The Phenomenon of Social and Pastoral Service in Eastern Slovakia and Northwestern Czech Republic During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparison of Two Selected Units of Former Czechoslovakia in the Context of the Perspective of Positive Solutions

Abstract

This study seeks to explain the differences in the perception of social and pastoral service after the first and second wave pandemic in 2020 among the inhabitants of two neighbouring states, both parts of the former unified Czechoslovakia. Our research study compares subjective perception, needs, and participation among inhabitants of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic in social and pastoral service during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research sample consisted of a healthy population from the Czech Republic (n = 496) and Slovakia (n = 484) over 16 years of age, of which 63% (n = 617) were women and 37% (n = 363) men. The level of education ranged from primary to postgraduate. The research sample consisted of 623 (63.6%) participants with religious affiliation and 357 (36.4%) without religion. The level of perception, needs, and participation of the participants in social and pastoral service was obtained based on a non-standardised questionnaire. The results of our study confirmed several differences in the areas studied.

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Citation: Maturkaniˇc, P.; ˇ
Cerget’ová,
I.T.; Králik, R.; Hlad, L’.; Roubalová,
M.; Martin, J.G.; Judák, V.; Akimjak,
A.; Petrikoviˇcová, L. The
Phenomenon of Social and Pastoral
Service in Eastern Slovakia and
Northwestern Czech Republic during
the COVID-19 Pandemic:
Comparison of Two Selected Units of
Former Czechoslovakia in the
Context of the Perspective of Positive
Solutions. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public
Health 2022,19, 2480. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042480
Academic Editors: Jayajit
Chakraborty and Gilbert Ramirez
Received: 13 January 2022
Accepted: 16 February 2022
Published: 21 February 2022
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4.0/).
International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
The Phenomenon of Social and Pastoral Service in Eastern
Slovakia and Northwestern Czech Republic during the
COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparison of Two Selected Units of
Former Czechoslovakia in the Context of the Perspective of
Positive Solutions
Patrik Maturkaniˇc 1,2, Ivana Tomanováˇ
Cerget’ová2, Roman Králik 3,4 , L’ubomír Hlad 5, Marie Roubalová6,
Jose Garcia Martin 7, Viliam Judák1, Amantius Akimjak 4and Lucia Petrikoviˇcová8,*
1Faculty of Roman Catholic Theology of Cyril and Methodius, Comenius University Bratislava,
81458 Bratislava, Slovakia; patrikmat@seznam.cz (P.M.); judak1@uniba.sk (V.J.)
2College of Applied Psychology, 41155 Terezín, Czech Republic; cergetova.ivana@gmail.com
3Department of Russian Language, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN),
117198 Moscow, Russia; roman.kralik73@gmail.com
4Department of Social Works, Faculty of Theology, Catholic University in Ružomberok,
03401 Ruzomberok, Slovakia; amantius.akimjak@ku.sk
5Department of Religious Studies, Faculty of Arts, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra,
94901 Nitra, Slovakia; lhlad@ukf.sk
6Department of Biblical and Jewish Studies, Hussite Theological Faculty, Charles University in Prague,
14000 Prague, Czech Republic; marie.roubalova@htf.cuni.cz
7Department of Sociology, Faculty of Political Sciences and Sociology, University of Granada,
18001 Granada, Spain; jgarciamartin@ugr.es
8Department of Geography, Geoinformatics and Regional Development, Faculty of Natural Sciences
and Informatics, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, 94901 Nitra, Slovakia
*Correspondence: lpetrikovicova@ukf.sk; Tel.: +421-37-6408640
Abstract:
This study seeks to explain the differences in the perception of social and pastoral service
after the first and second wave pandemic in 2020 among the inhabitants of two neighbouring states,
both parts of the former unified Czechoslovakia. Our research study compares subjective perception,
needs, and participation among inhabitants of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic
in social and pastoral service during the COVID-19 pandemic. The research sample consisted of a
healthy population from the Czech Republic (n= 496) and Slovakia (n= 484) over 16 years of age,
of which 63% (n= 617) were women and 37% (n= 363) men. The level of education ranged from
primary to postgraduate. The research sample consisted of 623 (63.6%) participants with religious
affiliation and 357 (36.4%) without religion. The level of perception, needs, and participation of the
participants in social and pastoral service was obtained based on a non-standardised questionnaire.
The results of our study confirmed several differences in the areas studied.
Keywords: social and pastoral service; religious affiliation; pandemic situation
1. Introduction
At the end of 2019, the outbreak of COVID-19 occurred, causing severe risks within
the EU associated with discrimination, poverty, and the social exclusion of many sections
of the population [
1
–
5
]. The pandemic paralysed the world and the European economy.
Day by day, many sections of the population have been at risk of poverty and social
exclusion [
6
,
7
]. The countries of former Czechoslovakia did not escape this situation
either [
8
]. Therefore, we can agree with Kondrla et al. that “the need for systematic
social work and community social work is proving to be relevant; all the more so is the
need for social workers who would be willing to bring positive elements into this specific
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042480 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 2 of 16
environment” [
9
]. Relevant topics in the context of this goal appear to be, for example,
social issues about the education and self-education of social workers and social work
assistants, who have found themselves in the middle of a pandemic. The appropriate
ways to “help them strengthen the key competences and basic skills, which stand (and
fall) on an individual’s voluntary commitment, based on a high level of motivation and
proactivity” [
10
]. Thus, we might agree with Ref. [
11
], who pointed out the necessity of
“the formation of educational values (i.e., pragmatic-instrumental perception of a person’s
education), work values (a mixture of optimism and pessimism in assessing the possibility
of finding employment), characteristics of interpersonal interaction (high credit for trust
in other people), general value priorities (for example attitudes towards education) and
so on”. In the context of these ideas, one of the critical topics that we cannot ignore from
a global perspective seems to be media’s influence on social cohesion between people,
which some experts have proven through their research [
12
]. In parallel with these findings,
we examine the consequences of social exclusion, discrimination, or stereotyping, which
happen due to the media [13].
Similarly significant issues seem to concern the “correct balance between human
needs and the carrying capacity of all human needs”, including the carrying capacity of all
human ideas and requirements, of course, in a regional and global context [
14
,
15
]. One of
the critical topics that we cannot ignore from a global perspective is social issues, which
undoubtedly affect every human society [
16
]. After all, the prioritisation of interest in
the weak and vulnerable should show in a balanced, i.e., mature way, so that we are not
indifferent to any level of human suffering and pain, both physical and mental.
Let us look at this problem from a different perspective, flip the coin, and ask about
the positive significance of this constant truth. First, suffering reminds a person of the
vulnerability of their existence, and therefore, in this extraordinary way, they encourage
themselves to plan their life responsibly. The philosophy of various systems shows that this
widespread phenomenon puts man on the plane of a wise, and therefore humble, search
for himself. Let us recall the biblical story that describes Job’s suffering. We can see this
righteous man enduring a series of degrading trials, even the abandonment of God himself,
while remaining faithful to him. His reward is a long and happy life, as lovingly described
in the Old Testament text. The second positive aspect of human suffering can be discovered
in its further anthropological understanding: man’s attitude towards his neighbour. These
are often our sick parents, life partners, and even our children [
17
]. Here is a moment when
we see how helpless we are, even though we have often considered ourselves to be a force
in the world.
On the contrary, this human helplessness should lead us to a compassionate attitude
in befriending others and forgiving things in these most difficult moments that we might
otherwise persist with. We should agree with the statement that human pain sometimes
has literally “served”, that is, it has become the meaning and value of higher goals that
transcend the physical world in the lustre of eschatological immortality, as the Christian
worldview teaches us [18].
In this spirit, we can speak of social and pastoral care, which in the needy person
exceeds professional social and practical help, which is either closely or distantly related
to the faith of the needy, to that of the helper [
19
] or to that of both parties. So, what does
this service mean in connection with the social field? We do not want to look for any
additional element of ordinary parish pastoral care, but above all for personal, humane
accompaniment, wherein with a spirit of respect for mutual freedom we help the needy
manage their life situation in the best and most dignified way. The word “accompaniment”
seems very important. Accompaniment eliminates both manipulation and indifference.
For if we take a person seriously in their completeness, then we cannot separate either their
physical or mental need or their dimension of faith from their life. If we respect the person
in their uniqueness, we respect their path of faith and accompany them on it. We refer here
to the individual care of a person who finds themselves in a non-standard life situation
where they cannot manage it alone and need help. From this encounter, which respects the

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 3 of 16
authenticity of everyone who enters it and its originality, the authenticity of the Christian
service is born.
We must also note that after the coup in 1948, the communist regime systematically
persecuted the church and destroyed its structures. The cruelty of the system was felt
especially by the order. The communist regime tried to build people’s mistrust and hatred
towards everything religious. There has been no religious freedom as we had known it
since 1989, when Czechoslovakia became a free country again [20,21].
Thus, we can come to the idea of pastoral service in social work, which can serve a
person who explicitly believes and those who either do not communicate about matters
of faith or reject this topic, without being indifferent in terms of faith or vice versa. In
this research, social and pastoral service is characterised as an emotional and spiritual
support model that can be found in many cultures and traditions. Our modern context
has described it as an individual and patient model in which trained social and pastoral
carers support people in their pain, loss, and anxiety, and their triumphs, joys, and victories.
Social work was an excuse to push faith and acceptance as a condition for willingness to
take care of the client [
10
]. Social and pastoral service is thus a central research topic, and
initial information about the functioning of society is beginning to emerge [22,23].
2. Materials and Methods
Our research study compares the subjective perception, needs, and participation of
inhabitants in eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic in social and pastoral
service during the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, the level of long-term unemployment
in Slovakia was 6.8%. A total of 56% of the population of Slovakia professed the Roman
Catholic faith in 2021. The level of long-term unemployment in the Czech Republic in 2021
was 3.5%. During the census in Bohemia in 2021, in response to religious belief, 18.7% of
those who filled out the questionnaire declared that they were believers and belonged to a
church or religious society. The respondents without religious faith accounted for more
than two thirds (68.3%) of the respondents. Answering the question on religious belief was
not obligatory; 30.1% of people left it blank, while in the 2011 census, 44.7% left it blank.
The level of long-term unemployment in the Czech Republic in 2021 was 3.5%. During the
census in Bohemia in 2021, in response to religious belief, 18.7% of those who filled out
the questionnaire declared that they were believers and belonged to a church or religious
society. The respondents without religious faith accounted for more than two thirds (68.3%)
of the respondents. Answering the question on religious belief was not obligatory; 30.1% of
people left it blank, while in the 2011 census, 44.7% left it blank.
We obtained data from research participants through an online distributed non-
standardised structured questionnaire with several open and closed questions. In addition,
several socio-demographic issues were included in the inquiry. The primary research
question of this study was: Are there differences in the level of subjective perceptions,
needs, and participation in social and pastoral service between the inhabitants of eastern
Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic? The secondary question in our research was:
Are there differences in the level of subjective perception, needs, and participation in social
and pastoral service in the research sample based on gender, age, level of education, the
size of the municipality in which they live, and religious affiliation? The study aimed to
obtain data on the differences in the research sample that were expected in each area.
The research sample consisted of a healthy Czech and Slovak population, with 50.6%
from Czech Republic (n= 496) and 49.4% from Slovakia (n= 484). The distribution of the
research sample by gender was 63% women (n= 617) and 37% men (n= 363). The research
participants were divided into five age groups. In the group up to 18 years were 12.2%
of participants (n= 120), in the group from 18 to 25 years were 11.5% (n= 113), from 26
to 40 were 19.2% (n= 188), from 41 to 59 were 39.8% (n= 390), and over 60 years were
17.2% (n= 169) of participants. With regard to the level of education attained, the research
sample was focused mainly on university graduates. The study identified 127 people with
basic education (13%), 368 people with secondary and higher vocational education (37.5%),

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 4 of 16
and 485 with university and postgraduate education (49.5%). We divided the research
participants based on their religious affiliation. In total, 63.6% of participants determined
they had an affiliation to religion (n= 623), and 36.4% of participants were without religious
affiliation (n= 357). The participants were also divided based on the size of the municipality
from which they came. A total of 28.4% of the research participants came from a village
(n= 278), 16.5% came from a small town of up to 10,000 inhabitants (n= 162), 32.2% came
from a town of 10,000 to 50,000 (n= 316), 14.0% participants came from a town of 50,000 to
100,000 (n= 137), and 8.9% came from a town of 100,000 inhabitants (n= 87).
The research was carried out in the second quarter of 2021 after the second wave of the
COVID-19 pandemic. The research participants were contacted directly via personalised
mail through the online form. They had the opportunity to forward the questionnaire
to others interested in participating in the research who met the research criteria. The
data were evaluated in the following period with anonymity. Research participants were
asked to answer questions and receive instructions. By completing the questionnaire and
answering all the questions, the participants confirmed their consent to participate in the
survey. No time limit was set during administration.
The collection of the data was carried out anonymously. The data were evaluated using
a statistical program SPSS (Version 23 for Windows, IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). Data were
evaluated using descriptive and inferential statistics, using mean, standard deviation, and
minimum and maximum scores. The results were examined through descriptive statistics,
contingency tables, and a contingency table variability test. The variable independence
test assumes that the random variables X and Y are independent, so the values of one
variable do not affect the values of the other variable. The dependence between variables
can be either one-sided (asymmetric) or mutual (symmetric), where both variables interact.
Pearson’s chi-square test was used to test the independence of two categorical variables
in the PivotTable, regardless of the direction of their dependence. The null hypothesis of
this test assumes that both variables are independent of each other. We tested this null
hypothesis at the determined level of significance
α
, that the variables are independent, as
opposed to the alternative that there is a dependence between the variables. We wrote the
hypotheses as follows:
H0:nij =ni∗nj
n
H1:nij 6=ni∗nj
n
(1)
where n
ij
denotes the frequencies in the PivotTable, i= 1, 2,
. . .
,rdenotes the categories of
the variable X and j= 1, 2, . .. , and sdenotes the categories of the variable Y.
The test criterion χ2is defined as:
χ2=
r
∑
i=1
s
∑
j=1
(nij −n0
ij )2
n0
ij
(2)
where
χ2≈χ2
[(r
−
1) (s
−
1)]. The larger the differences between the categories of the
examined variables, the larger the test criterion χ2.
The prerequisite for using this test is that theoretical frequencies of less than five
observations make up less than 20% of the pivot table fields. Individual categories of
variables can be combined to meet this assumption.
3. Results
We were the first to evaluate data obtained from a healthy Slovak and Czech popula-
tion during the 2021 pandemic based on descriptive statistics. In the following section, we
present frequency tables in bar graphs that describe the research results. In order to answer
our first research question, we divided the research participants according to their place of
residence into the first group of participants from eastern Slovakia and the second group of
participants from north-western Czech Republic.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 5 of 16
The first question we asked the participants regarding their need for social and pastoral
service was as follows: How would you express the percentage of the need for social and
pastoral service in the society in which you live? Participants had the opportunity to choose
from five options differing in percentage (0–10, 11–25, 26–50, 51–75, and 76% and more).
The research results in Figure 1show a different perception of social and pastoral service
needs between the groups compared. As many as 31% of Slovaks subjectively perceived the
need for social and pastoral service during a pandemic at a level above 75%. Compared to
the Czechs, there was a significant difference of opinion of 12% in this case. This difference
is shown in the Czechs in the percentage between 11 and 25%; up to 21% of members of
this group thought that the percentage needed was at this lower level.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17
The first question we asked the participants regarding their need for social and pas-
toral service was as follows: How would you express the percentage of the need for social
and pastoral service in the society in which you live? Participants had the opportunity to
choose from five options differing in percentage (0–10, 11–25, 26–50, 51–75, and 76% and
more). The research results in Figure 1 show a different perception of social and pastoral
service needs between the groups compared. As many as 31% of Slovaks subjectively per-
ceived the need for social and pastoral service during a pandemic at a level above 75%.
Compared to the Czechs, there was a significant difference of opinion of 12% in this case.
This difference is shown in the Czechs in the percentage between 11 and 25%; up to 21%
of members of this group thought that the percentage needed was at this lower level.
Figure 1. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective needs of social and pastoral service
(comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic). Leg-
end: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of eastern
Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the second question, we asked the research participants for their opinion regarding
the target group of social and pastoral service: In your opinion, which group of people
deserves the most “social attention”? Research participants were able to identify several
options: the youngest and most vulnerable (children, adolescents), the seriously ill, the
elderly, socially vulnerable individuals (people addicted to drugs, alcohol, etc.), people
on the margins of society (homeless people), adults in educational correctional facilities
(prisoners), and other groups. From the results shown in Figure 2, we can see no signifi-
cant differences in opinion between the groups. The most endangered group is the young-
est and most vulnerable—young children and adolescents (40% of Slovaks and 39% of
Czechs identified as deserving “social attention”). The groups of the seriously ill (11% of
Slovaks and 16% of Czechs) and seniors (16% of Slovaks and 13% of Czechs) were identi-
fied as the second and third groups requiring “social attention”. These two “social atten-
tion” groups are the only groups in which we recorded subtle differences of opinion be-
tween the surveyed research groups. For the other groups—vulnerable individuals, peo-
ple on the margins of society, prisoners, and others—the answers were very similar in
both research groups. The group of vulnerable individuals was marked by 11% of Slovaks
and 12% of Czechs. People on the margins of society were marked by 10% of both groups.
A total of 8% of Slovaks and 9% of Czechs chose the group “others”, and only a total of
2% of participants considered prisoners to be persons in need of social and pastoral ser-
vice.
Figure 1.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective needs of social and pastoral service
(comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic).
Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of
eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the second question, we asked the research participants for their opinion regarding
the target group of social and pastoral service: In your opinion, which group of people
deserves the most “social attention”? Research participants were able to identify several
options: the youngest and most vulnerable (children, adolescents), the seriously ill, the
elderly, socially vulnerable individuals (people addicted to drugs, alcohol, etc.), people
on the margins of society (homeless people), adults in educational correctional facilities
(prisoners), and other groups. From the results shown in Figure 2, we can see no significant
differences in opinion between the groups. The most endangered group is the youngest
and most vulnerable—young children and adolescents (40% of Slovaks and 39% of Czechs
identified as deserving “social attention”). The groups of the seriously ill (11% of Slovaks
and 16% of Czechs) and seniors (16% of Slovaks and 13% of Czechs) were identified as
the second and third groups requiring “social attention”. These two “social attention”
groups are the only groups in which we recorded subtle differences of opinion between the
surveyed research groups. For the other groups—vulnerable individuals, people on the
margins of society, prisoners, and others—the answers were very similar in both research
groups. The group of vulnerable individuals was marked by 11% of Slovaks and 12% of
Czechs. People on the margins of society were marked by 10% of both groups. A total
of 8% of Slovaks and 9% of Czechs chose the group “others”, and only a total of 2% of
participants considered prisoners to be persons in need of social and pastoral service.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 6 of 16
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17
Figure 2. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of social and pastoral ser-
vice (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic).
Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of east-
ern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
Another question in our research concerned the subjective perception of the reason
for people’s deviant behaviour. The question was as follows: What do you see as the pri-
mary cause in some people’s social-deviating behaviour? Respondents had the oppor-
tunity to choose from the following options: family environment (inappropriate upbring-
ing), media age environment, genetic factor (innate dispositions), school environment (de-
linquent groups of friends), absence of religious influence, and others. From the results
shown in Figure 3, we can see that almost half of all participants (a total of 48% Slovaks
and 49% Czechs) think that the cause of deviant behaviour is an unsuitable family envi-
ronment. Both groups examined were similar in their responses related to several fac-
tors—media age environment (this answer was marked by 17% Slovaks and 16% Czechs),
school environment (answered by 7% Slovaks and 8% Czechs), and others (5% Slovaks
and 9% Czechs chose this option). However, we perceive differences in opinions regard-
ing two possibilities, namely the genetic factor, where only 2% of people from Slovakia
marked this answer and up to 13% from Czech Republic marked it. On the contrary, in
the case of factors related to the absence of religious influence, up to 20% of Slovaks and
only 5% of Czechs indicated this possibility.
Figure 3. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of the reason for people’s
deviant behaviour (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western
Figure 2.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of social and pastoral service
(comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic).
Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of
eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
Another question in our research concerned the subjective perception of the reason for
people’s deviant behaviour. The question was as follows: What do you see as the primary
cause in some people’s social-deviating behaviour? Respondents had the opportunity to
choose from the following options: family environment (inappropriate upbringing), media
age environment, genetic factor (innate dispositions), school environment (delinquent
groups of friends), absence of religious influence, and others. From the results shown in
Figure 3, we can see that almost half of all participants (a total of 48% Slovaks and 49%
Czechs) think that the cause of deviant behaviour is an unsuitable family environment.
Both groups examined were similar in their responses related to several factors—media
age environment (this answer was marked by 17% Slovaks and 16% Czechs), school
environment (answered by 7% Slovaks and 8% Czechs), and others (5% Slovaks and 9%
Czechs chose this option). However, we perceive differences in opinions regarding two
possibilities, namely the genetic factor, where only 2% of people from Slovakia marked
this answer and up to 13% from Czech Republic marked it. On the contrary, in the case of
factors related to the absence of religious influence, up to 20% of Slovaks and only 5% of
Czechs indicated this possibility.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 17
Figure 2. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of social and pastoral ser-
vice (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic).
Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of east-
ern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
Another question in our research concerned the subjective perception of the reason
for people’s deviant behaviour. The question was as follows: What do you see as the pri-
mary cause in some people’s social-deviating behaviour? Respondents had the oppor-
tunity to choose from the following options: family environment (inappropriate upbring-
ing), media age environment, genetic factor (innate dispositions), school environment (de-
linquent groups of friends), absence of religious influence, and others. From the results
shown in Figure 3, we can see that almost half of all participants (a total of 48% Slovaks
and 49% Czechs) think that the cause of deviant behaviour is an unsuitable family envi-
ronment. Both groups examined were similar in their responses related to several fac-
tors—media age environment (this answer was marked by 17% Slovaks and 16% Czechs),
school environment (answered by 7% Slovaks and 8% Czechs), and others (5% Slovaks
and 9% Czechs chose this option). However, we perceive differences in opinions regard-
ing two possibilities, namely the genetic factor, where only 2% of people from Slovakia
marked this answer and up to 13% from Czech Republic marked it. On the contrary, in
the case of factors related to the absence of religious influence, up to 20% of Slovaks and
only 5% of Czechs indicated this possibility.
Figure 3. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of the reason for people’s
deviant behaviour (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western
Figure 3.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of the reason for people’s
deviant behaviour (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western
Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy
population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 7 of 16
The fourth question in our research concerned the subjective perception of the most
effective support for vulnerable groups. We asked: In your opinion, which of these forms
of help is the most effective support for these socially vulnerable people? Research partici-
pants had the opportunity to choose the following forms of assistance: family background,
professional expertise, change of environment (residence, employment, friends, etc.), spiri-
tual assistance based on church institutes, and others. In the answers to this question, we
can see significant differences of opinion in the compared groups (Figure 4). The most
prominent answer was a form of help from the family background. In total, 45% of Slovaks
and 39% of Czechs chose this option. Furthermore, research participants from Slovakia
identified spiritual assistance based on church institutes as the second and third most
crucial form of support (29%), followed by professional expertise (17%). The last were two
forms of assistance at the level of 5%, namely change of environment and others. In the
case of Czech research participants, they identified professional expertise as the second
most important form of assistance (31%). The third most important form was change of
environment (17%), then other ways (7%), and finally, spiritual assistance (only 6%).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17
Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy
population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
The fourth question in our research concerned the subjective perception of the most
effective support for vulnerable groups. We asked: In your opinion, which of these forms
of help is the most effective support for these socially vulnerable people? Research partic-
ipants had the opportunity to choose the following forms of assistance: family back-
ground, professional expertise, change of environment (residence, employment, friends,
etc.), spiritual assistance based on church institutes, and others. In the answers to this
question, we can see significant differences of opinion in the compared groups (Figure 4).
The most prominent answer was a form of help from the family background. In total, 45%
of Slovaks and 39% of Czechs chose this option. Furthermore, research participants from
Slovakia identified spiritual assistance based on church institutes as the second and third
most crucial form of support (29%), followed by professional expertise (17%). The last
were two forms of assistance at the level of 5%, namely change of environment and others.
In the case of Czech research participants, they identified professional expertise as the
second most important form of assistance (31%). The third most important form was
change of environment (17%), then other ways (7%), and finally, spiritual assistance (only
6%).
Figure 4. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of effective support for so-
cially vulnerable people (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-west-
ern Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—
healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
The next question in our research concerned the subjective perception of the role of
religious organisations in the social and pastoral service. We asked: Do religious organi-
sations’ social and pastoral service play a social role in your opinion? Research partici-
pants were able to choose the answers on the scale of importance of the social role from
the following: certainly yes (this area belongs to their priority mission), partly yes (these
activities are also in charge of other organisations), relatively not (I see their mission in
other dimensions of social life), or I do not know. The results in Figure 5 again show dif-
ferences of opinion between the groups. In total, 64% of the surveyed Slovaks perceived
this role of church organisations in part, and 29% clearly as a social role. Among Czechs,
the opinion was significantly different, as 43% perceived the social role of church organi-
sations in social and pastoral service, while 30% perceived it in part. Together, only 6% of
Slovaks surveyed did not have church organisations associated with this social role or
could answer. In the case of Czechs, this cumulatively made up 27% of respondents.
Figure 4.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of effective support for
socially vulnerable people (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-
western Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—
healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
The next question in our research concerned the subjective perception of the role
of religious organisations in the social and pastoral service. We asked: Do religious
organisations’ social and pastoral service play a social role in your opinion? Research
participants were able to choose the answers on the scale of importance of the social role
from the following: certainly yes (this area belongs to their priority mission), partly yes
(these activities are also in charge of other organisations), relatively not (I see their mission
in other dimensions of social life), or I do not know. The results in Figure 5again show
differences of opinion between the groups. In total, 64% of the surveyed Slovaks perceived
this role of church organisations in part, and 29% clearly as a social role. Among Czechs, the
opinion was significantly different, as 43% perceived the social role of church organisations
in social and pastoral service, while 30% perceived it in part. Together, only 6% of Slovaks
surveyed did not have church organisations associated with this social role or could answer.
In the case of Czechs, this cumulatively made up 27% of respondents.

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 8 of 16
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
Figure 5. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of the role of religious or-
ganisations in the social and pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slo-
vakia and north-western Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech
Republic, SK—healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the following question, we asked research participants about the subjective per-
ception of social and pastoral service in their surroundings: Did you notice people in your
neighbourhood who belong to a church institution that actively participated in the social
assistance of others? The answers to this question concerned the perception of activities
in several ways: (1) I noticed concrete actions of the church, (2) I noticed some actions, but
even marginally, (3) I did not notice, (4) I did not notice, and I would not be surprised if
the church remained passive in this matter. The research results shown in Figure 6 show
a different subjective perception of the church’s activities in social and pastoral service in
the target groups studied. In the case of a group of participants from Slovakia, they sig-
nificantly perceived specific activities (63%) or marginally perceived them (23%). A total
of 13% did not notice any activity. Only 1% also rated the church negatively. A total of
26% of the Czech participants in the research noticed the activity of the people in the
church, and 36% partly noticed it. As many as 35% of the participants did not notice any
activity, and 3% also negatively assessed the inactivity of the church.
Figure 6. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of activities in social and
pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech
Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy popu-
lation of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
We also asked about the subjective perception of the quality of service provided:
How would you rate the quality of social and pastoral service in the society in which you
Figure 5.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of the role of religious
organisations in the social and pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern
Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western
Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the following question, we asked research participants about the subjective percep-
tion of social and pastoral service in their surroundings: Did you notice people in your
neighbourhood who belong to a church institution that actively participated in the social
assistance of others? The answers to this question concerned the perception of activities in
several ways: (1) I noticed concrete actions of the church, (2) I noticed some actions, but
even marginally, (3) I did not notice, (4) I did not notice, and I would not be surprised if
the church remained passive in this matter. The research results shown in Figure 6show
a different subjective perception of the church’s activities in social and pastoral service
in the target groups studied. In the case of a group of participants from Slovakia, they
significantly perceived specific activities (63%) or marginally perceived them (23%). A total
of 13% did not notice any activity. Only 1% also rated the church negatively. A total of 26%
of the Czech participants in the research noticed the activity of the people in the church,
and 36% partly noticed it. As many as 35% of the participants did not notice any activity,
and 3% also negatively assessed the inactivity of the church.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 17
Figure 5. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of the role of religious or-
ganisations in the social and pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slo-
vakia and north-western Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech
Republic, SK—healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the following question, we asked research participants about the subjective per-
ception of social and pastoral service in their surroundings: Did you notice people in your
neighbourhood who belong to a church institution that actively participated in the social
assistance of others? The answers to this question concerned the perception of activities
in several ways: (1) I noticed concrete actions of the church, (2) I noticed some actions, but
even marginally, (3) I did not notice, (4) I did not notice, and I would not be surprised if
the church remained passive in this matter. The research results shown in Figure 6 show
a different subjective perception of the church’s activities in social and pastoral service in
the target groups studied. In the case of a group of participants from Slovakia, they sig-
nificantly perceived specific activities (63%) or marginally perceived them (23%). A total
of 13% did not notice any activity. Only 1% also rated the church negatively. A total of
26% of the Czech participants in the research noticed the activity of the people in the
church, and 36% partly noticed it. As many as 35% of the participants did not notice any
activity, and 3% also negatively assessed the inactivity of the church.
Figure 6. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of activities in social and
pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech
Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy popu-
lation of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
We also asked about the subjective perception of the quality of service provided:
How would you rate the quality of social and pastoral service in the society in which you
Figure 6.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of activities in social and
pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech
Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy popula-
tion of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
We also asked about the subjective perception of the quality of service provided: How
would you rate the quality of social and pastoral service in the society in which you live? It

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 9 of 16
was possible to choose from answers on a scale from very good to very poor. The evaluation
of the quality of social and pastoral service was very similar for both groups compared.
A total of 6% of Slovaks and 10% of Czechs rated it as “very good” quality, and 58% of
Slovaks and 64% of Czechs rated it as “rather good”. The quality of service at the “rather
poor” level was assessed by 32% of Slovaks and 25% of Czechs and as “very poor” by 3%
of Slovaks and 1% of Czechs (Figure 7).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
live? It was possible to choose from answers on a scale from very good to very poor. The
evaluation of the quality of social and pastoral service was very similar for both groups
compared. A total of 6% of Slovaks and 10% of Czechs rated it as “very good” quality, and
58% of Slovaks and 64% of Czechs rated it as “rather good”. The quality of service at the
“rather poor” level was assessed by 32% of Slovaks and 25% of Czechs and as “very poor”
by 3% of Slovaks and 1% of Czechs (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of social and pastoral ser-
vice quality (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech
Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy popu-
lation of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the penultimate question, we asked: Should the state, church institutions, or other
associations become more involved in increased funding for this area? Research partici-
pants had to express their agreement with this statement on a 4-point scale. The results of
the research in Figure 8 again show differences of opinion between the compared groups.
The Slovaks perceived the church’s obligation to help people with a 55% absolute agree-
ment rate and a 40% partial agreement rate. In the case of the Czechs, there was 32% ab-
solute agreement and 49% partial agreement with this statement. Up to 16% of Czechs
partially disagreed with this statement.
Figure 8. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of participation of the
church in social and pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and
north-western Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic,
SK—healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the last question, we were interested in the active participation of research partic-
ipants in providing social and pastoral service. Our question was: Do you yourself partic-
ipate in any way in the development and benefits of social service? Research participants
Figure 7.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of social and pastoral service
quality (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic).
Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of
eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the penultimate question, we asked: Should the state, church institutions, or other
associations become more involved in increased funding for this area? Research participants
had to express their agreement with this statement on a 4-point scale. The results of the
research in Figure 8again show differences of opinion between the compared groups. The
Slovaks perceived the church’s obligation to help people with a 55% absolute agreement
rate and a 40% partial agreement rate. In the case of the Czechs, there was 32% absolute
agreement and 49% partial agreement with this statement. Up to 16% of Czechs partially
disagreed with this statement.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17
live? It was possible to choose from answers on a scale from very good to very poor. The
evaluation of the quality of social and pastoral service was very similar for both groups
compared. A total of 6% of Slovaks and 10% of Czechs rated it as “very good” quality, and
58% of Slovaks and 64% of Czechs rated it as “rather good”. The quality of service at the
“rather poor” level was assessed by 32% of Slovaks and 25% of Czechs and as “very poor”
by 3% of Slovaks and 1% of Czechs (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of social and pastoral ser-
vice quality (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech
Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy popu-
lation of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the penultimate question, we asked: Should the state, church institutions, or other
associations become more involved in increased funding for this area? Research partici-
pants had to express their agreement with this statement on a 4-point scale. The results of
the research in Figure 8 again show differences of opinion between the compared groups.
The Slovaks perceived the church’s obligation to help people with a 55% absolute agree-
ment rate and a 40% partial agreement rate. In the case of the Czechs, there was 32% ab-
solute agreement and 49% partial agreement with this statement. Up to 16% of Czechs
partially disagreed with this statement.
Figure 8. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of participation of the
church in social and pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and
north-western Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic,
SK—healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the last question, we were interested in the active participation of research partic-
ipants in providing social and pastoral service. Our question was: Do you yourself partic-
ipate in any way in the development and benefits of social service? Research participants
Figure 8.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ subjective perception of participation of the
church in social and pastoral service (comparison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and
north-western Czech Republic). Legend: CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic,
SK—healthy population of eastern Slovakia. Source: own resource.
In the last question, we were interested in the active participation of research par-
ticipants in providing social and pastoral service. Our question was: Do you yourself

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 10 of 16
participate in any way in the development and benefits of social service? Research partici-
pants had to express their agreement with this statement on a 4-point scale. There are also
differences between research groups on this issue (Figure 9). A total of 17% of Slovaks and
11% of Czechs participated in social and pastoral services. In total, 39% of Slovaks and 28%
of Czechs partially agreed with the statement, 41% of Slovaks and 47% of Czechs disagreed,
and 2% of Slovaks and 13% of Czechs did not participate in these activities.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
had to express their agreement with this statement on a 4-point scale. There are also dif-
ferences between research groups on this issue (Figure 9). A total of 17% of Slovaks and
11% of Czechs participated in social and pastoral services. In total, 39% of Slovaks and
28% of Czechs partially agreed with the statement, 41% of Slovaks and 47% of Czechs
disagreed, and 2% of Slovaks and 13% of Czechs did not participate in these activities.
Figure 9. Descriptive statistics of the participants’ attendance in social and pastoral service (com-
parison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic). Legend:
CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of eastern Slo-
vakia. Source: own resource.
In order to obtain answers to our research question, which concerned differences in
the research sample based on socio-demographic data, we subdivided them based on
these variable participants in the verification of the differences in the individual features.
As a result, this research section presents statistically significant differences calculated us-
ing Pearson’s chi-square test of the independence of variables in the contingency table.
3.1. Comparison of Selected Regions from the Czech Republic and Slovakia
The regions of the Czech Republic and Slovakia differ significantly statistically at the
1% level of significance in all the issues examined, except for the opinions on the quality
of social services in the area. In both groups, respondents mostly answered that the quality
is mostly rather good. Respondents from selected Slovak regions rated the need for social
services with higher percentages than respondents from the Czech Republic (p-value of
Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000). In contrast to respondents from selected regions of the
Czech Republic, respondents significantly more often stated that the social–pastoral ser-
vice of religious organisations undoubtedly has an important social role (p-value of Pear-
son’s chi-square test: 0.000). They were also significantly more likely to report people in
their area who volunteered for a church institution who were involved in the social assis-
tance of others (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000) and were more likely to be
involved in the development and benefit of social services (p—Pearson’s chi-square test
value: 0.000).
3.2. Comparison by City or Village Size
There were statistically significant differences at the 5% level between groups of re-
spondents divided according to the size of the city or village regarding the question about
which form of assistance to socially vulnerable people is most effective (p-value of Pear-
son’s chi-square test: 0.013) and whether social–pastoral service religious organisations
have a social role (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.023). All groups stated that the
Figure 9.
Descriptive statistics of the participants’ attendance in social and pastoral service (com-
parison of the healthy population of eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic). Legend:
CZ—healthy population of north-western Czech Republic, SK—healthy population of eastern Slo-
vakia. Source: own resource.
In order to obtain answers to our research question, which concerned differences in
the research sample based on socio-demographic data, we subdivided them based on these
variable participants in the verification of the differences in the individual features. As a
result, this research section presents statistically significant differences calculated using
Pearson’s chi-square test of the independence of variables in the contingency table.
3.1. Comparison of Selected Regions from the Czech Republic and Slovakia
The regions of the Czech Republic and Slovakia differ significantly statistically at the
1% level of significance in all the issues examined, except for the opinions on the quality of
social services in the area. In both groups, respondents mostly answered that the quality is
mostly rather good. Respondents from selected Slovak regions rated the need for social
services with higher percentages than respondents from the Czech Republic (p-value of
Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000). In contrast to respondents from selected regions of the
Czech Republic, respondents significantly more often stated that the social–pastoral service
of religious organisations undoubtedly has an important social role (p-value of Pearson’s
chi-square test: 0.000). They were also significantly more likely to report people in their
area who volunteered for a church institution who were involved in the social assistance of
others (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000) and were more likely to be involved in
the development and benefit of social services (p—Pearson’s chi-square test value: 0.000).
3.2. Comparison by City or Village Size
There were statistically significant differences at the 5% level between groups of re-
spondents divided according to the size of the city or village regarding the question about
which form of assistance to socially vulnerable people is most effective (p-value of Pearson’s
chi-square test: 0.013) and whether social–pastoral service religious organisations have
a social role (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.023). All groups stated that the most
effective form of helping socially vulnerable people is family background. Respondents
from villages and cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants (the group with the least and

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 11 of 16
most inhabitants) stood out from the other groups. While other groups mentioned profes-
sional expertise in second place, respondents from cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants
and villages cited spiritual assistance based on church institutions as a second option.
Respondents from villages and towns with more than 100,000 inhabitants were also more
likely than other groups to say that the socio-pastoral service of religious organisations
undoubtedly played an important social role and that people in their neighbourhood were
affiliated to some church institution that participated in social assistance to others.
3.3. Comparison by Gender
According to women, the need for social services in society is higher than for men
(p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.025). Women were also more likely to report that the
social–pastoral service of religious organisations undoubtedly plays a significant social role
(p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000). Conversely, men were more likely to report
some form of social assistance to others (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.002).
3.4. Comparison by Age
Regarding the age groups, respondents over 60 stated the highest percentages for
expressing social services in society. On the contrary, respondents under 18 and between 18
and 25 stated (the p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.001) they had the lowest need for
social services in society. According to respondents under 18, socially deviant individuals
(people addicted to drugs, alcohol, psychotic aggression, etc.) deserve the most social
attention (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000). However, people aged 18 and over
often stated that the youngest and most vulnerable (children and adolescents in educational
institutions) deserve the most social attention. Respondents under the age of 25 most often
mentioned professional assistance and respondents from 26 and above mentioned family
background (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000) as the most effective form of help
for socially vulnerable people. Unlike other age groups, most respondents under the age
of 18 did not find people in their area who participated in any church institution that
participated in the social assistance of others (p-value of Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000).
Respondents under 18 were also no less involved in social assistance to others (p-value of
Pearson’s chi-square test: 0.000).
4. Discussion
Our research aimed to obtain data on the differences between two groups of people
who are territorially situated in the former state of Czechoslovakia. The study sought to
point out the differences in the subjective perceptions of people in Central Europe who are
mentally significantly close [
24
–
26
]. The study results related to the research were realised
after the second wave of the pandemic situation of COVID-19. We intended to determine
whether the study participants in eastern Slovakia and north-western Czech Republic
differed in the type and level of subjective perception of need, quality, and participation in
social and pastoral services. In addition, we were able to find differences in the perception
of the church and church organisations and their role in society between different groups
of the population. Therefore, the primary question of our research was to find out the
differences in the level of subjective perceptions, needs, and participation in social and
pastoral service between these two groups. A secondary issue in our research was to
identify differences in the level of subjective perception, needs, and participation in social
and pastoral service in the research sample based on gender, age, level of education, and
the population of place of residence [27].
From the point of view of the importance and needs of social and pastoral services, it
is clear from the research results that Slovaks from eastern Slovakia perceived this to be
important much more subjectively than Czechs. For example, 31% of Slovaks subjectively
perceived the need for social and pastoral service during a pandemic at a level of signif-
icance above 75%. However, compared to the Czechs, there was a significant difference
of opinion of 12% in this case. This difference may be due to the historical events of the

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 12 of 16
individual territories and the individual experiences of the individuals involved in the
research. Prosocial behaviour is related to individual tendencies and the social and cultural
environment [
28
] and is also related to individual tendencies and the context of the social
and cultural environment. Therefore, cultural diversity can foster a positive attitude to-
wards services to people [
29
–
31
]. A multicultural environment [
32
] also positively impacts
on identity development, thus alleviating behavioural problems and protective effects
against violence [33].
Identity development supports the building of the social skills of individuals. Sen-
sitivity to the environment is part of a person’s ability to empathise and observe the
consequences of socio-pathological phenomena in society [
34
,
35
]. Next in our study, the
youngest children and adolescents were perceived by the participants as the most vul-
nerable groups during the pandemic. From the point of view of Slovaks, this group was
marked in 40% of answers, and of Czechs in 39% of answers. For comparison, only 2%
of research participants considered prisoners to be persons in need of social and pastoral
service. This fact may point to the issue of criminal proceedings [
36
] and the social ex-
clusion of this section of the population. Nevertheless, these people are perceived by the
legislation as endangered and risky, and they need to receive attention in the process of
providing social and pastoral services in order to be able to create a quality relationship in
the social environment.
Building a firmly rooted relationship is a socio-psychological process necessary in
creating a family. This process depends on social interactions that are present in every
relationship. Through interactions, a person becomes a socially thinking and socially
affected individual. Maybe this is why the participants in our research perceived family
as key in several areas. Both groups in our research perceived the family environment
as the reason for the emergence of socially deviant behaviour. Our research confirmed
this fact by 48% of the answers of Slovak respondents and 49% of the answers of Czech
respondents. In this part of our research, we identified the first fundamental difference in
the subjectively perceived absence of religious influence between the groups. Relationship
models and attachment patterns begin to take shape in early childhood [
37
]. Many mental
disorders also have their roots during this period. In addition to social deviations, many
mental illnesses have their origins in early childhood and are influenced by family.
An example is schizophrenia, a multisystem impairment of brain function that is
often conditioned by social and genetic factors and associated with a disorganised at-
tachment [
38
]. Anxiety disorders are often associated with anxiety. Dysfunctions of the
emotional regulatory system in affective disorders, such as depression [
39
] or mania, result
from injured relationship interactions during the underlying depressive conflict [
40
,
41
].
Research into the adult population [
42
] points to a connection between perfectionism,
burnout, irrational beliefs [
43
], and the neurotic form of altruism, which is one of the forms
of pathological management of fundamental depressive conflict.
In our study, up to 20% of Slovaks and only 5% of Czechs indicated the importance
of religion, faith, and the church in preventing deviant behaviour. Therefore, we can con-
template what role these areas of human life can play in living an emotionally corrective
experience. The fact is that religious pluralism in European countries has not achieved
the expected weakening of faith. On the contrary, it has been shown to lead to an overall
increase in religiosity. The surprising return of interest in religion, on the other hand, mani-
fested itself in its fate—with the globalisation of the world, the globalisation of religion and
the activity of religious radicalism and fundamentalism increased, which led to a reaction
in the structures of society but also in everyday life and interpersonal relationships [
44
].
The results of the study show that Slovaks perceive spirituality and the church to be more
significant than Czechs. The social situation is significantly influenced by the media, and
our research participants also perceived this fact [12,44].
The differences between the research groups in this area were repeated in another of
our research questions. Again, family background was a dominant factor in possibilities
and support for vulnerable individuals and groups. In the group of Slovaks, 45% of people

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 13 of 16
had this opinion, and in the group of Czechs, 39% of the respondents stated this. However,
the importance of spiritual assistance based on church institutes was identified only by
research participants from Slovakia in the range of 29% of responses (only 6% in Czechs).
Again, cultural and religious differences are evident in the two groups. Additionally,
regarding the social role of religious organisations, as many as 93% of Slovaks in our study
see the church’s role in the social and pastoral service. The church and church organisations
played a significant social role during the pandemic. Many people in the social and pastoral
service profess membership of the church. However, as many as 63% of Slovaks and
only 26% of Czechs noticed specific activities of the church. A total of 35% of research
participants from Czech Republic did not notice any church activity during the pandemic
in the field of social and pastoral service. At the same time, however, the quality of the
services provided was perceived by both groups almost equally.
Helping is an integral part of culture [
45
] and religion in Central Europe [
46
]. Experts
and the general public are interested in why people behave either pro-socially or not in
certain circumstances. Many people place responsibility for pro-social behaviour on others
and avoid it themselves. The diffusion of responsibility [
47
] can be critical in a pandemic
situation saturated with social isolation [
48
]. This isolation is caused by restrictive measures
in individual states, limiting the population’s community activities. More than 55% of
Slovaks and 32% of Czechs in our research had a strong subjective perception of the vital
need for state and church participation in social and pastoral services. Pro-social behaviour
is a complex phenomenon, and it is necessary to realise that part of it is also related to
an individual’s motives. These are relatively permanent preconditions for helping in a
situation that requires it. These characteristics are usually acquired during childhood.
Therefore, it is not appropriate to think that responsibility for providing social and pastoral
service is an institutional matter. Each institution is made up of individual people. The
individual feels a commitment and an obligation to act in a critical situation depending on
whether the act itself supports or, conversely, disproves its fundamental values [49,50].
The problem is connected with the lack of interest in transcendent values, with partial
identification with some truths of faith and moral values. Sometimes, we see so-called
parallel identification in this colourful but erroneous, self-mixed cocktail of our beliefs. Here,
unfortunately, we sometimes see practicing Christians who believe in the resurrection of
Christ, but at the same time enthusiastically complete initiations in reiki, or card divination,
which, however, have the impression that Christians are like them. They lack (and we
also have) the courage to believe in following Christ as D. Bonhoeffer or S. Kierkegaard
did [51–54].
Today has brought various other pitfalls that may be challenges. We have freedom
here, in that no one persecutes us anymore for expressing our religious opinion or faith.
We can build churches and establish nursing homes—hospices, where clergy can serve
the dying or those who need spiritual and social help. However, on the other hand, we
have an economically healthy environment, advanced technologies, along with a high
degree of globalisation that seeks to satisfy material hunger and desire. One thus stands
at “Kierkegaard’s” crossroads “either–or” to be and to live or to have and to own. This
period has shown us all how weak, dependent, and at the same time, without (power) man
is [55,56].
As part of a particular social group and community, people find help from others
daily. The type of help can take various forms, whether a circulating good deed or a risk
to one’s own life for another person’s good. There is human potential for the right to
manage in such cases, a willingness to help [
57
]. Therefore, pro-social behaviour is an
important dimension of social competence [
58
,
59
]. The value of helping is part of personal
well-being [
60
,
61
]. At the same time, a pro-social person feels inner satisfaction from the act
performed. This principle can also be demonstrated in the results of our research. In our
research, more than 56% of Slovaks and 45% of Czechs actively participated in social and
pastoral services during the pandemic. Pro-social behaviour manifests itself in everyday

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,19, 2480 14 of 16
life situations or the dramatic, emotionally demanding moments experienced during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
5. Conclusions
Based on the results of our research, we can conclude that eastern Slovaks subjectively
perceive a higher need for social and pastoral service in the pandemic than north-western
Czechs. At the same time, eastern Slovaks and north-western Czechs do not differ in the
perception of social and pastoral service, and almost all groups refer equally in terms of the
need for “social attention”. Furthermore, we can see that almost half of all participants think
that the cause of deviant behaviour is an unsuitable family environment and also that family
is a key supportive factor in preventing deviant behaviour. The key difference appears
to be the perception of the church and religious organisations in the current activities of
social and pastoral services carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic situation. There
are also differences between these groups in the subjective perception of involving the
church and the state in serving the population. The limitation of this study is based on the
culturally conditioned environment that can be affected by the affiliation of people to the
church. There is also a question about the participants’ motivation in the research, which
can distort our results. Therefore, it would be appropriate to verify the data obtained by
further research using standardised questionnaires, bringing different results in cultural
and psychological disciplines. In conclusion, we would like to recommend our results for
further investigation of cultural, social, individual, psychological, and religious differences
in parts of Slovakia and the Czech Republic or other Central European countries and
possibly in the context of the broader European and non-European context.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualisation, L.P. and I.T. ˇ
C.; methodology, P.M.; software, R.K.; valida-
tion, R.K., M.R. and J.G.M.; formal analysis, A.A.; investigation, L’.H.; resources, L.P.; data curation,
P.M.; writing—original draft preparation, I.T. ˇ
C.; writing—review and editing, V.J.; visualisation, L.P.
and P.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was funded by Scientific Grant Agency VEGA project No 1/0880/21 “Trans-
formation of the Nitra Region in Changing Socioeconomic Conditions with Special Focus to the
Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemics” and with the support of International Scientific Research Project:
Pastoral practice, psychology and philosophical-theological-social fragments in the light of the
21st century (contract number: 010-2021). Cooperation among: Sociedad Hispánica de Amigos de
Kierkegaard (Spain) and College of Applied Psychology in Terezín (Czech Republic), 2021–2022.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement:
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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