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Perceptual-Cognitive Assessments in Football
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... Furthermore, athletes who are able to excel and outthink their competition might subsequently get more joy from playing, be more motivated to train at a higher intensity and become a better athlete. This could potentially be a reciprocal cycle where early success leads to higher chances of staying in a high-level competition and eventually making it to the top (Beavan, 2021). ...
What sets the competitors in the Olympic games apart from those who simply watch?
As Yarrow and colleagues (2009) suggest, that seems to be the million dollar question. For decades, scientists have been trying to identify different characteristics of sports expertise in order to predict, nurture and maximize expert performance in sports. In this regard, anthropometrics such as height and body composition, physical characteristics such as speed and power, and physiological characteristics such as muscle fiber type composition have been scrutinized in order to determine what truly makes an elite athlete. Furthermore, generic motor control and sport-specific technique have also been investigated to a great extent. However, it is only in the last couple of decades that the athlete’s mind has also sparked interest among sport scientists.
Indeed, is it not the case that some athletes are known for their creativity or tactical intelligence instead of their extraordinary technique, strength or speed? Is it not true that some athletes seem to know everything that will happen, even before it actually happens? These things cannot be explained by physical characteristics or anthropometrics, they can only be explained by investigating what happens in the athlete’s mind. In this respect, tactical skills of elite athletes, as well as their cognitive functions, have received significantly more attention over the last two decades, and it has even been suggested that as an athlete progresses through the ranks, perceptual-cognitive function might be more likely to discriminate high- from low-level performers than physiological or anthropometric profiles (Williams and Reilly, 2000).
And yet, despite the recently increased attention, there is still a considerable number of unanswered questions with respect to cognitive and perceptual-cognitive function in athletes. For example, the development of these skills from childhood towards adolescence into adulthood has not yet been mapped. Therefore, this thesis seeks to answer some of the remaining key questions with regard to the development of (perceptual-)cognitive function in youth team sports players and its underlying mechanisms.
The visual exploratory actions (i.e. scanning head movements) used by football players to perceive their surrounding environment have recently gained interest. While this has resulted in important findings relating to visual exploration during natural match-play, often the study designs lacked the experimental control of laboratory-based experimental settings. We aimed to investigate whether visual exploratory action is associated with passing performance for high-level U13 and U23 players in a controlled skill assessment setting. Fourteen U13 and 13 U23 football players from a Bundesliga club completed a standardised 32-trial sequence in the Footbonaut. Exploratory head movements were recorded with a head-worn inertial sensor, from which the count, frequency and excursion of head movements were extracted before and during ball possession. Ball reception and disposal were coded for each trial, and performance was operationalised as the time taken to complete each trial. Across all players, visual exploratory action was associated with passing performance. The variables that best explained faster performance were 1) a higher number of head turns before receiving the ball, 2) a lower number of head turns when in possession of the ball, and 3) being an U23 player. However, different combinations of variables explained performance for U13 and U23 players. The findings demonstrate the value of scanning before receiving the ball to prospectively control passing actions in the Footbonaut. Future research should investigate the shared and contrasting characteristics of scanning actions, as they are observed by players in skill assessment tasks such as the Footbonaut, during training and during match-play.
Background: When measuring executive functions (EF), it is common for athletes to be assessed on their ability to detect and process explicit sources of information. Yet not all of the information is perceived explicitly in an environment. Aim: This study aimed to include a new assessment that measures the impact of implicitly perceived congruent and incongruent visual precues on response times. Method: Seventy-four male soccer players: U12 (n=15), U13 (n=17), U17 (n=21) and U19 (n=21) representing a German 1st league club were assessed on four cognitive tasks. Results: The MANOVAs revealed a multivariate effect of age group on a reactive stress tolerance task (F(6,140)=11.670, p<0.001, ES=0.38) and a Stop Signal Reaction Time task (F(6,144)=6.142, p<0.001, ES=0.20). A one-way ANOVA revealed an age group effect for response accuracy in a multiple-object-tracking task (F(3,74)=4.05, p=0.01, ES=0.14). Lastly, a within-subjects effect of congruency on the implicit precued task (F(1,74)=51.32, p<0.001, ES=0.41) and a between-subjects effect of age group (F(3,74)=4.30, p=0.008, ES=0.15) was observed. Interpretation: The results provided support for including an implicit precueing task, while the overall testing demonstrated that the magnitude of the increase in EF performance between ages was greater across the younger age groups compared to the older age groups.
Introduction
Executive functions are higher-level cognitive functions. Despite being relevant to many aspects of everyday life, it is contentious whether executive functions are important for high performing athletes. Executive functions increase throughout the career of an athlete, yet it remains unknown what are the main contributors. Therefore, this study examined the effect of age and experience on executive functions in a cohort of high performing football players.
Methods
Data were collected over three seasons, resulting in a mixed longitudinal sample of 1018 observations in 343 male players (1–5 observations/player, age: 10.34–34.72 years; playing experience: 5–22 years) from the U12-Senior age groups of a professional German football club. Players participated in four cognitive tasks aimed at measuring higher-level cognitive functioning: a precued choice reaction-time task, a stop-signal reaction-time task, a sustained attention task, and a multiple-object tracking task, from which a total of eight dependent variables related to response time and/or accuracy were derived.
Results
Linear and non-linear mixed effects regressions were used to investigate the relationship between age, experience and executive functions. A second order polynomial revealed that, generally, a negatively accelerated curve best described the relationship between age, experience and executive functions. An increasingly smaller difference in executive functioning was generally observed between subsequent age groups, with a performance plateau evident around adulthood (∼21 years old). Age and experience only explained a very low to moderate proportion of the variance in executive functions (marginal explained variance ranged between 2 and 57%). A significant age by field position interaction effect was only observed for the sustained attention task’s accuracy and response time components (p < 0.001).
Conclusions
Both age and experience showed a negatively accelerated relationship with executive functions in youth football players, and this relationship was generally field position-independent. These negatively accelerated curves seem to reflect those observed in general populations, where a plateau phase in the development of higher-level cognitive functioning is also observed around 21 years, reflecting the maturation of the central nervous system in normally developing individuals. Therefore, this study challenges the assumption surrounding the use and validity of executive functions as a measure of football performance potential in high performing athletes.
ABSTRACT “Bridging the gap” and “science into practice” have long been themes in high-performance sports training, conditioning, and monitoring. Recently, parallel developments in sports science and translational science in the United States have perhaps set the stage for a new era to solve old problems. This article will discuss the trends in sports science in the United States, provide an overview of translational science and knowledge management, summarize and align existing translational science research models, address problems and potential solutions in the translational sports science framework, and provide examples of research that have translated sports science research into practice. The objectives of this article are to stimulate collaborations between academics and practitioners and to provide solutions for harmonizing integrated sports performance models.
This study examined the simultaneous effects of relative age and biological maturity status upon player selection in an English professional soccer academy. A total of 202 players from the U9 to U16 age groups, over an eight-year period (total of 566 observations), had their relative age (birth quarter) and biological maturity (categorised as late, on-time or early maturing based upon the Khamis-Roche method of percentage of predicted adult height at time of observation) recorded. Players born in the first birth quarter of the year (54.8%) were over-represented across all age groups. A selection bias towards players advanced in maturity status for chronological age emerged in U12 players and increased with age; 0% of players in the U15 and U16 age group were categorised as late maturing. A clear maturity selection bias for early maturing players was, however, only apparent when the least conservative criterion for estimating maturity status was applied (53.8% early and 1.9% late maturing in the U16 age group). Professional football academies need to recognise relative age and maturation as independent constructs that exist and operate independently. Thus, separate strategies should perhaps be designed to address the respective selection biases, to better identify, retain and develop players.
Executive functions (EF) are crucial for the athletes’ success, and they are even more essential in open skill sports (e.g. volleyball and football). In these sports, due to continuously changing conditions, goal-directed behaviours need to be repeatedly adjusted and corrected. One of the most important EF is the ability to continuously switch between two different tasks being required in a random sequence. We used a task-switching protocol in elite volleyball athletes, usually playing different roles, with the aim of evaluating if each role is characterized by specific switching abilities. On the basis of the specific competences requested by the game, thirty-six elite volleyball athletes were assigned to three groups: Strikers, Defenders and Mixed. Each player completed a customized sport-specific task-switching paradigm. Data evidenced that each role has specific characteristics. In Reaction Times, the Strikers were the fastest to answer to stimuli, while the Defender group provided a worse performance, particularly when defensive actions, that probably require more cognitive elaboration, had to be processed. Different effects emerged by the Errors. In fact, the Mixed group, which was the one with more expertise, appeared to be more accurate in the responses.
Although preliminary, these results showed a minimal degree of cognitive flexibility for highly specialized Strikers and a maximum level for Mixed, allowing thus to highlight specific profiles of athletes. Data observed indicate the possibility to develop a test assessing the executive domain during the recruitment in a team, revealing a useful tool for choosing the most suitable role.