No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Estimating the required number of Harbour Pilots to support airline operations of a single pilot commercial aircraft at a UK regional airport
Abstract
Single pilot passenger aircraft concepts are being developed by several manufacturers. Various technological approaches are being explored: one concept is to use a Harbour Pilot dedicated to providing support for departures and arrivals. The Harbour Pilot has comprehensive knowledge of the terminal area airspace, procedures and operations. However, if a single pilot aircraft is to be viable the number of supporting personnel needs to be significantly smaller than the number of First Officers normally employed for a two-crew aeroplane. However, the number such staff has yet to be determined. This study models operations by a UK low-cost operator at a regional airport to determine the optimum number of Harbour Pilots required to support operations throughout the day. The model uses a simplified time-line analysis with task data incorporated into a dynamic discrete event modelling system allowing for multiple replications using various configurations. Results suggest that for this operation six Harbour Pilots per shift used flexibly to support both departures and arrivals would be required.
... Koltz et al. [58] suggested a Harbour Pilot could handle four-six consecutive approaches, assuming no off-normal situations. Harris [66], modelling departures and arrivals based upon the movements of a UK low-cost operator at a busy regional airport, estimated that at least six Harbour Pilots per shift would be required to service that particular airline at that airport. Brouquet [67] proposed a of 5:1 ratio of ground operators to pilots, potentially rising to 7:1, but did not specify the system configuration. ...
... However, as discussed later, these simple support ratios disguise a wider operational issue. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the simple remote piloting option is unlikely to result in significant savings as the ratio of remote pilots to airborne pilots is likely to be close to unity [34,66]. ...
... A key operational determinant will be the number of ground staff required to support the fleet of single-pilot aircraft. Some estimates for the ratio of pilots: ground-based staff have been suggested earlier [58,66,67]; however, this an over-simplistic view. How many and what the roles of ground-based personnel will be will depend upon the configuration of the aircraft and its concept of operation. ...
For financial and operational reasons many aircraft manufacturers are working on the development of single-pilot commercial aircraft. It is suggested that cargo operations may commence in the early 2030s followed by passenger flights later that decade. Two technological approaches for the development of single-pilot airliners are being developed either based upon extant technology and operating concepts derived from uninhabited aviation systems and military aircraft, or alternatively based upon high levels of onboard autonomy/automation. This review considers the economic, technological, regulatory (safety) and societal acceptance of the single-pilot airliner, and examines some of the operational challenges that airlines may face. It is suggested that while the technological and safety challenges may be resolved, it is the operational challenges that may determine if the concept is ultimately viable.
... 44 Building the HPM requires two steps: the first is to choose the analytical method used to analyze and describe the system to be modeled, which is mainly determined by the purpose of modeling; the second is to choose the modeling and evaluation method, which transforms the system into a model or computer simulation and evaluate the system qualitatively or quantitatively. Table 7 14,15,29,30,88,93,94,[140][141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149] summarizes the research results of using HPM to evaluate SPO system designs. ...
... In addition, the more aircraft controlled by the ground station, the more significant the relative cost savings. Harris 145 Determine the optimum number of harbor pilots for a low-cost airline to support SPO throughout the day at a regional airport ysis and the SPO concept, researchers identified the requirements for transition from the current TCO to the future SPO, and reallocated functions to develop the SPO approach and landing scenarios for both types of ground operators (see Fig. 5). After the current and future approach and landing scenario models developed above were reviewed and validated by SMEs, transition impacts were evaluated by comparing the number of tasks in the scenarios and workload levels. ...
... Since the majority of incidents and accidents occur during the takeoff and landing phases (Ebbatson, 2009) a logical proposal emerged to replace the second pilot with a dedicated GO specifically assigned to handle takeoffs and landings, also known as Harbour Pilot (Koltz et al., 2015). Harbour Pilots, unlike typical GOs, are stationed exclusively at the airport they serve, giving them expertise in navigating aircraft within their terminal airspace (Harris, 2022). This provides an advantage compared to other GO solutions. ...
The airline industry is moving towards Single Pilot Operations (SPO), as a result of the increased training and salary cost of pilots, and also as a remedy to the impending pilot shortage which is estimated to manifest itself in the years to follow. The main objective of this study was to explore whether the Greek public is willing to accept only one pilot onboard, what are the factors that affect this decision, and which is the preferred method of replacing the second pilot by choosing between an array of alternative options proposed by the industry.
Based on the qualitative findings of previous research, a close-ended scale was developed to explore the attitudes of the public quantitatively (N=414) through exploratory factor analysis and inferential statistics.
Results showed a fairly negative attitude of the public towards SPO (mean score of 3.61 on a differential scale of 1-7). Also, the result of the exploratory factor analysis included three factors, namely, the inherent concerns of the passengers, the degree of passenger’s safety awareness and the reputation of the airline company. Lastly, the participants of this study showed a preference for combining highly-sophisticated technology such as advanced automation with a permanent ground operator as the optimum solution to replacing the second pilot.
It is recommended that an integrated marketing strategy should be implemented at this time, so as to facilitate a smoother transition to SPO. This strategy should take into serious consideration the factors that affect the public’s intention to accept SPO. Finally, despite the overall conservative attitude of the passengers, there was no evidence of an impending failure of this innovation to diffuse into the market.
As an important direction of modern aviation technology, single pilot operations (SPO) of commercial aircraft puts forward a strong demand for airport capability and efficiency, so it is necessary to establish the airport collaborative decision-making (A-CDM) capability under SPO. Based on the system architecture of A-CDM under current dual-pilot operation mode, this paper analyzes the core information sharing mechanism and milestone method. Then, based on the characteristics of SPO, SPO-A-CDM is proposed. Finally, a co-simulation platform of flight scenario and system model is constructed, and a typical scenario – fixed-point deicing is taken as an example to carry out the model-based simulation analysis of SPO-A-CDM.
Single pilot operations (SiPO) of cargo aircraft are expected by the end of the 2020s, and commercial airline passenger flights around 2030. More sophisticated interfaces and state-of-the-art system autonomy will be required for both general configurations, the future single-pilot airliners (i.e., the replacement of the second pilot with much-increased levels of onboard automation/autonomy (an aircraft-centric approach) and also the displacement of the second pilot to the ground with on-demand availability (a distributed air/ground sociotechnical system). The challenge of training the potential commercial single pilot has been emphasized in the recent literature. The apprenticeship-style training employed for current multi-crew operations (MCO) would cease to exist. A radical training redesign would be required to serve either pilots’ transition from MCO to SiPO or a direct introduction to single pilot operations. The training design and delivery for the future single pilot will focus on ensuring safety.
In the last decades, simulators have facilitated high-risk industries such as aviation to provide appropriate safety-related training in situations where conventional methods are inapplicable or when hazards or expenses make conventional training impractical. New efforts and technology generate emerging opportunities to enhance the efficacy of training. Extended reality (XR) (i.e., Virtual (VR), Augmented (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR)) is recognized for its vast educational potential by immersing the user in a nonexistent environment or activity.
XR has already been used as a training device in various domains, offering the opportunity to develop skills such as problem-solving and decision-making under stress without exposing trainees or others to unacceptable risks. Aviation training organizations (ATO) consider XR applications as affordable, versatile, and time-efficient training methods. Currently, XR-based training is supplementary to the overall training due to regulatory non-admittance by authorities. However, the benefits of XR training enhance conventional methods of instruction. Even in low-resolution XR, elements of the natural world cannot be recreated in a classroom.
XR augments training of sociotechnical systems that do not yet exist or are not yet safe for humans and thus cannot be adequately prepared for in situ, for example, commercial SiPO. XR allows training in locations and events with no safe and realistic parallels. Additionally, such simulations can be rapidly and efficiently updated as new information becomes available, unlike other full-fidelity-built environments, which are considerably less shapeable.
Significant potential exists for XR-based procedural training to transform the aviation training industry completely. Purdue SATT implements immersive technologies in aviation training and explores the feasibility eMCO/SiPO. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to conduct a review of the current applications of XR in cognitive skill training and to make suggestions regarding potential areas for the implementation of XR scenario-based training (SBT) for both technical and non-technical skill development in the future commercial SiPO in order to address identified hazards and challenges.
Aircraft manufacturers and avionics systems suppliers are developing technologies for airliners that will be operated by just a single crew member. An alternative approach to using a large amount of on-board computing proposes the utilisation of extant technology derived from single-seat military aircraft and Uninhabited Air Systems where control is distributed in real time across the aircraft flight deck and ground stations (which supervise several aircraft simultaneously). Using a combination of operational event sequence diagrams and work domain analysis techniques, the allocation of tasks and requirements for the development of supporting technologies for such an operational architecture are identified in a low visibility taxi scenario. These analyses show that many of the functions undertaken by a second pilot in this situation are associated with checking, surveillance and monitoring activities. These must be undertaken either by automated aircraft systems or the monitoring personnel in the ground station. This analytical approach can successfully provide the necessary information underpinning the design requirements for such an aircraft concept.
Single pilot operations (SPO) refers to flying a commercial aircraft with only one pilot in the cockpit, assisted by advanced onboard automation and/or ground operators providing piloting support services. Properly implemented, SPO could provide operating cost savings while maintaining a level of safety no less than conventional two-pilot commercial operations. A concept of operations (ConOps) for any paradigm describes the characteristics of its various components and their integration in a multidimensional design space. This paper presents key options for human/automation function allocation being considered by NASA in its ongoing development of a SPO ConOps.
Commercial aviation is expected to see an average growth of 3.7% per year over the next five years. At the same time, regional airlines are expressing concerns that they are unable to find a sufficient number of pilots who meet the minimum number of required flight hours and certifications. One option for handling the increased demand for, and reduced supply of, pilots is to better distribute the pilots already employed. This could be accomplished by reducing the number of required crewmembers on the flight deck from two to one. However, a significant challenge to the implementation of a single pilot crew is the increase in workload a single pilot would face especially in complex airspace. The harbor pilot is one concept of operations that has been proposed to deal with the potentially serious problem. In this concept, the harbor pilot is a ground operator whose job it is to help arriving single pilot aircraft navigate the complex terminal area airspace. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the feasibility of the harbor pilot concept by measuring the workload and performance of harbor pilots during a series of back-to-back simulated arrival procedures. Preliminary results show that harbor pilots rate their workload generally low and indicate that the maximum consecutive normal approaches that they are able to complete in a row is about four to six, provided they are not emergency situations.
Over the next 20 years, the United States airline industry is expected to hire in excess of 95,000 pilots. This hiring will be the result of new aircraft growth, pilot retirements, and pilot attrition from the industry for reasons other than retirement. In addition, government regulations may also cause an increase in the number of new pilots required. Given this increased demand, will there be enough new pilots to ensure a long-term and continuous supply? The purpose of this research is to examine the supply and demand for US airline pilots. Several new considerations are having an impact on future supply and demand of airline pilots including cost of training, growth, retirement, regulatory changes, and slowing supply of military pilots. The methodology provides an empirical analysis of the pilot labor supply in the US. A multivariate regression model was developed to forecast demand. To explore supply, a variety of data sources have been included and a survey was implemented. The results of the study indicate that the US airline industry will experience a shortage of approximately 35,000 pilots for the 2013 to 2031 time period. The impact of the shortage on regional and major airlines is examined. Possible solutions are discussed.
The admirable safety record amassed by United States (U.S.) air carriers has created a global demand for commercial pilots trained to Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Practical Test Standards (PTS). This demand, fueled by emerging countries and recovering economies, may well exceed the number of commercial pilots available today and envisioned in the future. This paper explores the changing demographic of the pilot supply pool; the potential impact of recent U.S. regulatory activities on pilot production; the correlation of aircraft deliveries to pilot requirements; and the training maze and extended lead times required to train commercial pilots. Several possible solutions to meeting the envisioned demand for pilots are presented along with potential limiting factors.
A Playbook delegation approach was evaluated for human-autonomy teaming (HAT) in Single Pilot Operations (SPO). In SPO, a single pilot makes flight decisions, performs flight tasks, and collaborates with an autonomous teammate. The autonomous teammate shares responsibility, authority, and tasks. Challenges include the design of functions, interactions, and teaming skills. HAT often requires the ability to dynamically allocate functions, and timely methods to accurately express intent to teammates. A Playbook delegation interface was developed to enables the pilot to call and modify plays in collaboration with the autonomous teammate. Twenty pilots evaluated the Playbook interface to explore real-time function allocation, and identified teaming skills needed to support HAT. Pilots preferred the Playbook interface for better collaboration with the autonomous teammate. Interviews revealed that supporting human-like communication in HAT is critical to facilitate decision-making. Four major teaming skills (communication, coordination, cooperation, and cognition) are discussed to support HAT in SPO.
The European Union project, Single European Sky, initiated a reorganization of European airspace and proposed additional measures for air traffic management to achieve the key objectives of improving efficiency and capacity while at the same time enhancing safety. The concept of multiple remote tower operation is that air traffic controllers (ATCOs) can control several airfields from a distant virtual control centre. The control of multiple airfields can be centralised to a virtual centre permitting the more efficient use of ATCO resources. This research was sponsored by the Single European Sky ATM Research Program and the ATM Operations Division of the Irish Aviation Authority. A safety case was developed for migration of multiple remote tower services to live operations. This research conducted 50 large scale demonstration trials of remote tower operations from single tower operations to multiple tower operations for safety assessment by air navigation safety regulators in 2016. A dedicated team of air traffic controllers and technology experts successfully completed the safety assessment of multiple remote tower operations in real time. The air movement control and surface movement control at both Shannon and Cork airports were conducted simultaneously from a virtual remote tower centre at Dublin Airport, Ireland. The implementation of this innovative technology requires a careful balance between cost-efficiency and the safety of the air traffic control in terms of capacity and human performance. The live trial exercises demonstrated that the air traffic services provided by the remote tower for a single airport and two medium airports by a single ATCO with 'in sequence' and 'simultaneous' aircraft operations was at least as safe as provided by the local towers at Cork and Shannon aerodromes. No safety occurrence was reported nor did any operational safety issue arise during the conduct of the fifty live trial exercises.
Function Allocation methods are important for the appropriate allocation of tasks between humans and automated systems. It is proposed that Operational Event Sequence Diagrams (OESDs) provide a simple yet rigorous basis upon which allocation of work can be assessed. This is illustrated with respect to a design concept for a passenger aircraft flown by just a single pilot where the objective is to replace or supplement functions normally undertaken by the second pilot with advanced automation. A scenario-based analysis (take off) was used in which there would normally be considerable demands and interactions with the second pilot. The OESD analyses indicate those tasks that would be suitable for allocation to automated assistance on the flight deck and those tasks that are now redundant in this new configuration (something that other formal Function Allocation approaches cannot identify). Furthermore, OESDs are demonstrated to be an easy to apply and flexible approach to the allocation of function in prospective systems.
Practitioner Summary: OESDs provide a simple yet rigorous basis upon which allocation of work can be assessed. The technique can deal with the flexible, dynamic allocation of work and the deletion of functions no longer required. This is illustrated using a novel design concept for a single-crew commercial aircraft
Part 1: the task analysis process. Part 2: task analysis techniques task data collection task description methods task simulation methods task behaviour assessment methods task requirements evaluation methods. Part 3: task analysis case studies balancing automation and human action through task analysis a preliminary communications system assessment a plant local panel review a staffing assessment for a local control room task simulation to predict operator workload in a command systenm task analysis of operator safety actions maintenance training a method for quantifying ultrasonic inspection effectiveness operational safety review of a solid waste storage plant a task analysis programme for a large nuclear chemical plant.
Operational sequence diagrams pictorially display information-decision-action sequences within a man-machine system. In its various versions as a time-sequence process chart, a spatial flow chart, and as an adjunct to symbolic logic, the OSD can he used in establishing system requirements, allocating man-machine functions, determining sequence of operations, and in evaluating equipment layouts.
Purpose
This paper aims to make a case that with the appropriate use of human factors methods it is possible to design and develop a single crew commercial aircraft using largely existing technology.
Design/methodology/approach
From a review of the literature it is suggested that some of the functions of the non‐flying pilot would be better assumed by either onboard automation or ground‐based systems.
Findings
It is argued that the design of the flight deck and the role of the pilot require re‐conceptualising to accommodate the requirements for flying a highly automated aircraft single‐handed. With such re‐design, considerable efficiency gains will be achieved, but to fully realise these gains a system‐wide approach is required which extends beyond the design of the aircraft per se .
Research limitations/implications
This is only a high‐level thought piece to stimulate debate. Much greater consideration of all the issues raised is required, as is a change in regulatory requirements.
Practical implications
If implemented, the single crew aircraft could result in a revolution in air transport, offering considerable cost savings, especially on shorter routes with relatively small passenger loads.
Originality/value
A first attempt to use human factors as a design driver to produce operational and economic efficiency by the novel use of existing technologies spun‐out from other areas of aircraft development.
United States House of Representatives
United States House of Representatives. H.R. 4 and H.R. 302: FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018. Available at
https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/115/hr4 [Accessed 27 September 2021].
EASA open to relaxation of single-pilot rules for commercial aviation
- Flightglobal
FlightGlobal. EASA open to relaxation of single-pilot rules for commercial aviation (20 January 2021).
https://www.flightglobal.com/safety/easa-open-to-relaxation-of-single-pilot-rules-for-commercial-aviation/142031 [Accessed 27 September 2021].
BA leaves door open for Qantas. The Australian Financial Review
- A Cleary
Cleary, A. BA leaves door open for Qantas. The Australian Financial Review, 2010, Tuesday 7 September 2010, p 21.
- Ryanair
Ryanair. Financial Results FY 2018. 2018. Available from https://investor.ryanair.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/Ryanair-FY2018-Results.pdf [Accessed 23 September 2021].
Airports and Aircraft: Global Market Forecast
- Airbus
- Cities
Airbus. Cities, Airports and Aircraft: Global Market Forecast 2019-2038. 2019. Available from: https://www.
https://www.airbus.com/aircraft/market/global-market-forecast.html [Accessed 23 September 2021].
Commercial Market Outlook
- Boeing
Boeing. Commercial Market Outlook 2020-2039, 2020. Available from: https://www.boeing.com/commercial/market/
commercial-market-outlook/ [Accessed 23 September 2021].
An investigation of the Unites States airline pilot labor supply
- J Higgins
- K Lovelace
- E Bjerke
- N Lounsberry
- R Lutte
- D Friedenzohn
- P Craig
Higgins, J., Lovelace, K., Bjerke, E., Lounsberry, N., Lutte, R., Friedenzohn, D. and Craig, P. An investigation of the Unites
States airline pilot labor supply, J. Air Transp. Stud., 2014, 5, (2), pp 53-83.
Pilot And Technician Outlook
- Boeing
Boeing. Pilot And Technician Outlook 2021-2040, 2021. Available from https://www.boeing.com/resources/boeingdotcom/
market/assets/downloads/BMO_2021_Report_PTO_R4_091321AQ-A.pdf [Accessed 27 September 2021].
A cognitive adaptive man-machine Interface for future Flight Decks. Performance, Safety and Well-being in
- C Keinrath
- J Vašek
- M Dorneich
Keinrath, C., Vašek, J. and Dorneich, M. A cognitive adaptive man-machine Interface for future Flight Decks. Performance,
Safety and Well-being in Aviation Proceedings of the 29th Conference of the European Association for Aviation Psychology
(20-24 September 2010, Budapest, Hungary), Droog, A. and Heese, M. (Eds) European Association of Aviation Psychology,
Amsterdam, NL., 2010.
NASA Advances Single-Pilot Operations Concepts
- J Croft
Croft, J., NASA Advances Single-Pilot Operations Concepts. Aviation Week & Space Technology, 2015, January 12,
2015. Available from https://aviationweek.com/aerospace/nasa-advances-single-pilot-operations-concepts [Accessed 27
September 2021].
Example of single on-board pilot. Presentation to Commission Aéronautique civile de l’AAE: Will Air Transport be Fully Automated by 2050
- J Brouquet
Brouquet, J. Example of single on-board pilot. Presentation to Commission Aéronautique civile de l'AAE: Will
Air Transport be Fully Automated by 2050? June 1 st, 2016. Available from: http://www.academie-air-espace.com/
upload/doc/ressources/ATA/slides/Session%203/4-Broquet.pdf [Accessed 27 September 2021].
- M S Sanders
- E J Mccormick
Sanders, M.S. and McCormick, E.J. Human Factors in Engineering and Design, McGraw-Hill Publications, 1993,
New York, NY, USA.