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Mentoring and coping self-efficacy as predictors of affective occupational commitment for women in STEM
Abstract
Purpose: Despite an evident increase in the number of women joining STEM majors at universities, recruiting and retaining women in STEM occupations continues to be a major challenge. The aim of this research is to investigate several factors that may enhance the representation of women in STEM fields. Design/Methodology/Approach: We report the results of a questionnaire survey of women (n=375) working in STEM industries who have or had a mentor during their career. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is used to examine the proposed hypotheses. Findings: The results indicate that both mentoring and coping self-efficacy positively influence affective occupational commitment. Coping self-efficacy is also found to partially mediate the relationship between mentoring and affective occupational commitment. Originality: In our study we investigate several factors that may assist in enhancing occupational commitment in STEM industries based on Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). Practical Implications: We recommend that researchers and practitioners give more attention to the potential contribution of mentoring towards the coping self-efficacy and affective occupational
commitment of employees in STEM occupations.
... P. Chen, 2017). People with high-SE work harder and seek professional strategies to achieve their job objectives (Blaique et al., 2022). This intrinsic motivation and proactive approach to career development, emphasised by CCT, leads individuals to engage in behaviours conducive to reaching their intended career goals (Abele and Spurk, 2009;Djourova et al., 2020;Hamzah et al., 2022). ...
... In contrast, high SE is vital for enhancing performance and growth, particularly in understanding CC. Workers with high SE are more motivated to achieve selfactualisation and are willing to learn (Blaique et al., 2022;Schultheiss et al., 2023). Career-related SE significantly impacts career goals, learning, accomplishment and one's workplace effectiveness (Abele and Spurk, 2009;Al-mehsin, 2017). ...
... Adding credence to the claim stated by Ahmad et al. (2019) that positive mental attitude and perseverance increase the odds of success in accomplishing one's objectives. These results align with previous research (Blaique et al., 2022;Djourova et al., 2020;Hamzah et al., 2022), adding to the growing body of evidence that highlights the importance of resilience and determination in achieving career goals. This research has the potential to inform human resource departments on the views of today's workers with regard to their own perception of success, as measured by CC, individual variances in resiliency and perceived levels of SE. ...
Purpose
This study aims to examine how career commitment (CC) affects hospitality employees perceived subjective career success (SCS) using a serial mediation system that uses career resilience (CR) behaviour and self-efficacy (SE) as serial mediators.
Design/methodology/approach
To examine the proposed relationships, a comprehensive theoretical serial mediation model was constructed. The proposed hypotheses were tested on a sample of 316 hospitality employees from India using regression analysis (Process Macro Model 6) with 5,000 bootstrapping at 95% confidence interval.
Findings
The regression analysis confirmed a strong, positive relationship between CC and SCS. It also highlighted a significant indirect effect, involving a serial mediation through CR and SE, demonstrating how CC influences SCS.
Research limitations/implications
Drawing from three prominent theories – career self-determination theory (CSDT), career construction theory (CCT) and the contextual action theory of career development (CATCD), this research underscores the importance of fostering career-committed behaviour among employees and advocating for strategic career development initiatives. Understanding CC elements may help firms retain and encourage individuals, which can boost job satisfaction and performance. Importantly, the results advocate for the implementation of targeted career development strategies and the promotion of career-committed behaviour within hospitality organisations. This, in turn, fosters resilience and competence, ultimately contributing to individual career success and organisational excellence.
Originality/value
A serial mediation model with CR and SE introduces a fresh perspective that, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, has not been extensively explored in previous research examining the relationship between CC and SCS.
... In Jordan, there is a call for the government to make serious commitments to increasing opportunities for girls and young women to study science and technology and to ensure fair employment opportunities to encourage broader female economic participation (Abuluaih, 2015). In the broader MENA context, a study highlighted the need for comprehensive reforms, including political, legislative, and regulatory changes, to achieve better employment, equal opportunities, and empowerment for women in STEM fields (Blaique et al., 2023b). ...
Despite growing efforts to promote gender equity, the underrepresentation of women in STEM disciplines persists, contributing to marked gender disparities and leaving a critical research gap in understanding their impact. This scoping review focuses on the 17 countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, aiming to address this research gap by exploring how gender disparities impact women’s enrolment in higher education and career choices. The review analysed 26 publications from 2014 to 2023, primarily sourced from Scopus database following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. There was a notable increase in publications from 2019 to 2023, with the United Arab Emirates contributing 11 studies. Ten out of 12 countries focused on both higher education and the workforce. Key factors influencing gender disparities included socio-cultural, institutional, and policy-driven factors, in addition to several subfactors. The scoping review aims to enhance the existing international STEM literature by offering insights from this currently underrepresented geographical region. Traditional hierarchies, gender norms, and perceived cultural roles can exclude women from STEM fields and related careers. Recommendations are provided to support women in STEM, aiming to prevent the “leaking pipeline” or “MENA Paradox” to retain more women in these fields.
... Studies in human resource management (HRM), general management, and organisational behaviour/psychology have explored critical elements of women's work and careers, including workplace gender equity and diversity (Fine et al., 2020), women's leadership (Pullen and Vachhani, 2021), and the complexities of achieving work-life balance (WLB) (Lend� ak-Kab� ok, 2022). Extensive research has also examined career progression of women including women's career development (Fouad et al., 2023), self-resigned career plateaus (Farivar et al., 2023), career transitions (Greer and Kirk, 2022), career mentoring programs (Blaique et al., 2023), and ...
Purpose: Although many organisations and governments internationally acknowledge that a diverse workforce is essential for improved decision-making, employee well-being and organisational performance and competitiveness, women with disabilities and their (potential) participation and contributions within organisations continue to be overlooked and under-researched. Examining the careers of women with disabilities through the lens of human resource management (HRM) allows for the development of policies and practices that support their inclusion and progression in the workforce and helps lay the foundation for legislative, institutional and organisational changes that address the unique challenges faced by this cohort.
Design/methodology/approach: We conducted a comprehensive, systematic scoping review that analyses various career-related aspects for women with disabilities across different cultural and geographical contexts internationally. A two-stage review (Stage 1 – Title and abstract screening and Stage 2 – Full-text review) of the extant literature on the careers of women with disabilities yielded 80 relevant empirical articles.
Findings: Our review identified four key career-related themes pertaining to women with disabilities: (1) Educational interventions and support for positive career outcomes of women with disabilities; (2) Workplace discrimination and workplace accessibility of women with disabilities; (3) Factors influencing the career development and advancement of women with disabilities and (4) The role of gender in the career exploration and decision-making processes of women with disabilities.
Originality/value: This systematic scoping review contributes to the nascent scholarly discourse on enhancing career-related outcomes of women with disabilities and offers evidence-based insights to guide future HRM research on the intersection of gender and disability/ies in careers.
... Occupational commitment is a result of, among others, the support of supervisors . In addition, a study by Blaique et al. (2022) found that providing support, opportunities, and challenges can increase occupational commitment. Since servant leaders provide concern and inspiration for their followers, they may be able to increase their followers' occupational commitment. ...
This study identifies the influence of servant leadership on teacher creativity. We considered occupational commitment and work engagement as sequential mediators in the relationship between servant leadership and teacher creativity. This current study uses surveys by distributing questionnaires to teachers at the "X" education foundation in one of the cities in East Java. Hypothesis testing uses partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Our study shows that servant leadership does not directly enhance teacher creativity but rather through occupational commitment and work engagement. This finding contributed to the understanding that servant leadership influences teacher creativity through the sequential mediation of occupational commitment and work engagement. As an implication, the "X" educational foundation needs to choose principals who are able to act as servant leaders. In order to effectively increase teacher creativity, servant leaders must provide support and opportunities for teachers that will boost their commitment to their work. Teachers with high occupational commitment will be more engaged with their work, allowing them to become more creative. In addition, various employee management activities, such as training, recognition, and selecting effective school principals, are needed to increase teachers' commitment, engagement, and creativity.
... By recognising and addressing challenges early in the academic journey, interventions could be developed to foster a supportive and equitable environment, ultimately contributing to increased diversity in STEMM professions (Fagan and Teasdale 2021). The proactive approach is essential for cultivating an environment that encourages the retention and success of women in STEMM disciplines (Blaique et al. 2023). ...
Despite significant progress in gender equality, pervasive gender stereotypes and discrimination persist worldwide. These ingrained perceptions, based on gender, contribute to the disadvantage experienced by women in multiple areas of their lives. This is especially evident in female professionals studying and working within male-dominated fields like Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, and Medicine (STEMM), where the representation of women collectively amounts to less than 17% in Australia. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate how female undergraduate students in STEMM fields conceptualised gender-based stereotypes within their academic programs, and how these experiences shaped their outlook on being women in a field that defies traditional gender norms. Employing an exploratory qualitative approach grounded in the social constructionist, and feminist, perspectives, face-to-face semi-structured interviews were carried out with 13 female undergraduates in STEMM disciplines, aged between 19 and 43, from Australian universities. An inductive reflexive thematic analysis of the data led to the construction of four themes that contribute to the comprehension of how female undergraduates recognise and manage prevalent gender-based stereotypes during the early stages of their professional journeys. Participants recognised their gender and its related traits as a drawback to their presence in STEMM, and felt that these attributes did not align, leading to a sense of academic disadvantage. The prevalence of male supremacy within STEMM was acknowledged as originating from the embedded patriarchal system within these fields, granting undeserved advantages to male undergraduates, enabling them to perpetuate a narrative that solely favours them.
... This aligns with the literature on mentoring. For example, Elliott et al. found that mentoring proved to be vital for women and underrepresented minorities in STEM fields and Engineering coursework that had a focus on entrepreneurship [20] Additionally, Blaique et al. found that mentoring was a key predictor of women and underrepresented groups in STEM fields going into and staying in the STEM workforce [21]. ...
... In a similar vein, studies could also consider exploring other formal mentoring outcomes, such as newcomer-protégés' willingness to become formal mentors. Fourth, we also recommend that additional mediators such as self-efficacy, psychological safety, and psychological contract (Blaique et al., 2023;Haggard, 2012;Lankau et al., 2006) be included in future investigations because such mechanisms may also influence newcomer-protégé attitudes, especially during socialization. Lastly, the results of this study should also be interpreted in light of the blue-collar manufacturing and Chinese contexts. ...
The study proposes and tests a self‐concept‐based perspective for the effects of formal mentoring support on affective organizational commitment (AOC) via multiple mediators. Using time‐lagged multi‐source dyadic data (n = 203), we demonstrate that formal mentoring support significantly influences newcomer–protégés' AOC through an underlying self‐evaluative mechanism indicated by organization‐based self‐esteem (OBSE), even in the presence of a well‐established alternative mediator (perceived organizational support; POS). Moreover, we further demonstrate when or under what circumstances such effects might be attenuated or exaggerated by introducing a salient boundary condition to such a process (i.e., perceived mentor organizational prototypicality). As the findings reveal, by making newcomer–protégés feel good about themselves in the workplace (i.e., perceive self‐value) formal mentoring support can also promote organizational commitment, effects that are likely to be amplified when the formal mentor is perceived to be prototypical of the organization. Thus, bridging the mentoring and socialization literatures, the inclusion of our proposed mediators and moderator and testing their relationships simultaneously not only provides a more nuanced view of the underlying mechanisms through which the effects of formal mentoring support are channeled to influence newcomer–protégés' work attitudes but it offers new theoretical elaboration and contextual understanding that we hope will prompt future research and be of benefit to human resource practitioners. Implications to theory, practice and future research directions are discussed.
... Además, científicas que lideran distintas áreas de investigación destacan la necesidad de mantener diversos mentores a lo largo de las diferentes etapas de la carrera, con los objetivos de construir y establecer una carrera exitosa, hacer frente a las desigualdades relacionadas al techo de cristal, diversificar el liderazgo académico y transformar la toma de decisiones en el ambito científico (Auschra et al., 2022;Blaique et al., 2022). ...
Folleto Informativo del Programa Piloto de Mentorías para Mujeres Científicas.
The Arab region features diverse cultures, varying wealth levels, political stability, and economic conditions; nevertheless, a shared challenge among these countries is the persistent gender inequality in their legal systems and policies. This discrimination manifests in the education system, the workplace, and the private sphere, particularly within the household. Policies aimed at ensuring equal access to education have made progress in specific countries in the region however, cultural norms and traditions have hindered the equality of actual outcomes, specifically concerning the equal opportunity to pursue various career paths (BouJaoude, 2013).This chapter will explore the impact of social and economic factors on student learning outcomes in the Arab context by addressing gender disparities in science education at the school level worldwide.
Career supports play a more critical role in the persistence of engineering students relative to perceived barriers, especially among women engineering students ( Fouad et al., 2016 ). Although vocational research on the academic and career development of women in engineering has grown in recent years in response to longstanding and persistent gender disparities in this field, there is a lack of gender-specific instrumentation to assess the perceived supports among women students. This study developed a 21-item Career Support Scale for Women in Engineering (CSS-WE) to assess the perceived supports of Korean women college students pursuing engineering. Using two independent samples of women engineering students, exploratory ( n = 306) and confirmatory ( n = 309) factor analyses supported a five-factor model of the CSS-WE: instrumental support, inclusive support, emotional support, informational support, and institutional and societal support. The results suggested that CSS-WE scores demonstrated strong internal consistency and construct validity. Implications for practice and future research related to supporting women students in engineering are discussed.
Reverse mentoring, as a recently formed concept, has emerged due to significant shifts in working generations and advancements in information technology. It challenges the traditional foundations of age and organizational hierarchies within the mentoring process. Despite its relevance, limited research exists in this field, primarily focusing on conceptualization and idea design. This research aims to deepen understanding of the mentor's role in reverse mentoring by employing a phenomenological approach, contributing to the existing body of knowledge. Thirteen individuals who formally participated in the reverse mentoring process within three financial information technology companies were selected for in-depth interviews. Data analysis utilized a descriptive phenomenological approach along with the eight-step Colaizzi method. Validation of findings was achieved by referencing the results with the participants. Analysis of interview data led to the identification of thirteen thematic clusters, organized into four themes. The results of this study demonstrate that mentors' experiences in the reverse mentoring process are shaped by two main themes: "role comprehensiveness and inclusiveness " and "experience of transitive emotions," ultimately leading to a "generative and boomerang effect of development." However, these experiences also have a dark side, characterized by the presence of "inhibiting ideas" at the individual, organizational, and cultural levels.
Objective: This study aims at exploring the relationship between the job status of female engineers and the lack of development opportunities in the workplace considering the United Nation’s Social Development Goal number 5 (Gender Equality) and amid sever low representation of women in science, engineering, and technology (SET) industries worldwide. A discussion of the leaky pipeline, a term used by scholars to indicate the progressive decline in the number of women opting the field of SET in the professional practice, is presented (Berry et al., 2022; Kemp, 2021). Method: Quantitative approach was administered in one of the leading universities in Dubai, targeting graduate and postgraduate female students in SET majors. Data analysis was conducted using ANOVA testing. Results: The findings of the research suggest that the job status of female engineers and the lack of development opportunities at the workplace are not related with positive inferences about the progressive evolution that the United Arab Emirates (UAE) is witnessing in terms of gender diversity and inclusion (Alblooshi & May, 2018). Originality/Value: Major governmental initiatives regarding gender equality are represented and discussed. The study provides positive insights related to the under-representation of females in SET sectors and a gateway for future research amid lack of literature pertaining to this subject in the Arab world.
Purpose
The under-representation of women working in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) careers is a persistent problem worldwide. This dilemma is exacerbated by the fact that an insufficient number of women enroll in STEM studies, and a significant proportion of those who do join then opt out of their STEM careers at different points in their lives. The protean attitude emphasizes agentic individual control over one’s career, and thus offers women substantial potential for developing and enhancing career outcomes. Therefore, this study aims to investigate coping self-efficacy as an antecedent and career identity as a consequent of a protean attitude for women working in STEM.
Design/methodology/approach
Using a questionnaire survey, data were collected from 482 women working in STEM in the Middle East region. Multiple regression and bootstrapping methods were used in the analysis of the data.
Findings
The findings indicate that coping self-efficacy positively affects both protean attitude and career identity. The results also show that a protean attitude mediates the relationship between coping self-efficacy and career identity.
Practical implications
This research presents organizational management and government policy recommendations aimed at increasing the recruitment and retention of women in STEM careers.
Originality/value
The study addresses some of the main challenges related to identifying antecedents and outcomes of protean attitude.
Purpose
Despite continuing under-representation of women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields, the literature still falls short on identifying and explaining the factors that could contribute to women's persistence and commitment. The purpose of this research is to identify cognitive and behavioral factors that will support the occupational commitment of women in STEM.
Design/methodology/approach
Quantitative analysis is based on a questionnaire survey of 375 women working in STEM in the Middle East region. Multiple regression and bootstrapping methods were employed in the analysis of the data.
Findings
The results support the following hypotheses: personal skills development has a positive impact on affective occupational commitment and coping self-efficacy, and coping self-efficacy mediates the relationship between personal skills development and affective occupational commitment.
Originality/value
This study adds insights on the dynamic approaches adopted by women in STEM fields to overcome occupational career challenges by testing several internal drivers, coping self-efficacy and personal learning.
How can the interweaving of knowledge silos help to engage girls who are becoming disinterested in science? This study describes how convergence points in research practices within the fields of art and science can mitigate gender stereotypes associated with the STEM field. A case study of four women working at the intersection of art and science revealed common aspects of their practices: an appreciation of the natural world, a sense of aesthetics, a drawing practice and a reliance on meaningful research questions, suggesting that these can act as bridges between both fields of study. Keywords: Arts; Education; Art-science; STEM; STEAM; Leaky pipeline; Gender; Motivation; Stereotype threat; Self-efficacy; Transdisciplinarity; Nature; Drawing; Aesthetics. Résumé : Comment l’interrelation des réservoirs de connaissance peut-elle contribuer à motiver les jeunes femmes qui se désintéressent de la science ? Cette étude relate comment les points de convergence des diverses pratiques de recherche dans le domaine des arts et de la science peuvent atténuer les stéréotypes de genre associés à la filière STIM. L’étude du cas de quatre femmes œuvrant au point de convergence de l’art et de la science a mis en évidence les aspects communs de leurs pratiques : l’appréciation du monde naturel, un sens de l’esthétique, une pratique du dessin et l’utilisation de questions de recherche pertinentes, ce qui laisse supposer certains ponts entre ces deux domaines d’étude. Mots-clés : arts, éducation, science et art, STIM, STIAM, tuyau percé, genre, motivation, menace du stéréotype, auto-efficacité, transdisciplinarité, nature, dessin, esthétique.
The under‐representation of women employed in Science, Engineering and Technology (SET) industries is a long‐term problem for human resource management. We report the results of a qualitative research study designed to investigate the factors that positively influence women's retention and occupational commitment within the MENA region. The data are based on 40 semi‐structured interviews of women employed in SET occupations. The results reveal that self‐directed attitudes (coping self‐efficacy, protean attitude and professional identity) and contextual support (mentoring and the quality of the mentoring relationship) positively influence women's occupational commitment in jobs in SET. Our contributions to academic research on HRM and HRD include the important role that the psychological functions of mentoring play in OCC. In terms of the contribution to practice, we propose that professional HRM institutes and associations could contribute by launching campaigns to promote greater organisational awareness of the potential of mentoring for retaining women in SET.
Women remain poorly represented in the highest positions in academia, despite their increasing participation. This article seeks to understand how women who have reached senior occupational positions in Higher Education Institutions have navigated their organisational and disciplinary settings. In the process we explore how experiences compare across male and female-dominated spaces, integrating field theory with Acker’s work on ‘gendered organisations’ to develop the idea of academic disciplines as ‘gendered spaces’. Empirically we draw upon a qualitative study of women professors working across science, technology, engineering, maths and medicine (STEMM) and non-STEMM disciplines in a large research-intensive university in the UK. Utilising Bourdieu’s concept of ‘the game’, we show how they navigate the academic game within the context of differing ‘gendered spaces’; complicit in the game yet recognising it as unfair, and thus (inadvertently) reproducing gendered structures and practices.
Middle East Region is home to more than 400 million people, representing 5% of world population, and boasts aworkforce of 103 million scattered across 22 countries (Lord, 2016). Sixty five percent of the populations are youngaged 25 or under, which puts growing stress on educational, health and social systems. Over the last decade, mostMiddle East countries put into action many reforms for women’s rights and sensitivity toward gender issues. Currently,almost all Middle East countries have ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination againstWomen (CEDAW). Many nations in the Region shown strong commitment to uplift education and make themaccessible to all eligible women. There was also substantial increase in the allocation of funds for education in nearlyall Middle East nations. For a balanced national development, women are needed in the various areas where theirfunctions are most suitable. In principle, there are equal opportunities for both genders but social perception andprejudice determine which types of employment are particularly suitable for women or men. Several renowned MiddleEastern women are Physicians, Chemist, Physicist, Engineers, Doctors, Judges, Lawyers, Journalist, Poets, Novelistand even Legislatives (Islam, 2017)
Purpose
Although the mental health status of doctoral students deserves attention, few scholars have paid attention to factors related to their mental health problems. We aimed to investigate the prevalence of depression and anxiety in doctoral students and examine possible associated factors. We further aimed to assess whether mentoring relationships mediate the association between research self-efficacy and depression/anxiety.
Methods
A cross-sectional study was conducted among 325 doctoral students in a medical university. The Patient Health Questionnaire 9 and Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7 scale were used to assess depression and anxiety. The Research Self-Efficacy Scale was used to measure perceived ability to fulfill various research-related activities. The Advisory Working Alliance Inventory-student version was used to assess mentoring relationships. Linear hierarchical regression analyses were performed to determine if any factors were significantly associated with depression and anxiety. Asymptotic and resampling methods were used to examine whether mentoring played a mediating role.
Results
Approximately 23.7% of participants showed signs of depression, and 20.0% showed signs of anxiety. Grade in school was associated with the degree of depression. The frequency of meeting with a mentor, difficulty in doctoral article publication, and difficulty in balancing work–family–doctoral program was associated with both the level of depression and anxiety. Moreover, research self-efficacy and mentoring relationships had negative relationships with levels of depression and anxiety. We also found that mentoring relationships mediated the correlation between research self-efficacy and depression/anxiety.
Conclusion
The findings suggest that educational experts should pay close attention to the mental health of doctoral students. Active strategies and interventions that promote research self-efficacy and mentoring relationships might be beneficial in preventing or reducing depression and anxiety.
Masculine work contexts form an important source of social identity threat for working women. But what aspect of masculine work contexts is most threatening to women’s gender identity at work: A numerical majority of male colleagues (i.e., numerical male dominance), working in a profession in which women are negatively stereotyped (i.e., normative male dominance), or the combination? The current study aimed to disentangle these two aspects of masculine work contexts by testing its combined impact on the experience of gender identity threat among women and men who work in the STEM sector (i.e., Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics). A field study was conducted among women (N = 177) and men (N = 630) graduates holding an academic degree in a STEM educational program. Respondents either worked in- or outside the STEM sector (i.e., stronger vs. weaker gender stereotype) and estimated the ratio of men to women in their direct work environment. Results from a Structural Equation Model demonstrated that women in STEM face double trouble: The combination of working almost solely with male colleagues (being outnumbered) and working in the technical sector (where women are negatively stereotyped) predicted the highest levels of experienced gender identity threat, particularly among women who highly identified with their gender group. Gender identity threat, in turn, negatively predicted women’s work engagement and career confidence. Men did not face double trouble: Their experience of gender identity threat was not related to working in a masculine STEM sector. Importantly, considering that the women in this sample already hold a degree in STEM, and have proven their competence in STEM and resilience to gender stereotypes, this research reveals how in naturalistic work settings, prevailing social identity threats continue to affect women’s professional careers.
The transition from high school to college is an important choice point for the pursuit of physical science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (pSTEM) career paths, with students in the United States switching from course selection that is proscribed by state graduation requirements in high school to choosing classes and paths of study more freely in college. Here two studies examine whether social factors identified to inhibit interest in pSTEM within college students similarly affect high school students, and in particular whether these factors could contribute to gender differences in interest in pursuing pSTEM. We find a lower sense of social and ability belonging and lower self-efficacy among female than male high school students pursuing pSTEM classes. In addition, for females but not males, social belonging significantly predicts intentions to continue to pursue pSTEM, highlighting the importance of considering whether low social belonging inhibits intentions to pursue pSTEM for female but not male students. We also find that perceptions of pSTEM fields as requiring innate brilliance more than hard work selectively discourage female students from intending to further pursue pSTEM. Together the studies highlight the potential impact of both subjective self-perceptions and perceptions about pSTEM fields on students’ interest in pSTEM and further identify processes that may selectively dissuade high school females from pursuing pSTEM career paths relative to males.
Purpose
– The purpose of this paper is to fill a gap in the literature on women who work in the Arab Muslim context, reflecting on the experience of Saudi Arabia.
Design/methodology/approach
– A sample of 301 male participants completed the newly developed multidimensional aversion to women who work scale (MAWWWS).
Findings
– The paper reveals that Saudi males report very traditional attitudes towards working females. Moreover, the single, unemployed, young and educated Saudi males report less traditional attitudes towards working females compared with married, employed, old, and less educated ones. Age was found to the most important predictor of the males' attitudes towards working females.
Originality/value
– The paper contributes to the knowledge in several grounds. First, it validates the MAWWW scale in a Muslim Arab country, Saudi Arabia. Second, it contributes to the knowledge of the topic of women's employment in Saudi Arabia, which is understudied in academia.
This study evaluated whether a career group intervention that incorporates the four sources of self-efficacy and addresses perceived career barriers is effective at improving the career decision self-efficacy and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) self-efficacy for adolescent girls. Of the 88 girls in our study, 42 students were Latina and 46 were White, 40 were freshman, and 48 were sophomores attending the same high school. From this sample, 44 of these girls participated in a 9-week treatment group. Using repeated measures analysis of covariance with ethnicity and grade as covariates, results indicated that, compared with the control group (n = 44), participants in the treatment group improved significantly on variables of career decision self-efficacy and STEM self-efficacy and increased those gains at 3-month follow-up. The discussion focuses on implications for career counseling, limitations of the study, and future research.
Purpose
One of the main goals of entrepreneurial mentoring programs is to strengthen the mentees’ self-efficacy. However, the conditions in which entrepreneurial self-efficacy is developed through mentoring are not yet fully explored. This article tests the combined effects of mentee’s learning goal orientation and perceived similarity with the mentor and demonstrates the role of these two variables in mentoring relationships.
Design
The current study is based on a sample of three hundred and sixty (360) novice Canadian entrepreneurs who completed an online questionnaire. We used a cross-sectional analysis as research design.
Findings
Findings indicate that the development of entrepreneurial self-efficacy (ESE) is optimal when mentees present low levels of learning goal orientation (LGO) and perceive high similarities between their mentor and themselves. Mentees with high LGO decreased their level of ESE with more in-depth mentoring received.
Limitation
This study investigated a formal mentoring program with volunteer (unpaid) mentors. Generalization to informal mentoring relationships needs to be tested.
Practical implication/value
The study shows that, in order to effectively develop self-efficacy in a mentoring situation, learning goal orientation (LGO) should be taken into account. Mentors can be trained to modify mentees’ LGO to increase their impact on this mindset and mentees’ entrepreneurial self-efficacy.
Originality/value
This is the first empirical study that demonstrates the effects of mentoring on entrepreneurial self-efficacy and reveals a triple moderating effect of LGO and perceived similarity in mentoring relationships.
Purpose
Much of the literature identifies the positive nature of role models in career progression. The purpose of this paper is to take the contrary perspective and explore whether role-modelling behaviour of senior female managers can be unintentionally interpreted as negative, with an associated negative impact on career progression decisions of female managers.
Design/methodology/approach
To address this issue the authors took a grounded theory approach and 30 in-depth interviews were conducted with female middle-level managers in a wide range of Irish organisations.
Findings
The results of the interviews illustrate that role-modelling behaviour has the potential to negatively, rather than positively affect female career progression choices.
Practical implications
The unintended consequences of role-modelling behaviour of senior female managers highlights both the concept of negative role-modelling behaviour and identifies its impact on female managerial career progression.
Originality/value
This paper offers new insights into the construction of the global role model by introducing two new elements – the realistic role model and the departed role model.
Correction to: Palgrave Communications (2017) 3, Article number: 16103. doi: 10.1057/palcomms.2016.103; Published 10 January 2017; Updated 19 January 2017 Previously the volume number given for the citation in the Additional Information section of this paper was incorrectly given as volume 2. This has now been corrected to volume 3.
Women are more likely to leave science, technology, engineering, and mathematics compared to men, in part because they lack similar role models such as peers, teaching assistants, and instructors. We examined the effect of a brief, scalable online intervention that consisted of a letter from a female role model who normalized concerns about belonging, presented time spent on academics as an investment, and exemplified overcoming challenges on academic performance and persistence. The intervention was implemented in introductory psychology (Study 1, N = 258) and chemistry (Study 2, N = 68) courses. Relative to the control group, the intervention group had higher grades and lower failing and withdrawal rates.
Working women in the Arab world have been suffering from significant problems in their participation and economic/organizational well-being. Statistics point to the fact that the gap between males and females is significant in terms of pay and participation rates. Some cultural and institutional factors that could be responsible –at least partially- for such deficiencies are explored. We argue, however, that there is still room for cautious optimism in relation to the future status of working women. Gradual, though slow, positive changes are indeed happening in Arab contexts. Moreover, a growing discourse within religious circles seems to be more welcoming of fair opportunity and treatment of working women. Changes at the political level (Arab Spring), with their aspiration to secure more freedoms to disadvantaged societal classes, would also help to support women’s causes. There is still a danger that if the Arab Spring loses its initial course and old (or new) dictatorships emerge again, this will be a setback, not only for whole societies yearning for greater freedoms, but also for women’s rise in Arab societies.
We examined how future time perspective (FTP) is related to the career-related variables of occupational self-efficacy, career commitment, and organizational commitment, and how it indirectly influences turnover intention. Full-time employees (N = 555) in a wide range of industries participated in this research. We used structural equation modeling and the biased-corrected bootstrapping method of testing for mediation to analyze the data. Results showed that FTP had a direct effect on occupational self-efficacy and career commitment and an indirect effect on turnover intention through the mediators of occupational self-efficacy and career commitment. Occupational self-efficacy indirectly influenced turnover intention through the mediators of career commitment and organizational commitment. Implications of FTP in the field of human resources are discussed.
This study aims to assess the perceived facilitators and barriers of high profile Arab women executives throughout their careers. A questionnaire was administered to 99 women executives from Kuwait, Tunisia and Sudan. These countries capture some of the diversity of women’s opportunities and challenges in the Arab region. The findings of the three samples were essentially similar and generally support Western findings barring the impact of patriarchy. The main career facilitators were self-efficacy, hard work and social support. The main barriers were lack of culture-fit and exclusion from networks. Compared to Western findings, the present sample assigned more importance to lack of culture-fit and less importance to work/family conflict and lack of mentoring as barriers. The findings were discussed within the Arab sociopolitical context. Given the scarcity of research on the careers of Arab women and paucity of Arab research with regional perspective, the value added of this research is addressing the literature gap.
Identification is integral to mentoring relationships, yet we know relatively little about the process through which mentors and protégésprot´protégprotég´protégés identify with each other, how this mutual identification shifts through the phases of the mentoring relationship, and how identification impacts the quality of the relationship over time. In this article we integrate theories of the self, relationships, and relational mentoring to consider the role of identification in informal mentoring. Specifically, we theorize how the process of personal identification occurs in mentoring from the perspective of both the mentor and protégéprot´protégprotég´protégé and offer a model that demonstrates how shifts in identification relate to the quality of the relationship that develops over time. We conclude with a discussion of implications for research and theory in mentoring.
Linkages between a global measure of mentoring experiences, gender, and four outcome variables were investigated. Also, the moderating effects of gender were examined to determine whether mentoring is differentially associated with career outcomes for men and women. Business school graduates (147 women and 173 men) provided information about their backgrounds, companies, positions, mentoring practices, compensation, and compensation satisfaction. Individuals experiencing extensive mentoring relationships reported receiving more promotions, had higher incomes, and were more satisfied with their pay and benefits than individuals experiencing less extensive mentoring relationships. There were no gender differences with regard to the frequency of mentoring activities, and gender did not moderate mentoring-outcome relationships. The results are discussed within the context of a $7,990 income difference between men and women.
Recent studies in industrialized economies document a shift in gender composition of the labor market. They report an increase in the amount of women entering the labor force and in the number securing top-level positions in organizations (Jacobs, 1992; Kanter, 1977; Reskin & Roos, 1990). In professional labor markets, organizations' efforts to hire and promote women to senior ranks have assisted gender equality, but top-ranking male professionals still outnumber women professionals across many high-status professional sectors. This social phenomenon prevails in most professions and organizational forms, including professional service firms. Gender stratification, for example, within the legal profession is very apparent, producing income differences that are more substantial than that exists in the total labor force (Hagan, 1990).
This paper proposes using social capital theory to examine the influences of gender in professional service firms. Moving beyond the intra-organizational perspective, we argue for the significance of network structures that extend across organizational boundaries. We focus specifically on gender differences in network relationships with clients and on the structural nature of the professional's social capital. We advance four propositions for future research on how individuals' network structures influence the attainment of higher income and status position in the firm. Finally, we make some suggestions on what individuals and professional service firms can do to promote more gender equality.
http://www.advancingwomen.com/awl/spring2007/suseno.htm
This book integrates the role of gender in girls’ and women’s development across the life span, looking specifically at internal and external vulnerabilities and risks, and the protective or supportive factors that facilitate effective coping, positive growth, strength, and resilience. The interaction between physical, psychological, and cultural factors is integrated within each period of development. The book emphasizes how gender socialization of female development and behavior impacts both self-evaluation and identity processes within various cultural groups. The book also discusses the social roles that girls and women reflectively adopt. Lastly, it recognizes that externally induced risks such as poverty, interpersonal abuse, and violence present challenges to healthy development.CAROL D. GOODHEART.
Social cognitive career theory (SCCT) was introduced 25 years ago. The theory originally included three interrelated models of (a) career and academic interest development, (b) choice-making, and (c) performance. It was later expanded to include two additional models, one focusing on educational and occupational satisfaction, or well-being, and the other emphasizing the process of career self-management over the life span. On this, the silver anniversary of SCCT, we consider the progress made in studying these two most recent models. In addition to reviewing existing findings, we cite promising directions for future research and application. Examples include additional study of model combinations that may shed greater light on choice persistence, possibilities for using the self-management model to study aspects of career development that are relevant to other theories, and the importance of theory-guided applications to aid preparation for, and coping with, uncertainties in the future world of work.
Purpose
The study aims to explore the factors that influence Emirati women's career choice in the UAE. This study contributes to the influence of context in career choices by investigating how Emirati women chose information technology (IT) as a profession through the lens of the social cognitive career theory.
Design/methodology/approach
This study undertook in-depth interviews with 21 Emirati women working in technology in the UAE. The study considers women's career choices at three levels, i.e. from an individual, organisational and national context perspective.
Findings
The key findings include identifying the importance of national context in influencing career choices among other factors such as family centrality, desire to be seen as a role model, company reputation and government policy.
Practical implications
The study has wider implications for women's career choices in other contexts. The findings highlight the challenges women face, such as a lack of role models and family centrality, which need to be considered in recruitment policies and practices in other national contexts.
Originality/value
The originality of the study is its contribution to the literature developing understanding of the influences on women's career choices in the Emirates. While previous studies have identified the role of patriarchal influence on women's careers, we have less understanding of the importance attributed to individual factors such as being perceived as a role model within their family and to society. Similarly, the literature provides limited evidence of the influence of factors such as government sponsorship and company reputation.
Recent research has verified the claim that high school and college students perceive a variety of career‐related barriers. Lent, Brown, and Hackett's (1994, 1996) social cognitive career theory and Weiner's (1979, 1985, 1986) attribution theory are useful approaches to increase understanding of the role that perceived barriers play in career development. This article presents a brief overview of the primary components of each theory as they relate to career‐related barriers, discusses counseling implications associated with each approach, and provides ideas for future research to explore the utility of these theories in explaining career‐related barriers.
While women comprise over half of all undergraduate students in the United States, they account for less than one-third of economics majors. From there, the proportion of women at each stage of the academic tenure track continues to decrease, creating a “leaky pipeline.” In this paper, I provide a toolkit of interventions that could be implemented by individuals, organizations, or academic units who are working to attract and retain women students and faculty at each stage of this pipeline. I focus on smaller-scale, targeted interventions that have been evaluated in a way that allows for the credible estimation of causal effects.
Drawing from Career Construction Theory (Savickas, 2013) and Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986), we examine role modeling as a socialization mechanism that facilitates the transmission of career adaptability across generations. The proposed serial mediation model was tested using 187 grandparent-parent-grandchild triads. Results showed that role modeling mediated the relationships between grandparents', parents', and grandchildren's career adaptability. Furthermore, we found support for the full serial mediation model where grandparents' career adaptability indirectly predicted granchildren's career adaptability via parents' career adaptability and role modeling. Our results advance our understanding of the psychosocial nature of career adaptability. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
This study advances research on high‐commitment work systems (HCWSs) and organizational innovation by examining how the configuration of middle managers' work–family issues (i.e., work–family conflict and work climate for sharing family concerns) shape the relationship between HCWSs and innovation performance. Using a matched sample of senior management team members, middle managers, and frontline employees from 113 Chinese manufacturing firms and two waves of survey, we found that HCWSs are associated with enhanced levels of middle managers' innovative behavior, an association that improves innovation performance. The results also show that high levels of work–family conflict weaken the relationship between HCWSs and innovative behavior, but can be attenuated when a work climate better facilitates the sharing of family concerns. The study contributes to the knowledge of the role of HCWSs and contextual conditions of their effects in enhancing organizational innovation performance, with specific implications for the Chinese context.
Engineering is often described as an enduring bastion of masculine culture where women experience marginality. Using diaries from undergraduate engineering students at four universities, the authors explore women’s interpretations of their status within the profession. The authors’ findings show that women recognize their marginality, providing clear and strong criticisms of their experiences. But these criticisms remain isolated and muted; they coalesce neither into broader organizational or institutional criticisms of engineering, nor into calls for change. Instead, their criticisms are interpreted through two values central to engineering culture: meritocracy and individualism. Despite their direct experiences with sexism, respondents typically embrace these values as ideological justifications of the existing distributions of status and reward in engineering and come to view engineering’s nonmeritocratic system as meritocratic. The unquestioned presumption of meritocracy and the invisibility of its muting effects on critiques resembles not hegemonic masculinity—for these women proudly celebrate their femininity—but a hegemony of meritocratic ideology. The authors conclude that engineering education successfully turns potential critics into agents of cultural reproduction. This article contributes to ongoing debates concerning diversity in STEM professions by showing how professional culture can contribute to more general patterns of token behavior—thus identifying mechanisms of cultural reproduction that thwart institutional change.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explore a new mentoring and advocacy-networking paradigm sponsored by the National Science Foundation (15-7680) Office for Broadening Participation in Engineering in the USA. The Increasing Minority Presence within Academia through Continuous Training (IMPACT) program pairs underrepresented minority (URM) faculty with emeriti faculty in engineering for career mentorship.
Design/methodology/approach
Researchers utilized a phenomenological qualitative research design to explore the influence of the three domains of the mentoring and advocacy-networking paradigm (career development, sponsorship, and coaching) through participant interviews of URM and emeriti faculty. Interviews, grounded by Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT), offered an in-depth understanding of the nature, meaning, and ways in which the IMPACT participants perceived the value of the mentoring experience.
Findings
Phenomenological findings suggest mentees viewed IMPACT participation as a means for career progression, and mentors saw it as an opportunity to “give back” to the engineering field. Neither believed cultural or generational gaps would hamper their mentoring relationships, as their shared academic interests would facilitate a bridge for any gaps.
Research limitations/implications
This paper identifies new questions related to the expectations and interests of both mentors and mentees who are engaged in a mentoring relationship. A longitudinal approach would offer deeper insight into mentoring as the relationship persists over time.
Originality/value
Evidence at this stage indicates that the IMPACT program has the potential to contribute to the career progression of URM faculty through the inclusion of an often overlooked resource of emeriti faculty.
Past research has largely ignored the role of contextual factors in the relationships between supervisory mentoring and individual and organizational outcomes. In order to fill this void, we investigate how job scope and career and development opportunities, two critical contextual factors, moderate the supervisory mentoring-affective commitment-turnover links. Integrating social exchange theory with insights from situational approaches to leadership, we hypothesized that (a) job scope would interact with supervisory mentoring in predicting affective commitment and (b) career and development opportunities would interact with affective commitment in predicting turnover such that the conditional effects of supervisory mentoring on turnover would be stronger at high levels of these contextual moderators. Results of a study conducted with a sample of 228 business alumni, using 15-month voluntary turnover as outcome, supported our predictions. We discuss the implications of these findings for mentoring research and practice.
Despite social cognitive and cultural barriers, women continue to consider and declare science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) majors. Research suggests that both self-efficacy and interest are necessary to approach a career goal; however, women in STEM report lower interest and confidence compared to their male counterparts. Using integrative career profiles of 448 potential and declared STEM majors, we investigated Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional thresholds of self-efficacy and interest among women and men using the career and personality assessments integrative online system. Results indicated gender as a moderator for the Realistic threshold, where women have a lower threshold for approaching and declaring a STEM major compared with men. Women in this sample showed similar levels of Investigative self-efficacy and interests compared with men. This study adds to prior literature investigating people–thing orientations among men and women in STEM. These results may be utilized in broadening female participation in STEM and alleviating underrepresentation.
The following paper discusses exploratory factor analysis and gives an overview of the statistical technique and how it is used in various research designs and applications. A basic outline of how the technique works and its criteria, including its main assumptions are discussed as well as when it should be used. Mathematical theories are explored to enlighten students on how exploratory factor analysis works, an example of how to run an exploratory factor analysis on SPSS is given, and finally a section on how to write up the results is provided. This will allow readers to develop a better understanding of when to employ factor analysis and how to interpret the tables and graphs in the output.
This paper traces the workplace practices within which mid-career women faculty in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) carry out their careers. Findings from this case study of 25 faculty at one research university revealed three institutional processes that constrained their careers: (a) access to and integration into career networks; (b) distribution of labor in the department and institution; and (c) promotion and leadership. Using Acker’s (1990, 2012) theory of gendered organizations and subtexts I uncovered systemic inequities that could compromise professional advancement for midcareer women faculty in STEM. Implications for these findings; Acker’s theory; and recommendations for policy, practice, and future research are included.
The authors review research that has used social cognitive career theory as a frame to investigate factors that may explain science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) choices and work decisions for women and racial–ethnic minorities, as well as barriers to their entry to STEM careers. The research is reviewed by age-groups. Most of this research has focused on factors associated with early choices (e.g., in high school and younger), but more recent work has focused on choices in college and in the workplace, particularly for women. The authors conclude with a critique and call for more research.
Although effective in improving socialization, development, and retention in the US domestic context, mentoring would likely benefit expatriates and their firms, but it remains theoretically underdeveloped in the international context. We develop a theory of international mentoring by integrating current perspectives on protean and boundaryless careers with the literature on mentoring and expatriates. Expatriates need multiple mentors to assist their adjustment and development during the pre-departure, expatriation, and repatriation stages of international assignments. We discuss both hierarchical and peer, and formal and informal, mentoring relationships to delineate which relationships best address specific expatriate needs. International mentoring may improve expatriate adjustment, development, and retention, and thus may affect outcomes of international strategy. We conclude by discussing implications and avenues for future research.
Gender bias is widespread and needs to be acknowledged and addressed by the scientific community. In this Guest Editorial, M. Resmini, Professor of Materials Chemistry at the Queen Mary University of London, describes how supervisors can play an important role in addressing the 'leaky pipeline', namely, the progressive loss of capable women from STEM disciplines.
A large majority of secondary school students fail to reach proficiency in math and science, and many are taught by teachers lacking adequate subject matter knowledge. When compared to other nations, the math and science achievement of U.S. pupils and the rate of STEM degree attainment appear inconsistent with a nationa considered the world leader in scientific innovation. In a recent international assessment of 15-year old students, the U.S. ranked 28th in math literacy and 24th in science literacy. Moreover, the U.S. ranks 20th among all nations in the proportion of 24-year olds who earn degrees in natural science or engineering. This book provides background and context to understand the legislative developments in STEM and examines the federal role in promoting STEM education and policy.
This article reports on meta-analyses of the relations of self-efficacy beliefs to academic performance and persistence. Results revealed positive and statistically significant relationships between self-efficacy beliefs and academic performance and persistence outcomes across a wide variety of subjects, experimental designs, and assessment methods. The relationships were found to be heterogeneous across studies, and the variance in reported effect sizes was partially explained by certain study characteristics. Implications for further research and for intervention are discussed.
The current research examined differences between women engineers who persisted in an engineering career versus those who left engineering using a combination of two prominent theories of career change: social cognitive career theory (SCCT, Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994; 2002) and integrated model of career change (Rhodes & Doering, 1983). The two groups of women did not differ in three domains of self-confidence or outcome expectations (engineering tasks, navigating organizational climate, or multiple roles), in vocational interests, or in workplace barriers. Women who continue in engineering do differ from those who leave in their experience of workplace supports and their levels of occupational commitment. Engineering turnover intentions and occupational commitment emerged as the two key variables that explained 33.4% of the variance in persistence in engineering careers. We discuss the implications of the results in terms of theoretical development and practical implications for organizations.
Few studies have empirically investigated the specific factors in mentoring relationships between undergraduate researchers (mentees) and their mentors in the biological and life sciences that account for mentees’ positive academic and career outcomes. Using archival evaluation data from more than 400 mentees gathered over a multi-year period (2005–2011) from several undergraduate biology research programs at a large, Midwestern research university, we validated existing evaluation measures of the mentored research experience and the mentor–mentee relationship. We used a subset of data from mentees (77% underrepresented racial/ethnic minorities) to test a hypothesized social cognitive career theory model of associations between mentees’ academic outcomes and perceptions of their research mentoring relationships. Results from path analysis indicate that perceived mentor effectiveness indirectly predicted post-baccalaureate outcomes via research self-efficacy beliefs. Findings are discussed with implications for developing new and refining existing tools to measure this impact, programmatic interventions to increase the success of culturally diverse research mentees and future directions for research.
Purpose
– Few studies examine the career success of women in the Arab Middle East. With that in mind, the purpose of this paper is to explore the conceptualizations of the career success of women managers in Lebanon. Drawing on the individual, behavioral, and structural approaches, this study also investigates the women’s approaches to career success. Capitalizing on the institutional theory (IT), the current investigation accounts for the complexity of the local context by illustrating how a diverse set of socio-cultural values and norms, institutional constraints, and individual agency impact the overall experience of career success among Arab women.
Design/methodology/approach
– This study is exploratory in nature and draws on a qualitative approach. In-depth, face-to-face, open-ended interviews were conducted with women managers across the managerial hierarchy in a wide range of industries, sectors, and organizations.
Findings
– The findings suggest that the Lebanese women managers’ career success was not conceptualized exclusively using the objective or the subjective measures. Rather, it was conceptualized on a continuum between these measures, thus challenging the rigid objective/subjective dichotomy in the context of Lebanon. The results also suggest that the career success of these women managers is better predicted and explained by the individual and behavioral approaches than by the traditional, structural approach. This empirical work sheds light on the gendered working conditions that women experience and how they capitalize on their individual agency to survive the hegemonic masculinity embedded in their workplaces, along with the inequalities that it promotes.
Originality/value
– This study is the first to explore the conceptualizations and the determinants of the career success of women managers in Lebanon. However, the originality of this paper is not only limited to its contribution to the limited research on the careers of Arab women; it also extends to its usage of various approaches to predict career success as well as to adapt IT as a theoretical framework for capturing the myriad of factors that impact women’s careers and success. The originality of this study also lies in advancing the theoretical concept of hegemonic masculinity into studies looking at Arab women’s career experiences by shedding some light on how the reproduction of gender, gendered working practices, and agency impact their career success.
This chapter outlines the psychosocial aspects of mentoring that help women combat the barriers they commonly face in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). The authors describe the CareerWISE online resilience training and how it can address the shortage of effective mentors and role models who have been shown to increase the persistence of women in STEM fields.
Interest in the problem of method biases has a long history in the behavioral sciences. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method biases and how to control for them does not exist. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.