparisons where different device-operators used different fruit. We demonstrate statistical methods that are appropriate for making the comparisons of interest and discuss the possible cause of differences between operators and between devices. We also discuss how the mechanical properties of the devices may affect results and consider implications for their practical use. In this study, we found the precision of discrimination between soft and hard apples was best using the lnstron in 1992, while the Instron and hand-held Effegi penetrometer were comparable in 1991. For kiwifruit, the hand-held Effegi penetrometer consistently gave the most precise measurements of softening in 1991, while the twist test was the most precise in 1992.
Three apple (Malus domestica Borkh.) cultivars of various maturity levels and flesh firmness were used to compare firmness readings obtained by three trained operators using Magness-Taylor (MT), Effegi (EF), and Electronic Pressure Tester (EPT) penetrometers. For all cultivars and operators, use of the MT resulted in the lowest mean readings, while use of the EPT operated in the MT testing mode resulted in the highest readings. Operator differences were observed for all instruments except when the electronic tester was used in the default mode. Comparisons between instruments and modes resulted in significantly different firmness readings across operators, except for the comparison of EF vs. EPT in default mode. For most comparisons, firmness variance due to instrument or mode was larger than the variance due to operator. Apple maturity did not significantly alter firmness trends due to instrument or operator. Thus, caution should be used to interpret apple firmness changes of a single lot of apples when several instruments and/or operators are used.
To investigate and control quality, one must be able to measure quality-related attributes. Quality of produce encompasses sensory attributes, nutritive values, chemical constituents, mechanical properties, functional properties and defects. Instrumental measurements are often preferred to sensory evaluations in research and commercial situations because they reduce variations in judgment among individuals and can provide a common language among researchers, industry and consumers. Essentially, electromagnetic (often optical) properties relate to appearance, mechanical properties to texture, and chemical properties to flavor (taste and aroma). Instruments can approximate human judgments by imitating the way people test the product or by measuring fundamental properties and combining those mathematically to categorize the quality. Only people can judge quality, but instruments that measure quality-related attributes are vital for research and for inspection.
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Comparative study of root mechanical properties of four sugar beet cultivars over harvest and storage periods in the conditions of static loads were carried out including determination of some mechanical parameters of beet root skin in two measurement zones within the applicability range of the Hook’s law. Tests concerning the effect of cultivar and measurement zone on tested parameters were performed on a micro tensile tester, Zwick model 1425 in the Department of Agricultural Production Technology. The average values of skin destruction forces were 241.22 254.1 N and 227.4 245.8 N for freshly harvested sugar beet roots and after 45 days of storage, respectively.
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