ArticlePublisher preview available

The Transmission of Gender Stereotypes Through Televised Patterns of Nonverbal Bias

February 2022
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 123(6)

DOI:10.1037/pspi0000390

Authors:

Sarah Ariel Lamer

University of Tennessee

Ashley Morris Biddle

University of Hawaiʻi: Leeward Community College

Kristin Pauker

University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa

Show all 5 authorsHide

One tacit assumption in social psychology is that people learn gender stereotypes from their environments. Yet, little research has examined how such learning might occur: What are the features of social environments that shape people's gender stereotypes? We propose that nonverbal patterns communicate intersubjective gender norms (i.e., what behaviors people value in women and girls vs. men and boys). Furthermore, we propose that children develop intersubjective gender norms in part because they are commonly and consistently exposed to these nonverbal patterns. Across three studies, we tested the hypotheses that (a) children are frequently exposed to a nonverbal pattern of gender-role bias in which people respond more positively to gender-stereotypical than counterstereotypical girls and boys and (b) emotionally perceptive girls extract meaning from this pattern about what behaviors others value in girls (traditionally feminine behavior) and boys (traditionally masculine behavior). Study 1 indicated that characters across 12 popular U.S. children's TV programs exhibited a small, but consistent nonverbal bias favoring gender-stereotypical TV characters. In Study 2, girls (N = 68; 6-10 years) felt more pressure to be feminine after viewing TV clips that included traditional nonverbal bias than after viewing clips that reversed this bias. As predicted, these results held only to the extent that children could accurately decode nonverbal emotion (i.e., were emotionally perceptive). Study 3 replicated these results (N = 91; 6-11 years). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

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The Transmission of Gender Stereotypes Through Televised

Patterns of Nonverbal Bias

Sarah Ariel Lamer

, Paige Dvorak

, Ashley M. Biddle

, Kristin Pauker

, and Max Weisbuch

Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville

Department of Psychology, University of Denver

Department of Psychology, Leeward Community College, University of Hawai‘i

Department of Psychology, University of Hawai‘iatMa¯noa

One tacit assumption in social psychology is that people learn gender stereotypes from their environments.

Yet, little research has examined how such learning might occur: What are the features of social

environments that shape people’s gender stereotypes? We propose that nonverbal patterns communicate

intersubjective gender norms (i.e., what behaviors people value in women and girls vs. men and boys).

Furthermore, we propose that children develop intersubjective gender norms in part because they are

commonly and consistently exposed to these nonverbal patterns. Across three studies, we tested the

hypotheses that (a) children are frequently exposed to a nonverbal pattern of gender-role bias in which

people respond more positively to gender-stereotypical than counterstereotypical girls and boys and

(b) emotionally perceptive girls extract meaning from this pattern about what behaviors others value in

girls (traditionally feminine behavior) and boys (traditionally masculine behavior). Study 1 indicated that

characters across 12 popular U.S. children’s TV programs exhibited a small, but consistent nonverbal bias

favoring gender-stereotypical TV characters. In Study 2, girls (N=68; 6–10 years) felt more pressure to be

feminine after viewing TV clips that included traditional nonverbal bias than after viewing clips that

reversed this bias. As predicted, these results held only to the extent that children could accurately decode

nonverbal emotion (i.e., were emotionally perceptive). Study 3 replicated these results (N=91; 6–11 years).

Keywords: gender stereotyping, socialization, nonverbal behavior, social development,

intersubjective norms

Supplemental materials: https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000390.supp

People around the world expect girls and women to have different

characteristics than boys and men, and scientists often trace differ-

ential treatment to these expectations. Accordingly, there now exist

volumes of research describing the antecedents and consequences of

gender roles: consensual expectations for the behaviors and char-

acteristics of boys and men versus girls and women (Bussey &

Bandura, 1984;Eagly & Steffen, 1984;Halim et al., 2017;Hoyt

et al., 2009;Lamer & Weisbuch, 2019;Plant et al., 2000). Gender

roles may thus be regarded as culturally shared knowledge about

how girls and boys are expected to behave. Psychologists have

focused on how these gender roles impact how individuals think and

behave. Such social inﬂuence assumes that people learn what other

people expect from girls versus boys, not just what they themselves

expect from girls versus boys. Furthermore, people think and behave

in a manner consistent with their consensual expectations, not just

their individual expectations. Yet when scientists have examined

children’s and adults’beliefs about gender roles, they have often

focused on personal endorsement—rather than knowledge—of those

gender roles. In this article, we focus our efforts on identifying the

antecedents and consequences of gender-role knowledge. In particu-

lar, we focus on one kind of gender-role knowledge: intersubjective

norms, or beliefs about what other people believe and value.

A burgeoning literature in cultural psychology suggests that

intersubjective norms uniquely predict individual’s behavior, over

and above those individuals’personal beliefs or values (Chiu et al.,

2010;Shteynberg et al., 2009;Zou et al., 2009). In fact, the inﬂuence

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

This article was published Online First February 21, 2022.

Sarah Ariel Lamer https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3597-0958

Paige Dvorak https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6556-8770

Ashley M. Biddle https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3756-2755

Kristin Pauker https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0848-5159

Max Weisbuch https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6463-4692

This research was supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate

Research Fellowship Program (DGE-1104602) and the APA Division 35 Geis

Memorial Award. All publicly available codes, materials, and preregistrations

can be found here: https://osf.io/yj62x/ (Lamer et al., 2021).

Sarah Ariel Lamer played the lead role in conceptualization, data curation,

formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, project

administration, resources, supervision, visualization, writing of original draft,

and writing of review and editing. Paige Dvorak played a supporting role in

methodology, project administration, resources, and supervision. Ashley M.

Biddle played a supporting role in data curation and supervision. Kristin Pauker

played a supporting role in conceptualization, supervision, and writing of

review and editing. Max Weisbuch played a supporting role in conceptualiza-

tion, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, methodology, re-

sources, supervision, writing of original draft, and writing of review and editing.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Sarah

Ariel Lamer, Department of Psychology, University of Tennessee, Knox-

ville, Austin Peay Building, Knoxville, TN 37996, United States. Email:

slamer@utk.edu

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology:

Interpersonal Relations and Group Processes

ISSN: 0022-3514 https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000390

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Gender stereotypes are widely shared “collective representations” that link gender groups (e.g., male/female) with roles or attributes (e.g., career/family, science/arts). Such collective stereotypes, especially implicit stereotypes, are assumed to be so deeply embedded in society that they are resistant to change. Yet over the past several decades, shifts in real-world gender roles suggest the possibility that gender stereotypes may also have changed alongside such shifts. The current project tests the patterns of recent gender stereotype change using a decade (2007–2018) of continuously collected data from 1.4 million implicit and explicit tests of gender stereotypes (male-science/female-arts, male-career/female-family). Time series analyses revealed that, over just 10 years, both implicit and explicit male-science/female-arts and male-career/female-family stereotypes have shifted toward neutrality, weakening by 13%–19%. Furthermore, these trends were observed across nearly all demographic groups and in all geographic regions of the United States and several other countries, indicating worldwide shifts in collective implicit and explicit gender stereotypes.

The Transmission of Gender Stereotypes Through Televised Patterns of Nonverbal Bias

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