Blockchain-Based Land Registration System: A Conceptual Framework

Abstract

Land registration authorities are frequently held accountable for the alleged mismanagement and manipulation of land records in various countries. Pakistan's property records are especially vulnerable to falsification and corruption because of the country's poverty. Different parties therefore claim varying degrees of authority over a specific piece of land. Given the fact that this data has been consolidated, it has become significantly more vulnerable to security threats. The goal of decentralized system research has been to increase the reliability of these systems. In order to fix the flaws of centralized systems, blockchain-based decentralized systems are currently in development. By using significant land record registration models as the basis for this research, we hope to create a proof-of-concept system or framework for future use. Pakistan's land registration agency will benefit from our proposed conceptual framework. For the Pakistani government to implement a decentralized land record registry system, we propose a conceptual framework that outlines the essential components.

Full text

Research Article
Blockchain-Based Land Registration System: A
Conceptual Framework
Muhammad Irfan Khalid ,
1
Jawaid Iqbal,
2
Ahmad Alturki,
3
Saddam Hussain ,
4
Amerah Alabrah ,
3
and Syed Sajid Ullah
5
1
Department of Information Technology, University of Sialkot, Pakistan
2
Department of Computer Science, Capital University of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
3
Department of Information Systems, College of Computer and Information Sciences, King Saud University,
Riyadh 11543, Saudi Arabia
4
School of Digital Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Jalan Tungku Link, Gadong BE1410, Brunei Darussalam
5
Department of Information and Communication Technology, University of Agder (UiA), N-4898 Grimstad, Norway
Correspondence should be addressed to Muhammad Irfan Khalid; irfan.khalid@uskt.edu.pk,
Saddam Hussain; saddam.sadie@csu.edu.cn, and Amerah Alabrah; aalobrah@ksu.edu.sa
Received 10 December 2021; Revised 9 January 2022; Accepted 17 January 2022; Published 15 February 2022
Academic Editor: Fahd Abd Algalil
Copyright © 2022 Muhammad Irfan Khalid et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work
is properly cited.
Land registration authorities are frequently held accountable for the alleged mismanagement and manipulation of land records in
various countries. Pakistan’s property records are especially vulnerable to falsification and corruption because of the country’s
poverty. Different parties therefore claim varying degrees of authority over a specific piece of land. Given the fact that this data
has been consolidated, it has become significantly more vulnerable to security threats. The goal of decentralized system
research has been to increase the reliability of these systems. In order to fix the flaws of centralized systems, blockchain-based
decentralized systems are currently in development. By using significant land record registration models as the basis for this
research, we hope to create a proof-of-concept system or framework for future use. Pakistan’s land registration agency will
benefit from our proposed conceptual framework. For the Pakistani government to implement a decentralized land record
registry system, we propose a conceptual framework that outlines the essential components.
1. Introduction
The process of land registration in any country is known to
be a multistep process, since it entails the engagement of all
stakeholders who will have a direct or indirect stake in the
registration. The currently used land record title storage
system raises major issues about data fraud, the security of
highly sensitive data, and the risk of system failure due to
natural disasters, such as the server used for data storage
going down [1]. Compared to the current approaches and
procedures for land title management and data storage,
blockchain is a cutting-edge technology and database that
has the ability to completely address the problems that
plague current systems. The basic and most important
aspect of blockchain technology is that it is a decentralized
network in which all data supplied by a single node are
confirmed by all other available nodes, and only after a
consensus is made can then the shared data be saved to
the blockchain [2].
There are various platforms being used for the creation
of reliable, decentralized, transparent, immutable, and secure
blockchain-based land registration and management
systems. Smart contracts based on the Ethereum blockchain
are gaining traction among these systems. Being a public
blockchain platform, it allows anyone to participate in the
blockchain ecosystem [3].
Many attempts have been made to map the land records to
this emerging technology (blockchain) with the goal of
Hindawi
Applied Bionics and Biomechanics
Volume 2022, Article ID 3859629, 21 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3859629

securing and maintaining land data. In this regard, the UAE
was one of the countries that took the initiative and developed
a strategy for incorporating blockchain into their projects. The
Dubai Land Record Authority was one of the first government
agencies to put its land titles on the blockchain [4]. However,
in developing countries like Pakistan, the access to land record
as well as the management of data has been a serious concern.
In Pakistan, out of four major provinces, i.e., Sindh, KPK,
Baluchistan, and Punjab, only Punjab Province land record
data has been stored to the computer in Pakistan. In some
provinces, land data is still stored and managed typically by
a central person known as a “patwari,”who saves this crucial
data on big paper-based registries. In this regard, the Punjab
government took important measures and built an
information system known as the “Punjab Land Record
Management Information System,”to simplify the complex
process of saving and managing land records [5]. Despite the
fact that digitalization of documents and other related data
has speed up the process, security, resilience, and traceability
remain important concerns. Due to a lack of infrastructure
for the land registry system, property records are particularly
vulnerable to inconsistent, inaccurate, and tampered data.
Blockchain technology offers decentralized environment
that is reliable and secure. The process of the land
management and title recording system is being used for
storing land title facts and running the transactions that
are intertwined in land titles. Since these records are
sensitive, land management and title cataloging systems
must be robust in order to prevent falsification, make these
records available at all times, and, most importantly,
complete these operations in a timely manner [6].
Blockchain is no longer limited to simple principles; it has
evolved into a hybrid of several replicas, including
mathematics, networking, cryptography, and a distributed
consensus algorithm [7].
Blockchain was developed from bitcoin paper published
by Nakamoto in 2008. It is a peer-to-peer network where all
participants (peers) serve as a node and all the nodes hold
the same information [8]. Blockchain is a ledger dispersed
publicly above a network that registers transactions
associated bordered by other network applicants [9]. Instead
of relying on the single authority such as administrators that
can forge the database, blockchain technology offers
decentralized environment that offers robustness and
security as well. Untrustworthy administrators can abuse
this power. A normal database suffers from that issue which
is the failure that occurs at a single point, and it makes them
to depend much on backups if some failure occurs.
Moreover, due to this failure if both, i.e., backups and an
operating database are abused, it is catastrophic [10].
The process of the land management and title recording
system is being used for storing land title facts and running
the transactions that are intertwined in land titles. As these
records are sensitive, land management and title cataloging
processes should be strong in order to avoid falsification,
making these records available all the time, and more
importantly, these processes should be completed in a very
short span of time [11]. The functionality of blockchain also
considered a digital register. Blockchain-based land registry
schemes use the same functionalities as sound land registry
systems have. At the same time, blockchain knows that these
assets are owned by that person and also at what time a
particular transaction took place [12].
1.1. Motivation and Contributions. Based on the limitations
of the central server-based data storage systems for land
record data of Pakistan, we emanated up with
blockchain-based solution that will be able to handle those
problems from which the existing centralized land record
data storage system is suffering. Digitizing real-world land
records require systems to be built which are robust and
can withstand hacking attempts. Such systems need to be
built upon frameworks that can ensure integrity and lon-
gevity. No such frameworks exist for implementing a
blockchain-based land registry system in Pakistan, which
can be used for a real-world implementation of a decen-
tralized land record registry. The systematic contribution
is to offer a significant and authenticated conceptual
framework for blockchain-based land registration systems
where transparency, security, and rights can be made sure
without the need of the trusted third party. A centralized
server for land record data is facing numerous issues,
i.e., loss of data due to any natural hazards and loss of
data due to some strong adversary that can forge all the
available data. Among all these concerns, the most bulging
and pragmatic problem is that the land record officials
who are dealing with the data can also counterfeit the data
and many stakeholders who are the actual owners of a
piece of land can be unable to find their authentic rights.
In this contribution, our major concerns are to make the
official of the government be aware about the potential
of one of the most disruptive technologies, i.e., “block-
chain,”and at the same time to reflect the issues that cur-
rent land manipulation systems are facing. Our motivation
and goal are to give a solution to the centralized land
management system shortcomings using distributed and
decentralized blockchain technology. For this, first we pro-
posed a blockchain-based conceptual framework and then
validated that framework with the blockchain-based
proof-of-concept system (PoC). We first used Ethereum
blockchain to validate our framework and then discussed
and did few experiments on the idea of moving land
record data to the blockchain technology with the govern-
ment officials and those who are currently using central-
ized Punjab land record authority systems.
In this paper, we have contributed towards the research
community as follows:
(i) We observed the evident flaws in the current land
registry systems of Pakistan and presented a study
that gave meaningful insights into the adoption of
blockchain technology
(ii) We discussed and disseminated the required
information with the concerned stakeholders, i.e.,
land registration authority officers who are the
ultimate users of the current centralized system
and future blockchain-based land registry system
2 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

(iii) We have done experiments for showing the effec-
tiveness of our study along with the potential of
one of the disruptive technologies, i.e., “blockchain”
(iv) Our study will prove to be the first drop of rain in
bringing transparency and security to the sensitive
land record data and its manipulation procedures
1.2. Related Works. A record keeping system is based upon
blockchain, and it removes the vulnerabilities to the sensi-
tive data. It is because of this reason that blockchain uses
cryptographic primitives for the process of authentication.
That is why blockchain can be used to reduce the trust on
the third party by decreasing cost through the process of a
programmed transaction recording system [13]. Those
applications that are being controlled and managed by
the single or central user are called centralized applica-
tions. In centralized applications, all the parties reconcile
their local databases with a centralized electronic ledger
that is maintained and controlled by a trusted central
party. Moreover, record keeping has always been a central-
ized process that always requires trust in the record
keepers. Blockchain technology, which has been widely
used for the design of decentralized currencies, self-
extracting digital contracts and intelligent assets over the
Internet, can serve as a replacement for centralized control
over records [14].
Centralized systems are numerous, and today’s world
is the world of social networking. Social networking plat-
forms like Google and Facebook have created the revolu-
tionary connection in humanitarian society. Also, with
these platforms, it also made it great responsibility to
manage user privacy and one’s data that are very much
vital for him. In these social networking systems, there lies
a central server where all their data reside [15]. Please see
Figure 1 for depiction.
In a centralized system, there is a central or single
control that manages all the events and coordinates with
the whole system. In contrast, in a decentralized system,
every participant/entity is completely self-directed. In this
autonomous system, each entity is referred to as a peer. In
a more comprehensive way, we can say that instead of a
centralized system, the use of a decentralized system is
becoming mandatory, because everyone wants security,
traceability, and resilience in their system. And these
emerging technologies like blockchain can play their part
to accomplish this much needed task [16]. As the time has
passed and new trends have been settled in the technology
stack, blockchain has also got more and more attention.
Now, it is being used in almost every organization of the
government and supply chain and in many other numerous
areas. Blockchain has smoothed the problematic, time-
consuming processes that were at the risk of failure. In
simple words, it has made human more powerful towards
the implementation of transparency and accountability and
in maintaining trust and security. In this decentralized
system, there is no intermediary intervention and the system
can be evaluated for the required performance [17]. Please
see Figure 2 for the elaboration of decentralized systems.
Every technology will have its own limitations and
problems/issues. Though decentralized systems have given
strong support to manage security, still these systems are
facing problems. For instance, there is an increase in
blockchain (emerging decentralized technology) usage and
the volume rise in the number of transactions occurs on a
daily basis. Due to the variations in the size of each block,
in the same way, the time to produce a novel block becomes
a primary cause of the not reacting behavior of blockchain
[18]. Another rising issue of decentralized systems is the
leakage of transaction privacy; this happens because details
of the public keys are visible to each participant that is
available on the blockchain network [19]. Apart from the
advantages of the technologies, there exist few or more cons
too; on the one side, blockchain is improving the current
state of almost every aspect of data storage and security. It
also suffers from few prevailing and alarming problems. In
the same way, decentralized systems, i.e., blockchain, are
also facing the fork problem. The problem of forks mainly
occurs when blockchain is divided into two branches; it
can happen due to the change in the consensus algorithm
or when there happen some changes to the software. These
two problems are directly related to the blockchain’s
architecture. Normally when there is a change in the
consensus algorithm, the soft fork takes place, as at this
point the older nodes of the blockchain are unaware about
the consensus rule changes. This soft fork can be harmful
to the effectiveness and stability of the network. On the other
hand, hard fork condition occurs, in decentralized systems
when there is a permanent divergence in the blockchain,
and this happens when the old nodes have not upgraded
themselves to the newer version, and as a result, they cannot
validate the transactions [20].
1.3. Existing Land Record Management System of Pakistan.
In Pakistan, land record data are still being stored either
on a centralized server or on paper-based huge registers
that are being monitored by a single person who is known
as patwari. Although the government has taken steps in
digitization of land record, still many land data need to
be saved onto a computer which is a centralized server
in nature. This centralized server can become a single
point of failure, i.e., due to attacks of hackers and due to
environmental factors, and the person who is managing
and overseeing the complete system can also forge the
data [21]. Now, when we talk about land or land titles,
there comes a question in everyone’s mind as these are
the heaps of records that are very abundantly sensitive
and vibrant at the same time. And how one can achieve
this whole record? The answer to this question is to have
land registries that are intended to manage and organize
to store land record data in a normal and appropriate
way. In a land registration process, one can save the data
of those who are going to sale or purchase the pieces of
land. This can also be termed as an official and standard
record system where anyone can get his/her land informa-
tion. Land registration, at a wide range, describes systems
for defining the ownership rights over the permanent
property while the information concerning the property
3Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

and land-related rights is usually protected and regulated
by the government [22].
The process of storing land record data onto a com-
puter is called digitization. The process of digitizing land
records was accepted with the intent to reduce flaws in
the record keeping systems. In this, process all the records,
i.e., sales, purchase, information about the land, and infor-
mation about the current and former ownership stored in
a centralized system. The system was expected to greatly
lessen the number of land disputes, as fake documents
would be hard to come by and would have little legal
use [23]. The elaboration of the fard issuance process
can be seen in Figure 3.
In Pakistan, in provisional bodies, i.e., Punjab, the land
record data is managed by the Punjab Land Record
Authority (PLRA). We have added the complete process of
land record registration in Pakistan, and below are steps
with the figures. The complete procedure of land registration
consists of four steps, and they are as follows:
(i) Fard issuance
(ii) Fee pay process
(iii) Hiring of a deed writer/lawyer
(iv) Registrar office process
1.4. Fard Issuance. Fard is the process that is used in the ver-
ification of an individual who has applied for the land trans-
fer, ownership, and purchase. It is a thirty-minute process. It
mainly involves the following steps:
(i) Authentication from NADRA (National Database
Regulatory Authority)
Client-1
Client-3
Client-2 Client-4
Request
Request
Request
Request
Centralized server
Figure 1: Centralized application architecture.
PEER-1
PEER-2
PEER-4
PEER-3
P
EE
R
-1
P
EER-
4
Figure 2: Decentralized application architecture.
4 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

(ii) Checking the land and those who have the rights of
a piece of land
(iii) Issuance of fee challan
(iv) Submitting fee for their land registration
(v) And finally issuance of a fard for further
proceedings
1.5. Fee Paying Process. After getting the fard document
from the first phase, the next step is to pay fee in order to
process your registration to the next phase. Usually, it takes
one day to verify the fee submission process. It mainly
involves the following steps: please see Figure 4 for details
about the fee paying procedures.
(i) Get challan from the PLRA website
(ii) Pay fee in the any branch of Bank of Punjab
(iii) Pay challan
(iv) Receipt of stamp paper
1.6. Hire a Deed Writer or Lawyer. In this step, the customer
now will hire any lawyer or deed writer in order to write the
details of the customer that will be submitted to the registrar
office for the final verification.
1.7. Registrar Office Process. After getting the services of a
deed writer, customer application for the land registration
will be forwarded to the registrar office. Here, the customer
will submit all the documents. The registrar office is the cen-
tral body in the whole land registration process. This process
will check all the steps that have been passed previously, and
that is the reason why this is an eight-day process. This pro-
cess consists of the following steps: Figure 5 is explaining
this process.
(i) Required document submission to the registrar
office
(ii) Stamp paper verification and fee processing
(iii) Fard online verification
(iv) Electronic capturing of deed details
(v) Approval of registry of the subregistrar
(vi) Scanning of past registry and online transmission
to the Arazi Record Center
(vii) Automatic attestations of mutation by assistant
director land record
1.8. Process of Data Entry into the PLRA System. Finally, the
service of entering data into the system is the main constit-
uent in the development of a mechanized land record
system. The complete process of data entry in the centralized
system is described here; in this process, there are multiple
steps that are dependent on each other. While there is an
internal validation included that led to the removal of errors
that occur during the record saving to the system, the whole
systems seem to be dependent upon the human intervention
and scanning and copying the documents. Please see
Figure 6 for data entry procedures into PLRA.
(1) Rights that can be registered
The rights in rem that can be registered are ownership,
rights of use and residence, land transfer, afflictions, leases,
debts, right of recovery, and other rights.
(2) Requirement of the title that can be registered in the
land register
For the title to be registered, they must be recorded in a
public deed or an authentic document issued by the govern-
ment under the rules and the prescribed regulations of the
government. The title would be entered in the deed if it
fulfils the requirements of the deed.
(3) List of documents for registration
There are some documents for the land registration:
(i) CNIC (owner)
(ii) e-stamp paper
(iii) Challan receipt
(iv) Proof of ownership
The registrar does the registration of the title [24].
1.9. Blockchain-Based Land Registration. As blockchain
offers, security, accountability, and record can be scrutinized
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5
Nadra
verication
Identication of land &
right holder in records
Get free
challan Deposit fee Fard received
Figure 3: Fard issuance.
5Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

Get challan
from website
Visit any branch
of bank of Punjab Pay challan Receipt of
stamp paper
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4
Figure 4: Fee paying process.
Submission of
documents
at sub registrar oce
Online verication
of receipt of
stamp paper
Online verication
of fard
Scanning of passed
registry and online
transmission to arazi
control center
Automatic attestation
of mutation by assistant
director land reord
Approval registry of
sub registrar
Electronic capturing
of deed details
Step 1
Step 2 Step 3
Step 4 Step 5
Step 6 Step 7
A
pprova
l
regist
r
s
u
b
registra
r
Ele
ctronic captur
i
of
dee
d d
eta
ils
S
te
p
2
S
te
p
3
S
te
p 6
S
tep 7
Figure 5: Registrar office process.
Data entry process
Provide access to
records for
scanning
Patwari prepare
and approves fard
badar for
correction of errors
Patwari takes
action to
correct the error
or provides
additional info
Double data
entry
Internal
validation
Scanning in
districts and
tehsils
No
Erros in
mutation
Yes
Internal
inconsistencies
of datapointed
out as report
Enter new+red ink
fard badars
Enter red ink
mutation
e mutation is
scanned and
provided to patwari
Additional info
provided or
document showing
Mutation
entened Taghayurat in zerekar
gidawari entered
Moza compeletion
certicate
Actors
Revenue
administration
Data
entry constructors
Figure 6: Process of data entry into the PLRA system.
6 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

from the start to end. In the typical land registration process,
there are three main terms used. These are as follows:
(i) Object (spatial unit or land)
(ii) Right (personnel rights in terms of land)
(iii) Subject (the titleholder of the right that is related to
the object)
Across much of the world, the land registries are going to
be called “badly kept, mismanaged, or corrupt.”And then,
they have started looking towards this technology, i.e.,
blockchain, and started saying that this technology should
have to bring trust and transparency in the systems. There
should be traceability and immutability to the records that
are going to be mapped with the blockchain [25]. In every
system, the administration and registration play an
important role in bringing clarity and validity in these
systems. In the same way, the management of land records
in a compact way brings transparency, immutability, and
trust with blockchain technology. A land registering
procedure requires the depth understanding of those terms
and procedures that were created in the early times, because
the identity of a piece of land can be traced through the
addresses and details that have been written in the old
registers. That is the reason why none should have sound
knowledge of this property recording system [26].
Nowadays, various types of blockchain can be found,
and these are well known as private and public. There are
some other types though, but we were focusing on these
kinds of blockchain. Blockchain has been separated into
various types as per its functionality and nature. In a public
blockchain, every member of the system has full rights and
availability and the actors are welcomed to join the whole
system without any kind of problem of security. These
members of the system can participate in transactions as
per their wish, and the rest of the network remained
conversant about the variations that these participants are
going to make with the system. The use of a public chain
is contingent upon the nature of the system or use case on
which one is working. If anyone wants to give access to all
the members of the system, then this type is more feasible
to him [27].
As far as private blockchain is concerned, it is more
limited towards specific members of the systems. There is
no frankness for all the members of the network; rather, a
system admin will add and then one can access the system
of private blockchain. As private companies feel that they
are not going to share access with all over the system and
they still want to use distributed ledger technology in their
organization like banks and financial intuition, they are
more settled with the private blockchains. Hence, in these
kinds of blockchains, there lies a control over inspecting
and changing the transactions and these circumstances are
predetermined with respect to the roles allocated. Private
blockchains are a perfect cause to get benefit from
blockchain technology by making some groups and striking
verification who can interact with the system [28]. Please
refer to Table 1 for the types of blockchains.
The proof of work concept was initially proposed by
Nakamoto as we have defined above; the proof of work is
mainly covering the mining that majorly includes the
confirmation and proof of some sets of transactions or
blocks in any network by presentation of the computational
proof of work. It is regarded as a set of consensus protocols
of blockchain that were presented by the bitcoin, and now
they are being used by a number of other cryptocurrencies
too [29]. As bitcoin is operated on Ethereum blockchain,
in comparison to bitcoin blockchain, Ethereum offers a
blockchain-based development stack where decentralized
apps can be built. Ethereum has opened a number of
chances through its full stack blockchain-based infrastruc-
ture for decentralized applications. Bitcoin blockchain is
functioned through the proof-of-work consensus protocol
while Ethereum is being operated by proof-of-stake or
proof-of-concept protocols [30].
The need for legal contracts for the blockchain is
provoked when bitcoin blockchain has presented its power
to be functioned with any type of peer-to-peer transac-
tions. This was the arrival of smart contracts. Smart
contracts are essentially piece of code that typically runs
on the top of the blockchain network. In real-time situa-
tions, they are rooted on a blockchain node and digital
assets are being supervised by the logic that one has
embedded in this smart contract [31].
Having satisfied all the above requirements is of no use,
if there is absence of trained community that will interact
with the blockchain and its processes. Having satisfied all
the above prerequisites to implement a blockchain-based
system is not enough. If you do not have such individuals
who have basic knowledge of such system, then the process
can be impractical. That is the reason why most of the com-
panies invest more on their human resource as they must
tackle with the circumstances where the company must
maintain their integrity and values. The community who is
going to work with these blockchain systems should be
trained enough so that they may get the understandings
about the pros and cons of the process on which they are
working. They should be educated about the land registry
systems and the technology in which the use case is going
to be implemented, i.e., blockchain in our case. In that
way, one can deploy such systems in a systematic way [32].
Frameworks always create easiness for the community
who is working to explore a new thing. They also gave the
support to the concepts that have been constructed for a
specific study [28]. In the same way, conceptual frameworks
guide the path that a research uses and offer the foundation
for establishing its credibility. In many empirical and
exploratory studies, conceptual frameworks are the
compulsory prerequisite in a thesis or dissertation that
shows the student’s map of the research he seeks to compre-
hend [33]. A researcher can seek many benefits from a
conceptual framework. In order to formulate his world view
on a phenomenon, these frameworks help a researcher to
enhance his view more and more in order to inquire certain
aspects of a system [30]. The conceptual framework presents
a clear image/picture of systems that needs to be built. We
can also say that developing a huge system is a much difficult
7Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

task. Rather when you build a conceptual framework, then it
made things more and more evident to be explored and all
the required parts of that system become clearly visible. In
other worlds, the conceptual framework made researchers
to offer their practiced measure to a problem [34].
Conceptual frameworks consist of the main components
on which a system should be developed. They also answer
the most arising question that why research should be taken
into a certain topic. They also depict what a researcher
assumes and how he is going to ground his approach
conceptually [35]. The thinking of the entire process can
be acquired from these conceptual frameworks. Many a
time, these frameworks consist of certain diagrams and
figures and these are designed to clearly understand the
variable of a research topic, and the relationship between
the components of conceptual frameworks is shown with
the help of arrows [36].
Nigerian tertiary institutions have used blockchain
technology for the digitization of the academic records, as
all the academic records are being saved in a manual form
or in a centralized storage. In addition, security of digitized
academic records depends on the accuracy of processing
and storage. The Nigerian institute has used time stamps
and a digital signature scheme in this proposed framework.
This approach has proven as an alternative in the
perspective of authoritative access of the database of
academic record [37]. Figure 7 is the proposed architecture
of academic record security using blockchain.
The auto insurance accountability models are now going
to be disrupted by the advent of autonomous vehicles. In this
study, they have proposed a conceptual framework that is
based upon the permissioned blockchain. The given
framework is designed in a way that it combines all the
required entities that a liability model should have. In a
simplified form, this also explains the main components that
an autonomous system must have. In a conceptual
framework, the integral part is the communication of its
components, so that a complete and detailed system should
be developed in the future. Here, in this liability framework,
they have also given importance towards the partitioned
communication that is being made to guarantee that the
data exchange is only based on a need-to-know basis [38].
Please see Figure 8.
Virtual organizations and blockchain are two emerging
technologies in which researchers are keen to explore the
possibilities to solve problems and challenges. In this regard,
for the healthcare system, blockchain is also used to
automate the systems of validating healthcare records. In
this in-depth study, a conceptual framework has been
proposed. This framework has been proposed with the
intent to provide a blockchain-based healthcare system that
will guide complete steps on how to verify healthcare service
providers and how to validate the records [39]. Figure 9 is
expounding about the healthcare-based blockchain model.
Blockchain is also being used in public service delivery in
Sri Lanka. Three distinct public service delivery systems
were analyzed in order to derive a common framework that
can be used to design a blockchain-based solution for the
public sector processes. Systems were reformed using
blockchain technology, and two prototypes were developed
using two different present platforms [40].
2. Research Methodology and
Framework Design
The focus of this study is to explore the current systems and
bring innovation by the exploration of these existing
systems. Therefore, we adopted exploratory research.
Exploratory research methodology is defined as finding out
what is happening, seeking new intuitions, and generating
ideas and theories for new research. In the first section, we
have explored and analyzed what is happening in the land
registration process in Pakistan, and from these examination
and exploration processes, we have collected new insights.
With these new insights, we are in a position to produce
some concepts and hypotheses. In the second part, we have
explained our experiments that we have done in preparation
of this conceptual framework.
2.1. Data Collection. In our research, we have applied a
primary data collection technique as its best suits the empir-
ical researches and it is usually carried out through either
observation or the primary communication with the
stakeholders. Here, we have communicated directly with
stakeholders and those who are part of the system (land sale
and purchase).
2.2. Interviews. We have conducted semistructured
interviews of ten respondents who were land officers and
village officers from Multan and Islamabad and serving in
the Punjab Land Record Authority (PLRA).
2.3. Document Review. In parallel to an interview approach,
we have gone through from the document reviewing
process. We have thoroughly reviewed the documents
available at the Punjab Land Record Authority for land
Table 1: Types of blockchain.
Name Public blockchain (permission less) Public blockchain (permission less) Consortium blockchain (permission less)
Access No access (restrictions) Invitation only by the network
administrator Restricted to selected consortium members
Transact Anyone can make transactions Only those who have rights Selected consortium members only
View Anyone can view Shared between trusted parties Restricted to selected consortium members
Type Large, decentralized, i.e., bitcoin and
Ethereum cryptocurrency platforms
Middle ground platforms, accounting
and record keeping procedures
Participating companies equally involved in
the consensus and decision-making
8 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

registration purpose. This technique has been used in order
to maximize the diversity of the data.
2.4. Data Analysis. For the concrete understanding of the
interviews, we have employed a thematic analysis approach.
The technique of thematic analysis is a very flexible method
of qualitative data analysis. This method is specifically being
used for identifying, examining, and reporting all those
patterns or themes that are present in the data. In our case,
we have collected data in the forms of interviews and
employed the thematic analysis approach to draw some
important patterns and themes from this collected data.
Although thematic analysis itself uses some of other
methods for the exploration and detailed information, still
we have used an “anything goes”approach as this approach
is abundantly being used for the assessment of qualitative
data. This “anything goes”approach does not have any strict
guidelines in the given method; also, it can be used for any
Digitized academic
record
Digitized academic
record
Digitized
block
Digitized
block
Digitized
block
Digitized
block
Digitized
block
Cryptographic hash
function
Node-n
Node-5
Node-4
Node-3
Node-2
Node-1
Validation of updates
Public blockchain
Figure 7: A blockchain-based conceptual framework for augmenting security of digitized academic records.
Legal authority
Transport authorit
y
P2
P1
B1 B2 Bn
Chain of validated blocks
Auto manufacture
Autonomous vehicle
Insurance company
Maintenance service
provider AM2 W1
B1 B2 Bn
L
e
g
a
l
aut
h
orit
y
T
ransport autho
r
P
2
P
1
B1
B
2
Bn
C
hain of validated blocks
Auto
m
a
n
u
f
actu
r
e
Aut
ono
mou
s v
ehicl
e
I
nsurance compan
y
Ma
in
te
n
a
n
ce
se
rvi
c
e
B1
B
2
Bn
Figure 8: A blockchain-based framework for liability attribution for autonomous vehicles.
9Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

framework, either theoretical or conceptual framework.
Moreover, it can be used for the detailed and complete
assessments of qualitative data.
2.5. Data Coding. Data collected during this research was in
semistructured format that makes it difficult to analyze and
process further. Therefore, it needs to be consistent and in
one single format to be processed by the techniques. For
this, we have used the qualitative analysis software CAQ-
DAS (Computer-Assisted/Aided Qualitative Data Analysis
Software). We have employed our data to this software.
This has made our representation quite understandable.
The RQDA tool itself assisted in examining the written data
and helped to create codes that were afterward applied to
various parts of the records; a code characterized a theme
and construct. One code is usually allocated to many pieces
of text, and one piece of text can be assigned more than one
code; therefore, some parts of the texts, based on the theme,
were labelled with several codes and generalized afterwards
to draw some logical patterns. Please see Figure 10 for the
opted research methodology for this paper.
2.6. Proposed Framework and Its Validation. This section
details the design of the proposed framework and its basic
functionalities along with deployment of different record
keeping techniques. We have carried out an empirical study
that has shown the importance and need of a blockchain-
based system for the sensitive data of land records. Further,
the validation of the proposed framework is carried out in
two phases, namely, simple smart contract-based blockchain
and experiments carried out to collect the data from stake-
holders, which are discussed in this section.
2.7. Technology Used and the Design of the Framework. As
we have discussed earlier, in our framework, we have given
access only to those entities that are authorized to interact
with the system. In this regard, we have used private block-
chain to enhance security, integrity, and traceability of land
record data. We have used multichain blockchain (which is
a private blockchain) for the formulation of this framework.
The complete design of this framework lags this blockchain’s
permissioned node, i.e., multichain. We have utilized certain
protocols of the multichain in order to design this frame-
work as per the needs and the requirements.
Patient
(requester)
validation
Healthcare
and VBE
Healthcare
VO
Other healthcare
and VBEs
Provider
details Global pool
of healthcare
providers
Block chain
Health
institutions
Academic
institutions
6
6
6
5
74
3
2
8
1
Pat
i
e
n
t
(re
q
ueste
r)
va
li
dat
i
o
n
H
ea
l
t
h
ca
r
e
a
n
d
VB
E
H
ea
l
t
h
ca
r
e
VO
O
ther healthcar
e
Provi
d
er
d
etai
l
s
G
lobal
po
ol
o
f h
ea
l
t
h
car
e
p
rovider
s
Bl
oc
k
c
h
a
i
n
6
6
6
5
7
4
3
2
8
1
Figure 9: Service provider validation and verification framework for the blockchain-based healthcare system.
Data coding
(using RQDA tool)
Data analytics
Data collection
Documents review
Interviews
D
ata ana
l
ytics
Figure 10: Components of research methodology.
10 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

2.8. Framework Design. The framework has been designed
with some entities that will interact with the system. To keep
a check on who can interact with the ledger, it is essential to
conceptualize using permissioned blockchains. A blockchain
node is there that has imparted the permissioned effect in
this design. There are actors, and they have their roles in this
framework. We have described all the processes of the
framework in detail. In the first step, when a user/patwari/
village officer will register a piece of land, then he should
have to login into the system. After that, he will initiate a
request to register this piece of land.
2.9. Concepts of Land Registry Systems. If we start from the
advent of the record keeping technique, then it is obvious
that there was no guarantee that we can certify reliability
and trust. There was a single entity named as village offi-
cer/patwari who has all the record. What he must do is to
write the details of any piece of land on a paper or on the
animal’s skin. This is known as the “khasra number”that
is the point of identification for ownership. With the passage
of time when these record keeping techniques gave birth to
disputes and corruption, then a digitization process was
introduced. Unfortunately, although this has eliminated the
forgery and corruption, still it was a centralized storage for
the record keeping. In our framework, there are two main
concepts: land registry office and land registry officer. The
blockchain process after will validate the transaction made
by the officer that any transaction/entry can be made to
the land registry. This will eliminate the third party that is
a patwari or the other concerned person who can forge the
land records.
2.10. Proposed Framework. Here is our proposed framework
for blockchain-based land registry systems. Figure 11 shows
our proposed framework.
2.10.1. Actors and roles. In our proposed framework, there
are some actors and they have their roles as well.
2.10.2. Actors. User is a person who will register the title
deed of the land known like patwari.
Block
Transaction
ID 1
1
Block header
Previous hash
time stamp
number
Change
State
Contains
Transaction
Update
Delete
Land Registry
Number of land owner
Adress
Land number
Title number
Figure 11: Data block model.
Network
discovery
process
Registor
land
Block chain
node
User/patwari
Create
transaction
Grant
permissions
Revoke
permissions
Check
blocks
Government
ocer
Transaction
creation
process
Consensus
process
Block
generation
process
Figure 12: Proposed conceptual framework.
11Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

Figure 13: Validation environment.
Figure 14: Compilation process.
12 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

A blockchain operator or block generator will validate
the transactions (government officer/officials).
2.10.3. Roles. In our case, there are two actors, i.e., human
actor who interacts with the blockchain technology by creat-
ing the transactions. This actor is called the “user.”Secondly,
we are working with the permissioned blockchain; that is
why there exists a blockchain operator that would be a
human and he will verify and validate the transaction on
the basics of the consensus from all the participants of the
network. Here is the complete conceptual framework for
the blockchain-based land registry systems. In this proposed
system, we have used permissioned or private blockchain
that is multichain blockchain, as we did not want to open
this to the public. The only people who can look into the
system are the registered members. Whenever a user will
want to add a block to the blockchain, he must create a
transaction for this purpose. When a transaction will be cre-
ated, then a consensus process will take place as every node
of the private blockchain will have a copy of the transaction.
When a ping for the transaction takes place, then every node
of the block of chain will check the transaction according to
the copy that it has. If majority of the blocks verify this, then
the consensus will be completed after the verification and
validation and the block will be added to the chain. There
would be a smart contract that would have an embedded
logic in it. When a government official conforms to the
transaction, this transaction will be stored onto the block-
chain. Please see Figure 12 which is our ultimate proof-of-
concept system.
2.11. Data block model. Here is a data model; we have used
the input and output in order to make sense the complete
process of blockchain-based land registries. Here, the block
has transaction and the ID of these transactions while the
transaction has the update and delete attributes in it. When
any block/transaction is not verified, then it will be deleted,
others can be validated, and transactions can be updated as
the same. The assets or the registry relates to the transactions
that will be made in it. The registry will have the name of the
landowner, his address, title number of the land, and area of
the land. In the same way, the block header will have the
address of the last block and timestamp of the block. Please
see Figure 11.
The block contains transactions, while the metadata of
the block is kept in the block header. Figure 13 shows the
data block model for our proposed framework:
2.12. Platform for Validation of the Proposed Framework
2.12.1. Validation Using Simple Blockchain. In the first step,
for the validation of this proposed framework, we have used
Figure 15: Transaction addition.
13Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

Ethereum smart contracts that depict the real-time working
of the land registry on the technology of blockchain. We
have done this validation via a private blockchain network
where only those participants who can interact with the
chain are authorized to do so.
2.12.2. Environment. Above is the remix solidity interface
that is showing the validation procedure of the framework;
here, we have used smart contract in which all the logics
are embedded. A landowner named “ASAD”has a piece of
land with the name of “250 shahzad khan.”He has a social
security number that is an essential requirement for the land
registration system. Figure 14 shows the environment for the
validation process: please see Figure 13 for the testing of our
framework using Ethereum blockchain.
2.13. Smart contract compiler processing. In Ethereum
solidity integrated development environment, there are two
steps in the first step; the written smart contract is compiled
with the required version of the compiler. In this
compilation process, the compiler checks for the possible
bug/errors in that written smart contract, and after that,
IDE pops up for the next step. Figure 15 shows the smart
contract compilation process: please see Figure 14 for the
smart contract compilation representation.
2.14. Transaction addition. After the compilation step, the
written smart contract is subjected to the final deployment
step. Here, the logic embedded in that smart contract is
displayed in the form of transaction creation and addition,
respectively. For the proper running of this smart contract,
we have used a JavaScript virtual machine. Figure 16 shows
the addition of transaction: please see Figure 15.
2.15. State transition in blockchain after transaction. When
we have added a transaction into blockchain, then the state
of blockchain also gets changed. As soon as we have clicked
that button “Deploy the contracts,”it changed the state of
blockchain and a completely changed interface appeared in
order to deploy the contracts to get them verified by the
participants. Figure 17 shows the state transition in
blockchain after transaction: please see Figure 16 for the
change of states in blockchain.
2.16. Transaction validation and block addition process.
After the successful running process, a transaction is
recorded, i.e., when a user “Muhammad Irfan Khalid”
purchases the piece of land. In addition, he is willing to
pay the desired price for that piece of land; then, after the
verification from the permissioned blockchain node, this
transaction is completed and a new person becomes the
owner of that piece of land; as a result after this transaction,
a fresh block will be boosted to the blockchain. Figure 18
shows the transaction validation and addition process:
please see Figure 17 where transactions are getting validated.
Figure 16: State transition in blockchain after transaction.
14 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

3. Evaluation and Findings
3.1. Overview. This section has briefly described the
experiments and techniques that we have used to validate
our proposed framework and results that we have received
by doing these experiments. Firstly, we have used a
blockchain technology experiment in order to validate the
framework. Secondly, we have done an experiment that led
us to evaluate our study. For the sake of the evaluation of
this framework, we have collected the primary data and then
evaluation has been performed because of this data. As we
have explained in previous sections that we have used an
empirical research method, we have performed some
experiment for the sake of validation of our framework.
Figure 17: Transaction validation and block addition process.
Total participants
50%
Strongly agree 10%
Agree
22%
Uncertain
5%
Disagree
10%
Strongly disagree
3%
T
ota
l
p
Sl
e
r
tain
%
10%
Figure 18: Feasibility report of the blockchain-based land registry system.
15Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

Our proposed framework is the product of the existing
frameworks for blockchain-based systems and the response
that we have received from the participants.
3.2. Validation through PoC Blockchain. In the first phase of
validation, we have developed a simple blockchain based on
smart contracts. In this validation, we have shown how
private blockchain can be used for the land registration
system. However, we have designed an extensive illustration
of our proposed framework, but still it can be validated with
the help of a simple blockchain. We have opted a different
technique that was “Ethereum smart contracts with solidity.”
We have run few tests using the Ethereum blockchain
platform in real-time environment where the ownership of
land can be shifted from one person to another. However,
it does not happen in a manual way; rather, we have
performed with the help of smart contracts. We have
registered a piece of land and defined its price as the same.
In the next step, we have used logic that was embedded into
smart contracts, where when a person wants to buy a piece
of land, he must pay the price that was defined by the smart
contracts. When the defined price criteria are met after that,
a transaction takes place resulting in change of ownership
from one person to another.
3.3. Results from Blockchain Proof of Concept. This
validation through PoC has given us insights that in the
future, we can also build such systems where all the
functions of land record registries can be fulfilled. Here, we
have automated a land sale purchase process and then
directed it to the blockchain through smart contract. In this
way, the complex data of land record can also be marked as
safe as there would be transaction record. The pattern that is
currently followed by the higher authorities like PLRA is
centralized data storage. The data is being stored in a
centralized server. In our case, there is a decentralized data
storage system where every single entity should have access
to the system as far as the comparison of these two systems
is concerned for evaluation; by using the decentralized
system, the land record data can be digitized with the
blockchain automated process also; by the blockchain
immutable process, the security of land record data cannot
be compromised easily. In previous studies, there was a great
intention to implement blockchain technology in supply
chain management, healthcare, and many other fields in
Pakistan. However, very few studies are available that has
given attention towards the land record systems. We have
constructed a framework and gave an idea that these systems
can also be built for management of land record registry
systems as well. As far as our results are concerned, as we
have used exploratory research methodology, we have
explored this use case (land registry systems) with the
technology (blockchain) and found that if proper attention
would be given, then certainly we can have such land
registries where there would be trust, security, availability
of data, and traceability at the same time. As per the basic
functionalities of blockchain after developing such systems,
in the future, the land record data would become more
reliable, available, and traceable.
3.4. Experiment. Apart from the validation that has been
discussed in the previous section using blockchain, we have
also done an experiment where we have discussed and
elaborated the complete procedure of land registration along
with the results. We have discussed our proposed PoC with
those who are dealing with land registry systems. In this
experiment, we have included some of the village officers
(patwaris) and those who are currently managing land
records, i.e., the staffof the Punjab Land Record Authority
(Ali Pur). We have done this experiment with 20 people
from district Muzaffargarh and district Rawalpindi,
Pakistan. Here, we have divided our experiments into two
demonstrations: in the first phase we have given a
demonstration to those who have been using the pen and
paper system while starting land record data and in the
second phase we have done a demonstration with the staff
of PLRA.
In the first phase of our experiment, we have described
briefly our proposed framework and system where the land
registry is supposed to be based upon the technology of
blockchain. As in this demo, the majority of our audiences
were illiterate or had primary to elementary level of
education. We have elaborated on our PoC from the start
to end. They have also asked a number of questions on this,
and these questions were the base for our results which we
have described in detail in the next section. In view of that
procedure which they have been using, i.e., saving land data
into registers, we have explained our PoC. As we have
Table 2: The participant’s response and experience of using the proposed framework’s PoC.
Survey questions Strongly agree
(5)
Agree
(4)
Uncertain
(3)
Disagree
(2)
Strongly
disagree (1)
Blockchain-based land registry system is feasible 4 9 2 4 1
Blockchain-based land registry system is acceptable to use 3 5 1 6 5
Blockchain-based land registry system eliminates the issues of the
existing system 13 4 0 2 1
Blockchain-based land registry system makes the land record
management process easy 15 3 0 2 0
Table 3: Experiment result 1.
Total
participants
Strongly
agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
20 4 9 2 4 1
16 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

described in the above section, we have chosen a particular
use case where the ownership of the land can be transferred
in a real-time environment. We have noted down their
feedback about our PoC and their reservations on this PoC
as well.
In the second phase of our experiment, we have given
another demonstration to the staffof PLRA. The staffof
PLRA was adequately educated as compared to those
who have been given demonstration in the first phase.
Firstly, we have discussed the details; the systems on
which the Punjab Land Record Authority is packing land
record data are completely centralized, while in our PoC,
we have proposed a decentralized system where there is
a distributed network. After sharing enough details, we
have given them a demonstration where we have shown
one of the use cases of land management that was the
transfer of the ownership using the blockchain-based land
registry system. There, we have shown them how a deed
can be covered in a single transaction (as we have shown
in our validation section above). After having enough
discussion, we have received their feedback which we have
written in the next section. We have received both positive
and negative feedback on this.
Someone has believed that this technology is far away
from our knowledge. As we only know how to click on a
URL and print the details of any person who asks for that.
In the same way, some people who have been in touch with
the latest technologies using smart devices have also given
their feedback where they have asked us to implement this
in all over the country so that the existing hurdles in the
existing system can be abolished in an automated way. With
this experiment, we have gathered a number of factors which
are a barrier in implanting the latest technologies in a system
which is being practiced from the past.
And finally, based on this experiment inputs/feedback,
we have concluded the results.
3.5. Postexperiment Survey. After having sessions with
participants, we conducted a postexperiment survey to
record the participant’s response and experience about the
proposed framework. The postexperiment survey consisted
of four questions regarding the proposed framework’s
feasibility, acceptance, and performance. A total of 20
participants answered these questions, and their responses
are rated on the scale of 1 to 5. Please see Table 2.
Participants rated each question based on their
experience with a blockchain-based land registration system
in which we provided sufficient information and
demonstrated the real-time operation of blockchain in
which we changed the ownership of land from one person
to another using smart contracts.
We have gathered the feedback of the participants on the
basis of following these questions:
(i) Blockchain-based land registry system is feasible
(ii) Blockchain-based land registry system is acceptable
to use
(iii) Blockchain-based land registry system eliminates
the issues of the existing system
(iv) Blockchain-based land registry system makes the
land record management process easy
3.6. Postexperiment Results. An experiment with the land
record authority and village officers revealed that our land
management system still requires some basic improvements.
Many of them, with the exception of those who use
computer-based work systems, do not have a fundamental
understanding of blockchain technology. We then received
Total participants
50%
Strongly agree 7%
Agree
12%
Uncertain
3%
Disagree
15%
Strongly disagree
13%
Figure 19: Acceptability of use.
Table 4: Experiment result 2.
Total
participants
Strongly
agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
20 3 5 1 6 5
Table 5: Experiment result 3.
Total
participants
Strongly
agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
20 13 4 0 2 1
17Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

their feedback on our proposed PoC as well as its use in a
real-time context. They were hesitant to deploy the
blockchain-based system since the transition from a
standard data entry system to a totally decentralized system
appeared daunting. If a department has to use blockchain-
based solutions, all of its personnel must be completely famil-
iar with them. This can be defined as the employees’learning
process as it relates to evolving technologies. We concluded
from their response that some fundamental measures should
be made before executing or investing in these blockchain-
based systems in order to gain acquaintance with these impor-
tant and growing technologies so that we can implement them
in our enterprises. Despite the fact that we showed a
demonstration at the conclusion so that they could have a
sense of the technology, they were unable to grasp the signifi-
cance of this PoC. We suggest a private blockchain-based land
record management system with access restricted to
individuals who work with data in land record offices and
those who grant authorization to interact with it. They can
monitor land data in real time if they have access to such sys-
tems. As previously said, there are some challenges in putting
this system into practice in Pakistan. Using a blockchain-
based decentralized system necessitates a significant amount
of understanding. After that, one can interact with that kind
of system. We then received feedback from those with whom
we conducted our experiment, including PLRA staffand
certain village officers from various places. Please see Table 3.
The blockchain-based land registry system is feasible.
Please see Table 4 for further details about the experi-
mental results of the second question.
Please see Figure 18 for the information of the
experimental results of the first question.
The blockchain-based land registry system is acceptable
to use.
Please see Figure 19 for the information of the
experimental results of the second question.
The blockchain-based land registry system eliminates
the issues of the existing system.
Please see Table 5.
Please see Figure 20 for the information about the
experimental results of the third question.
The blockchain-based land registry system makes the
land record management process easy.
Please see Table 6.
Please see Figure 21 for the information of the
experimental results of the fourth question.
4. Results and Discussion
The purpose of the above evaluation was to determine the
impact of adopting a blockchain-based land registry system
for those who are new to it and are now relying on
centralized systems for strong land record data. Our
evaluation was based on four fundamental questions
designed to learn about the participants’perceptions and
experiences with a blockchain-based land register system.
These questions centered on the first-time user’s experience
with a decentralized system for managing land records.
There were three research questions in our research:
(1) What are the different land registry systems?
(2) What are the different frameworks available for
blockchain-based systems?
(3) What can be the main components of decentralized
land registry systems?
We have formulated the outcomes of the validation of
our proposed system in light of these research issues. It goes
without saying that if industry adopts such frameworks, they
can be used to innovate traditional processes. There is
comprehensive innovation and advancement for the people,
from paper work to the blockchain-based system.
4.1. Trust. Our framework is based upon the technology of
blockchain; that is why it guarantees trust. Instead of rely-
ing on a central entity, our framework puts decentralized
Total participants
50%
Strongly agree 32%
Agree
10%
Uncertain
0% Disagree
5%
Strongly disagree
3%
To
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
T
g
ree
32%
%
Agr
e
e
10
%
5%
Figure 20: Issues in terms of the existing system.
Table 6: Experiment result 4.
Total
participants
Strongly
agree Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
disagree
20 15 3 0 2 0
18 Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

trust in the parties involved. Here, there would be
complete information about the ownership and the process
of the ownership.
4.2. Transparency. Each step of the framework is well
defined. Anyone can keep track of the changes that have
occurred. There is no risk of forgery or corruption because
there is no unauthorized access to the system. As stated in
the framework, when a transaction occurs, the entire process
shall be carried out in complete transparency. We have also
looked at the traditional method of storing land records.
Similarly, we looked into the current practice of the Punjab
Land Record Authority (PLRA). There are significant
differences between these two systems, one of which was
the one we have proposed here (blockchain-based system).
In the existing land record saving method, the seller and
buyer must seek authorization from the local managerial
organizations. After that, they will be directed to the district
and tehsil offices. The whole practice takes up to 10 to 15
working days, and after this stipulated time, one can get
the possession of his land. On the other hand, in our
proposed system, there is no such type of time and
procedure. In our system, there is no central authority;
rather, each block participating in the process verifies the
transaction. Furthermore, there is no risk of data loss or
corruption in a blockchain-based system because blockchain
uses a time-stamped method that allows users to follow any
data changes. As a result, we may conclude that our
proposed approach is far superior to the current standard
practices for information storage.
4.3. Limitations. Despite the fact that we proposed a
framework, our research has some limitations. According
to our research, in order to adopt blockchain-based systems,
the community that will engage with the system must be
capable of managing new technologies, such as blockchain
in our case. We inquired about the automated method for
recording land records during the study and received a
surprise response. We can claim that “change resistance”
will be the most challenging obstacle because most of these
folks are not computer literate and will find any system with
a steep learning curve problematic.
4.4. Results of Experiments with Stakeholders. Experiments
were conducted to evaluate our proposed conceptual
framework using blockchain PoC. These experiments have
provided us with both positive and negative feedback on
our suggested framework. Participants’responses to using
the proposed frameworks were collected in a post
experiment survey.
5. Conclusion
The paper presents a link to offer a conceptual framework
for blockchain-based land registry systems. Following a
review of various frameworks, as well as some of the more
vigorous approaches and concepts employed in these
frameworks, they were mapped with a scenario that led to
the conceptual framework. The mapping of the scenarios
aided us in classifying the major components, which has
been useful to our proposed framework. A land registry
combined with blockchain technology has the potential to
truly revolutionize governance. After identifying the
necessary components, we developed a framework based
on fundamental notions that have been employed in both
classical and new record keeping systems. Land record
storage, like today, has a centralized origin. As a result, this
centralized storage can be hacked, forged, or
misappropriated, while in our framework, we used entirely
decentralized blockchain-based solutions. We have also
highlighted privacy as a fair consideration. Some of the
nodes in the framework are required as part of the
decentralized system’s characteristics. Only those who are
permitted to interact, such as a block generator or a
government official or officer, can interact in this system.
In terms of methodology, we gathered primary data
directly from the stakeholders, including government offices
and officers, village officers, and the general public who use
this system. We conducted semistructured interviews to
assess our framework and obtain feedback from both public
and government entities.
6. Future Work
Currently, we have used a private blockchain-based
conceptual framework; however, in the near future, this
Total participants
50%
Strongly agree 37%
Agree
8%
Uncertain
0%
Disagree
5%
Strongly disagree
0%
T
o
t
%
g
8
%
Figure 21: Easiness in terms of blockchain.
19Applied Bionics and Biomechanics

procedure can be extended to allow the public to connect
directly with the system and obtain information about their
assets. Furthermore, we have merely been in operation for
the purpose of developing a conceptual framework.
However, such frameworks can be used to create a software
system in the future. As a framework, it can undoubtedly
provide insight into the actual system.
Data Availability
The data used to support the findings of this study are
available from the corresponding author upon request.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Researchers Supporting
Project number (RSP2022R476), King Saud University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
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