Advanced materials supply considerations for electric vehicle applications

Abstract

Electric vehicles are now proliferating based on technologies and components that in turn rely on the use of strategic materials and mineral resources. This review article discusses critical materials considerations for electric drive vehicles, focusing on the underlying component technologies and materials. These mainly include materials for advanced batteries, motors and electronics, lightweight structures, and other components specific to each vehicle type. Particularly strategic and widely used minerals and elements/structures for electric vehicles include nickel, cobalt, rare-earth minerals, lightweight and high strength steel alloys and underlying metals (e.g., magnesium and aluminum), carbon fiber, graphite and graphene, copper, and steel alloying materials. Additional key considerations include those around component and vehicle supply chains, repurposing and recycling vehicle components at end of vehicle life, and environmental and humanitarian considerations around the extraction and transport of the evolving set of materials needed for modern electric vehicle production.
Graphical abstract

Full text

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1
Advanced materials supply
considerations for electric vehicle
applications
TimothyE.Lipman* and PetraMaier
Electric vehicles are now proliferating based on technologies and components that in turn rely on
the use of strategic materials and mineral resources. This review article discusses critical materials
considerations for electric drive vehicles, focusing on the underlying component technologies
and materials. These mainly include materials for advanced batteries, motors and electronics,
lightweight structures, and other components specic to each vehicle type. Particularly strategic
and widely used minerals and elements/structures for electric vehicles include nickel, cobalt, rare-
earth minerals, lightweight and high strength steel alloys and underlying metals (e.g., magnesium
and aluminum), carbon ber, graphite and graphene, copper, and steel alloying materials. Additional
key considerations include those around component and vehicle supply chains, repurposing
and recycling vehicle components at end of vehicle life, and environmental and humanitarian
considerations around the extraction and transport of the evolving set of materials needed for
modern electric vehicle production.
Introduction
After many years of development, electric vehicles (EVs)
are now being adopted in many countries with expected
further growth in market share, perhaps becoming a
dominant drivetrain option for light and heavier vehicles by
around mid-century. EVs come in several types, ranging from
those that are completely battery powered to those that are
plug-in hybrids (PHVs), that can be dierentiated as having
serial or parallel electric/gasoline drivetrains, and fuel cell
vehicles (FCVs) that mainly rely on hydrogen fuel cells for
power but also include battery storage systems. FCVs use
similar drive motors and power electronics to battery EVs
and serial PHVs, being fully electrically powered, but also
include additional components related to the fuel cell system
and hydrogen storage.
EV market developments are being supported by govern-
ments and public agencies because they are considered a lead-
ing option in transportation to reduce emissions of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) and other harmful products of the use of fossil
fuels in combustion engines. In tandem with reduced emis-
sions from the power sector, EVs can become more low emis-
sion over time and can also integrate with utility grids to help
further introduce renewable energy sources. Figure 1 shows
a diagram of a modern EV architecture and the major system
components.
This review article discusses critical materials considera-
tions for EVs, PHVs, and FCVs, focusing on the underlying
component technologies and materials. These mainly include
materials for advanced batteries, motors and electronics, light-
weight structures, and other components specic to each vehi-
cle type. Particularly strategic and widely used minerals and
elements/structures for EVs include nickel, cobalt, rare-earth
minerals, lightweight and high strength steel alloys and under-
lying metals (e.g., magnesium and aluminum), carbon ber,
graphite and graphene, copper, and steel alloying materials
such as vanadium and zirconium.
Following a discussion of general considerations for
advanced materials for EVs, the paper next discusses the spe-
cic materials considerations of various types of advanced
EV batteries, now heavily employing lithium-based chemis-
tries. Next, the paper discusses key materials considerations
around lightweight structures and components. The paper
then includes a discussion of materials specic to hydrogen
fuel cell vehicles, including those related to fuel cell systems
and hydrogen storage tanks. The paper then discusses over-
all EV materials supply chain and recycling considerations.
© The Author(s) 2022
doi:10.1557/s43577-022-00263-z
TimothyE.Lipman , Transportation Sustainability Research Center (TSRC), Institute ofTransportation Studies, University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, CA, USA; telipman@berkeley.edu
PetraMaier , University ofApplied Sciences Stralsund, Germany; petra.maier@hochschule-stralsund.de
*Corresponding author

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Finally, the paper concludes with overall ndings and criti-
cal research and development needs and opportunities for
advanced materials.
General considerations foradvanced materials
supply forEV applications
Electric drive vehicles use a range of materials that dier
markedly from the materials used in modern internal-com-
bustion engine vehicles. These include materials used in EV
batteries, drive motors, power electronics, and, in the case
of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), also the fuel cell stack, auxil-
iary systems, and high-pressure hydrogen storage tanks. Key
materials consideration especially include those for lithium,
cobalt, and nickel for advanced lithium-ion batteries, as well
as “rare-earth” metals such as neodymium, samarium, and
dysprosium for advanced electric drive motors. Modern EVs
also may use signicant amounts of carbon ber and other
lightweight materials in their structures as well as in other
components, such as carbon ber wrapped metal hydrogen
storage tanks for FCVs.
Global demand for these materials is expected to increase
markedly in the coming years, with expected expansion of
EV markets. For example, global demand for lithium for EV
batteries has recently been estimated at about 300,000 metric
tons, compared with global production at 520,000 metric tons.1
However, demands for lithium for EV batteries could reach
2.8 million metric tons by 2028 by one forecast, outstripping
projected mining capacity of about 2 million metric tons.1 By
2100, demands for new lithium resources could be in the range
of 4.4 to 7.5 million metric tons, where availability of mate-
rial could be a major constraint.2 Thus, near-term, it is only
mining capacity rather than overall lithium availability that
is at issue. But later in the century, the actual availability of
lithium at economical prices could be a concern with billions
of EVs produced and even with recycling of materials from
spent EV batteries.2,3
In any event, the extraction, rening, and use of the vari-
ous materials used in modern EVs involve complex interac-
tions through associated industries and global trade, owing
up to supply chains of then manufactured components for use
by automotive original equipment manufacturing companies
(OEMs). With regard to the key element of lithium, used in all
of the EV battery technologies discussed here, the element in
its most extractable forms is not well distributed globally and
thus subject to key materials supply constraints. Most global
deposits are in brine locations (estimated at 83% of reserves),
largely in South America but also in China and the United
States, while smaller amounts (17%) are in hard rock in the
form of mineral deposits, especially in Australia.4 Lithium
is also present in large quantities in seawater, but in levels
too low for economical extraction compared to other types
of reserves.
Problematically, some of the most mineral wealthy coun-
tries have political and economic instability. Afghanistan
for example, has vast natural resources relevant to advanced
energy technologies, including cobalt, copper, iron, gold, sil-
ver, rare-earth minerals, lead, chromium, and lithium in hard
rock form. China has vast rare-earth mineral resources but
is not otherwise particularly resource abundant except for
coal, while Russia possesses large amounts of iron, manga-
nese, chromium, nickel, platinum, titanium, copper and other
strategic metals and minerals. There are complex strategic,
logistical, and geo-political issues around extracting, ren-
ing, manufacturing and assembling EV components based on
these materials.
A key emerging issue now that EVs are being commercial-
ized in large numbers is the recycling and re-use of key mate-
rials. Closed loop manufacturing cycles including large-scale
recycling of spent batteries and other key EV components will
be important to reducing reliance on virgin materials, that are
sure to be increasingly harder to obtain over time as the richest
and most easy to produce resources are expended rst.
Materials considerations foradvanced electric vehicle
batteries
Over the past decade, improvements in lithium-based batteries
coupled with declining costs have made them the dominant
choice for EVs. Previous generations of EVs and hybrid vehi-
cles employed nickel-metal hydride, lead-acid, nickel–cad-
mium, and other battery types, but these have almost entirely
given way to various types of lithium batteries in modern EVs.
There are several types of lithium batteries, based most fun-
damentally on varying cathode materials, but also potential
anode materials as alternatives to the conventional graphite.
Primary lithium-ion types include lithium cobalt oxide (LCO),
lithium manganese oxide (LMO), lithium nickel manganese
cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium
nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), and lithium titanate
(LTO). These involve dierent uses of basic materials, with
use of cobalt of particular concern given its relatively high
cost and concerns about human rights associated with mining
Figure1. Cutaway diagram of modern EV showing battery pack
(middle), electric drive motor (rear), and power electronics and
radiator/cooling system (front). Source: Audi AG.

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practices, as well as use of nickel that is also relatively expen-
sive in the processed form needed for advanced EV batteries.
Figure 2 indicates basic materials breakdowns for some of the
lithium battery chemistries discussed in this section.
LCO is a well-established battery chemistry based on
LiCO2, dating back to about 1980 and still in wide use espe-
cially for portable electronics. It has properties of high energy
density, high cycle life, and good overall reliability, but
includes intensive use of cobalt as well as lithium. It also suf-
fers from physical cell degradation at high operational voltages
such as through surface degradation, phase transitions, and
inhomogenous reactions.6 One production method for LCO
is to co-precipitate Co2+ and C2O4
2− solutions, yielding solid
rods of CoC2O4 that are used with water in a calcination step to
develop what is known as an interconnected LCO. This LCO
material can then be soft milled into discrete sub-micrometer
sized LCO particles for use battery cathode materials, with
enhanced discharge/rate and eciency performance of mate-
rials as well as greater simplicity of process steps compared
with some other fabrication methods.7
Batteries based on LMO cathodes use manganese-dioxide
(MnO2) as the basic material, with advantages of employ-
ing earth-abundant and non-toxic materials. LiMn2O4 is a
well-established LMO formulation, with several dierent
compounds designed to manage the relative drawbacks of
LMO including physical degradation due to dissolution of
electrode material. This especially occurs when the oxida-
tion state of manganese drops below Mn + 3.5, tending to
form Mn(II) and Mn(IV), where the Mn(II) can then dissolve
into most types of electrolytes and this then degrades the
cathode.8 Hence, eorts have focused on maintaining mag-
nesium oxidation states above + 3.5 during battery operation
using various spinel, layered, and composite concepts for
electrode design.
Meanwhile, NMC battery cathodes (LiNiMnCoC2)
are now among the most widely used for transportation
applications of lithium batteries, dating back over 10 years
and incorporating both cobalt and manganese along with
lithium and nickel. They have high specic energy and good
all-around battery characteristics including specic power,
lifetime, and safety. Industry product oerings reveal typi-
cal NMC cathode powders consisting of 33% nickel, 33%
manganese, and 33% cobalt, referred to as a 1-1-1 blend,
designed to reduce manufacturing costs relative to higher
cobalt levels. Recently, a new advanced battery called NMC
811 has been announced with cathode material content of
80% nickel, 10% manganese, and only 10% cobalt, a poten-
tial “game changer” for the industry depending on how it
performs in the real world. At least two major automakers
have announced plans to introduce these new NMC 811 bat-
teries in upcoming models.
LFP (LiFePO4) based batteries are also widely used,
incorporating iron and phosphate and avoiding the use of
nickel and cobalt in the cathode. These batteries are less
energy dense than nickel-based designs but are stable and
considered ideal for stationary applications especially. Indus-
try information shows cathode powder formulations that
are coated with carbon, known as C-LiFePO4, with weight
compositions (not including oxygen) of about 4% lithium,
32% iron, 20% phosphorus, 0.3% manganese, a trace of lead,
and about 1.5% carbon for particle coating. Interestingly,
EV industry leader Tesla has recently indicated a switch to
LFP type batteries after incorporating mostly NCA types in
the past.
The NCA type batteries are fundamentally based on nickel,
cobalt, and aluminum for the cathode material, with formula-
tions such as LiNi0.8Co0.15Al0.05O2. These have the advantages
of relatively low usage of cobalt and good energy density and
have been used in commercial EVs including most Tesla vehi-
cles produced to date. Investigations are continuing to explore
advances in producing the cathode powders and full electrodes
for better overall performance, using a variety of techniques.
These include solid-state reaction, solution combustion, atomi-
zation, spray drying, and infrared methods for NCA precur-
sor fabrication, and various further advanced techniques for
electrode manufacture.9
Lithium-titanate-oxide or LTO batteries (Li4Ti5O12) are
another type, dating back about 15 years. These are character-
ized by fast-charging capability, long cycle life, and generally
good environmental characteristics, but considerably lower
energy density than most other lithium battery types. This is
primarily owing to the lower fundamental cell voltage of 2.4 V
for this battery chemistry compared to 3.6 V for most other
lithium battery types.
Figure 3 presents a general materials composition for a
modern EV battery, including active and passive battery mate-
rials. These include cathode, anode, and electrolyte solution
materials, as well as structural materials including separator
plastics, aluminum and copper current collectors, and carbon
black and binder materials.
00.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
LCO
NCA
NMC-111
NMC-622
NMC-811
Li Co Ni Mn
Figure2. Primary materials requirements for lithium-ion battery
types (kg/kWh). Source: From data presented in Reference 5.

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This discussion highlights the importance of cathode
materials in the overall lithium battery story, whereas battery
anodes are somewhat simpler and typically comprised care-
fully formed graphite owing to its many benets for this bat-
tery type. Graphite (either naturally or synthetically formed)
has the characteristics of having high capacities for lithium-ion
acceptance with low volumetric expansion, along with high
reversibility, good cycle life, and good electronic conductiv-
ity.10 For enhanced capacity, graphite anodes can be comprised
individual layers of graphene that are stacked together, allow-
ing for spaces for the lithium ions to be intercalated. Recent
investigations include addition of silicon to the anode, attempt-
ing to take advantage of its very high capacities expressed in
mAh/gram. However, these Si-based materials are subject to
high volumetric expansion and thus the levels for practical
batteries at present appear to be limited to about 5% silicon
by weight.10
Finally, another key component of lithium-based batter-
ies is the separator material that is sandwiched between the
positive and negative electrodes and that acts as a Li+ ion con-
ductor. The characteristics of these materials can aect cell
performance, longevity, manufacturability, and recyclability.
The material is typically a synthesized plastic type of mate-
rial, with various types such as polyethylene, polypropylene,
polyolen, and poly(vinylidene uoride) being used and inves-
tigated as separator materials.11
Further in the future, a new class of lithium battery being
developed that is known as solid-state. It employs a solid
rather than gel type electrolyte, with potential benets for
safety, temperature tolerance, and energy/power density, as
well as possible use of metal rather than graphite anode mate-
rials. Exploration of a variety of separator materials includes
inorganic and organic electrolytes, as well as composite elec-
trolytes based on ceramics and polymers blended together to
compensate for shortcomings in the more basic types.12 Solid-
state lithium batteries seem poised to be the next frontier in EV
battery technology, with the entire industry potentially aected
as a result of these emerging market developments.
For further discussion of battery materials considerations
for additional battery types, please see Gür13 in this this vol-
ume. This includes those being developed and deployed for
electrical utility grid and other energy storage applications as
well as the EV batteries discussed here.
Materials forelectric vehicle motors andelectronic
components
Of course, EVs have entirely dierent propulsion systems
(electric motors vs. combustion engines, both with associ-
ated transmissions) than conventional vehicles, separate from
the battery power system. The key component for EVs is the
electric drive motor, consisting of a single moving part (the
rotor) compared with hundreds of moving parts in a modern
. Improved
structural
stability
. Faster ion,
election,
& phonon
transport
. Faster ion &
election transport
. Conductive media
. Faster ion & electron transport
. Improved chemical & thermal stability
. Protection from
electrolyte
. Stabilization of
surface reactions
. Conductive media
. Prevention of
electrolyte
decomposition
. Formation of passivation
layer(s) on the surface
of electrode(s)
. Controlled solubility
of active material(s)
& decomposition
product(s)
. Mechanical
(structural)
support
. Modified
reactivity
Morphology Control
Dimension Reduction
VS.
Composite Formation Doping & Functionalization
Electrolyte Modification
doped
graphitic
carbon
Polymer
DNA
Metal
Quantum
dot
Nitrogen
Coation & Encapsulation
. Higher surface
reactivity
. Relief of stress(s)
& improved
mechanical stability
a
bc
def
Figure3. General strategies for lithium-ion battery performance enhancement and their purpose: (a) reducing dimensions of active
materials, (b) formation of composites, (c) doping and functionalization, (d) tuning particle morphology, (e) formation of coatings or shells
around active materials, and (f) modication of electrolyte. Source: Reference 9.

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combustion engine. For EV applications, there are several
potential candidates for motor technology including direct
current (DC), alternating current (AC) induction, brushless
permanent magnet (BPM), and switched reluctance motors,
among others. Also, EVs can have one motor (front or rear
wheel drive), two (one motor for each axle), or four (one
motor for each wheel). The only commercially deployed motor
types at present are BPM and AC induction motors, where
most automakers employ BPM but Tesla and a few others have
historically used AC induction, with Tesla recently adopting
BPM technology for the smaller Model 3.
These motor types dier markedly in that AC induction
motors do not rely on rare-earth magnet materials but also have
some performance limitations compared with BPM motors.
Rare-earth materials are a group of 17 lanthanide group ele-
ments (also including yttrium and scandium), of which samar-
ium and neodymium have been primarily used as advanced
magnet materials. Now, neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) is the
dominant type of BPM motor material, representing the most
powerful commercially available magnet material.
Figure 4 presents the geographic distribution of rare-earth
materials across the globe. They are generally well distrib-
uted compared to other strategic EV materials such as lithium
and cobalt, but the richness of ores for these various materi-
als varies greatly across deposits, with many having only low
levels of the most useful and costly elements. Based on current
levels, China controls a large amount (80%) of commercial
rare-earth metals production, but other countries including the
United States, Australia, and others are capable of developing
reserves that could change this supply situation.
BPM motors have higher peak and overall eciencies and
power densities compared with AC induction motors but suf-
fer from loss of magnetism at higher temperatures, a feature
that must be managed in EVs with eective cooling strategies.
Whereas AC induction motors use copper windings on both
the rotor and stator to generate an electrical eld, BPM motors
use stationary magnets in the rotor coupled with copper wind-
ings in the stator. Figure 5 shows a drawing of a modern BPM
EV motor and motor assembly as used in the General Motors
Figure4. Geographic distribution of known rare-earth material deposits. Source: Reference 14.
Figure5. Electric motor system design for a modern Chevrolet
Bolt electric vehicle (149kW nominal rating). Source: General
Motors.

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Chevrolet Bolt vehicle, nominally rated at 149 kW of power
and 360 Newton-meters of torque.
EVs also employ sophisticated power electronics and
motor controllers in the propulsion system, consisting of
complicated networks of copper wiring, a DC to AC power
inverter, and computerized electronic controls. Industry
statements by Tesla indicate the Model S employed about
3 km of wiring, while this was reduced to about 1.5 km
in the Model 3 with plans to further reduce in the future.
The central power-inverter switching components for EVs
employed metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transis-
tor (MOSFET) technology in earlier years but now are
largely incorporating a closely related insulated gate bipo-
lar transistor (IGBT) technology. The various intricately
manufactured electronic devices in the overall motor
controller system are composed mostly of basic materi-
als such as copper, steel, silicon, and plastic, but also
potentially with small amounts of rarer materials such
as gallium. They are currently limited by manufacturing
rather than basic materials constraints, where in recent
years availability of microchip components in particu-
lar has been a constraint on production for some vehicle
manufacturers.
Lightweight materials andstructures
Lightweight materials for EVs are discussed in this section,
focusing on magnesium, aluminum, and titanium metal alloys
and high strength steels as well as composite and more com-
plex materials. This section focuses on materials for the body
structure of the car. These include multi-material, body-in-
white designs (see dierent concepts in Figure 6) as well as
the battery housing and support structure.
Magnesium alloys possess the lowest density among all
structural materials, and with other additional advantages
including high strength-to-weight ratio, good castability,
deformability, recyclability and high damping capacity, appli-
cation in the automotive area directly leads to weight reduction
and eciency improvements. Brief reviews of historical trends
in vehicle weight and automotive magnesium, key barriers to
wider adoption of Mg in high-volume vehicle applications, and
promising paths of manufacturing and processing for this mate-
rial are provided in References 15 and 16. The die-cast cross
car beam of the type by GF Casting Solutions shown in Fig-
ure 7 oers many advantages for manufacturers of light vehi-
cles. Cast Mg can replace many individual steel sheet parts or
proles. With a complex casting solution maximum functional
integration and a signicant weight reduction can be achieved.
Aluminum casting
Steel
Composite
Aluminum
Mild steel
High strength steel
Aluminum sheet
Magnesium
Aluminum extrusion
AI-Extrusion Blue
Green
Orange
Dark greenMagnesium
AI-Sheet
AI-Cast
St-Sheet (cold) Gray
Magenta
Brown
St-Sheet (warm)
FRP
Very high strength steel
Extra high strength steel
Ultra high strength steel
a
b
c
Figure6. Different concepts for body-in-white design include (a) Mach-II body-in-white design by Ford heavy on magnesium, with permis-
sion from Ford Motor Company, (b) full battery electric Volvo XC40 heavy on steel, with permission from Volvo, and (c) Lightweight Multi-
Material-Body-Concept for an EV heavy on aluminum, with permission from Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft.

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Figure 8 shows that the mass saving potential of magne-
sium is slightly higher than aluminum and signicantly higher
than polymer and glass-ber-reinforced plastic materials.
However, in a cost-sensitive market, wrought magnesium must
show some clear advantages and can only be competitive when
its cost is close to that of aluminum sheet. Trang et al.17 report
an alloy design concepts that can simultaneously provide high
strength and good formability. The concept is based on the uti-
lization of alloying elements that can induce precipitation, as
well as maximize the segregation of other texture-controlling
alloying elements. The increase in strength and ductility, that
is necessary for many applications, can be obtained by either
processing followed by extrusion with equal-channel angular
pressing (ECAP), as well as grain renement.18–20 The poten-
tial to develop high strength low-cost wrought magnesium
alloys through precipitation hardening is very high and dis-
cussed in References 21 and 22.
Magnesium alloys range from alloys of very low density,
Mg-Li based alloys to alloys of higher density, like Mg rare-
earth (RE) alloys. Results of recent scientic investigations
have yielded insights into the structure and behavior of these
materials. Figure 9 shows the yield strength and elongation of
Mg-Li alloys compared to commercial alloys. Additions of Al,
Zn, Cd, and Ag providing the greatest strengthening eects.24
A study on binary Mg-Li alloys has indicated that alloying 5
wt% lithium exhibited a low degree of dynamic recrystalliza-
tion (DRX) compared with 1 and 3 wt% lithium and stronger
prismatic texture resulting in higher mechanical strength and
low elongation along extrusion direction.25 Regarding corro-
sion behavior, work by You et al.26 reviewed recent research
and developments on wrought magnesium alloys from the
viewpoint of the alloy design, focusing on Mg-Al, Mg-Zn
and Mg-RE systems. Along with improving strength by solid
solution strengthening and precipitation hardening,27,28 RE
Figure7. Die-cast cross car beam made of magnesium, with permission from GF Casting Solutions AG,
Switzerland.
0
Mass Saving Potential (%)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Mass saving potential vs mild steel in structural panels
equal stiffness panel
equal strength panel
Ad
vanced High Strength Steel
Aluminum (Cast)
Aluminum (Wrought)
Magnesium (Cast)
Magnesium (Wrought)
Polymer PC/ABS
Glas-fibres reinforced plastic
Carbon-f
ibres reinforced plastic
Figure8. Comparison of mass savings in automotive applications for
advanced materials vs. mild steel in structural panels for equivalent
bending stiffness and bending strength, based on Reference 23.
0
100
200
300
400
500
0510 15 20
Elon
g
ation (%)
Commercial
Mg Alloys
E675
LA136
AZ31B
WE54A
WE43C
ZK30
MA18
LA141
LA113-WQAR
LS141
LZQS14532
LZ145
Mg-14Li
Mg-Li-AI
Mg-Li-Zn
Mg-Li-AI-Zn
Mg-Li-Zn-X
Mg-Li-Cd-X
Mg-Li-AI-Zn
[31] Mg-Li-Zn-Cd-Ag[24]
Mg-Li-AI-X[34]
US Alloys[35]
Soviet Alloys[36]
LA113-WQAR[37]
Commercial Mg Alloys
[31]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[33]
IMV3
IMV4
ZK60A
Yield Strength (MPa)
25 30 35 40 45 50
Figure9. Mechanical properties of Mg-Li alloys in comparison
with commercial alloys, based on References 24, 30–37.

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additions, such as such as Gd, Y, Nd, Dy, Ho, Er, Ce, La,
and Yb, can signicantly improve the deformability and other
structural characteristics of Mg.29
Precipitation hardening in Mg-Y-Nd alloys is very eective
with nely dispersed particles, also acting positively on corro-
sion properties.38 Grain growth during ageing is not signicant
in Mg–Y–Nd–Gd–Dy alloys. As a representative coating that
improves the corrosion behavior of Mg alloys to t the respec-
tive vehicle applications, plasma electrolytical oxidation (PEO)
coating is highlighted. PEO coating on sheet AM50, AZ31 and
E-Form® plates, and other alloys, which are already used in
the automotive industry, show that high-resistance low-porosity
PEO coatings can be adapted to any Mg alloy.39
By means of the dierent alloy types and their wide range
of mechanical and technological properties, aluminum alloys
are the most important design materials with good formabil-
ity (extrusion, deep-drawing), machinability, weldability, and
very good corrosion resistance. Mechanical properties of these
materials can be applied similarly as with Mg alloys. In the
6061 Al alloy, for example, the precipitation hardening is
based on the strengthening phase Mg2Si and ECAP, even the
application of post-ECAP aging leads to additional improve-
ment.40 Even aluminum alloys form a natural passive layer,
however, and the composition and reformation of this layer
during cathodic polarization is of interest in alloy develop-
ment. Challenges and demands of future fuel-ecient vehicles
are presented in the study by Liu et al.,41 including the use of
barrier coatings for corrosion and defect site protection.
Aluminum consumption will increase in electric vehicle
in the coming years, not only in extruded body parts, but also
in battery containers. The aluminum case guarantees light-
ness and shock resistance and supports the battery temperature
management system with its high thermal conductivity. Finite
element optimization software is often used in the design pro-
cess to increase stiness and reduce noise.42 In modern EVs,
there are high-pressure die-castings used in battery housing.43
These include for example, AlSi10MnMg or AlSi7Mg, as well
as joined multi-layer sheet metal, where some already have
integrated cooling functions.44 Also, innovative sandwich
materials made of aluminum face sheets and a core of alu-
minum hybrid foam are used for the battery housing as shown
in Figure 10, focusing on compression strength and specic
deformation energy absorption of the core layer material.
For completeness among the group of lightweight materi-
als, titanium alloys can be regarded as a highly interesting
structural material for lightweight construction. These alloys
have relatively low density, high strength, low thermal expan-
sion, and high corrosion resistance. However, titanium alloys
are unlikely to be used in mass-produced automotive parts as
they are generally too expensive. Applications such as fuel
cell stacks may use titanium due to its high strength to weight
ratio and superior corrosion resistance under extremely severe
conditions.45
Thus, when single homogeneous materials cannot meet
overall design requirements, such as in some EV compo-
nents, multi-material composites can be used to develop tar-
geted materials for specic applications.46 One example is
high strength steel, a class of low-carbon (< 0.25% content)
steel with use of many potential alloying metals. These can
be classed as lightweight materials due to their high specic
strength relative to more typical carbon steel. Moving forward,
both polymer-based as well as metal matrix composites are
likely to be utilized for high strength steel for EV body-in-
white and other structural elements.
The design and development of highly integrated light-
weight structures is also improving, focusing on very
lightweight and high strength structures such as sandwich
designs.47 Türk et al.48 investigated design potentials where
the combination of additive manufacturing and carbon
fiber prepreg technology is applied to honeycomb sand-
wich structures. Signicant weight savings and parts reduc-
tion indicate that the technology is competitive for com-
plex low volume parts. Complex integral design combines
the positive features of differential and integral design;
using fewer subcomponents, the amount of interface is
reduced, which leads to reduced notch eects and corrosion
Figure10. Battery housing pack: (a) as an integral part of the “body in white” and (b) made of a hybrid foam sandwich.
Source: Fraunhofer IFAM, Bremen, Germany.

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between parts of dierent materials.49 The combined approach
has gained entry into the product architecture of EVs.50,51
Although ber-reinforced plastics are increasingly being
used in lightweight automotive construction, metals will retain
their primary importance as they are still easier to manufacture
using conventional and less expensive processes. While the
circumstances will continue to be competitive, some metal-
lic parts in lightweight constructions will not be able to be
replaced due to their demanding requirements, for example
high strength steels. Also mentioned should be the good defor-
mation behavior of appropriately alloyed and treated metals,
which can be used to absorb kinetic energy in the event of a
crash. Even in the case of ber-reinforced car bodies, a metal-
lic basic structure will likely still be employed in future EV
designs.
Hydrogen fuel cell system materials
As an emerging technology for transportation applications,
hydrogen fuel cells provide an alternative power system for
EVs to those that are solely based on storage batteries. Fuel
cell-based drivetrains for vehicle as currently using proton-
exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell systems. This type of fuel
cell operates at relatively low temperatures of around 85°C
and below, lending itself to intermittent operation. Other types
of PEM fuel cells operate at temperatures somewhat above
100°C, with somewhat dierent membrane types, known as
high-temperature PEM or “HT-PEM,” but these types of fuel
cells have yet to be employed in automotive applications.
The PEM fuel cell unit in a vehicle is an assembly that
consists fundamentally of a stack of repeat cell-level units to
accumulate meaningful electrical voltages. Each stack may
have some hundreds of cells, stacked together in a prismatic
fashion. The critical component in each cell is known as a
membrane-electrode assembly or MEA, which consists of
sandwiched layers of material around the central sulfonic
acid membrane. During PEM system manufacture, the MEA
material is stacked in layers in unit cell elements along with
bipolar plates that act as both gas manifolds and current col-
lectors. These bipolar plates are typically manufactured out of
graphite, graphite composite, or high strength steel materials.
The fuel cell system also includes balance-of-plant compo-
nents, mainly consisting of gas manifolds, an air compressor,
an anode gas recirculation pump, and a radiator cooling system
with associated pumps and valves.
Every fuel cell system for motor vehicles also includes a
storage battery, to provide for regenerative braking and addi-
tional power to assist the fuel cell during high power driving
modes. Some earlier FCVs employed nickel-metal hydride
batteries, but now lithium-ion batteries are the dominant
choice. For example, the second-generation Toyota Mirai FCV
includes a relatively small 1.24 kWh battery pack operating
at 311 V, along with a PEM fuel cell system rated at 128 kW.
Most of the materials and components used in PEM fuel
cell systems are relatively common, based on steel, metal
alloys, and graphite. However, exceptions include the platinum
and other precious metal catalyst material, the sulfonic acid
membrane material, and carbon ber used in the high-pressure
hydrogen storage tanks. Also, special grades of stainless steel
(e.g., grade 316) are needed for best compatibility with hydro-
gen piping and ttings, to avoid issues with hydrogen embrit-
tlement of more common types of steel.
The most expensive and strategic material used in PEM
fuel cells is platinum, potentially used with other precious
metals such as ruthenium and rhodium. These can be used as
catalyst materials on both the positive and negative electrodes.
One analysis suggests that future demand of platinum for
FCVs could increase the price (based on supply and demand
economics) such that by 2050 if FCVs reach 40% of light-
duty vehicle sales, this increased demand could help drive
platinum prices up by about 70% compared to 2010 levels.
However, catalyst loadings on the cell electrode layers are
estimated to have a 90% potential for declines in this same
period, suggesting overall decreases in catalyst cost on a per-
vehicle basis.52 PEM fuel cells may also employ mixes of
Bipolar plate
aEnd plate
Electric current
Anode
Electrolyte
Cathode
Fuel in
Excess
fuel out
Unused
Air in
H2: Hydrogen
H2O
O2O2: Oxygen
H+: Hydrogen ion
H+
H+
H2
H2e–: Electron
e–
e–e–
e–
air, water
and heat
Current collector
Gas diffusion
layer
Flow field
channel
Gasket
Membrane electrode
assembly
b
Figure11. Proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell unit cell design (a) and general schematic of operation (b). Source: Reference 55.

10 MRS BULLETIN • VOLUME 46 • DECEMBER 2021 • mrs.org/bulletin
ADVAnCED MAtERiALs sUppLy COnsiDERAtiOns fOR ELECtRiC VEhiCLE AppLiCAtiOns
platinum with ruthenium, rhodium, or other precious metal
catalyst materials, also being costly and strategic but that can
reduce the reliance on platinum.
As an additional consideration, the sulfonic acid for PEM
fuel cell membranes is a class of substance known as a per-
uorinated polymer material, commercially sold as a resin for
coating of fuel cell membranes. Naon™ and Gore® are two
major types of these membranes, now being produced in large
quantities for use in multi-layer MEAs. While higher tem-
perature PEM-type fuel cell membranes are being developed,
conventional membrane materials are limited to temperatures
below 100°C, where membrane degradation occurs above
these temperatures.53
The PEM fuel cell MEA materials are relatively complex
and high cost, where Naon for example incorporates per-
uorovinyl ether groups with sulfonate groups onto a tetra-
uoroethylene (PTFE) backbone.54 There also is a gas diu-
sion layer as part of the multi-layer MEA, consisting of a type
of carbon paper to allow additional channels for gas diusion
along the membrane. Figure 11 shows a typical general sche-
matic of a PEM fuel cell as well as a picture of a modern
multi-cell fuel cell stack designed for automotive applications.
EV materials supply chains andfuture
considerations
With the rapid growth in demand for advanced EV batter-
ies, the nature and impacts of global battery supply chains
are coming under increased scrutiny. There are major geo-
graphic imbalances in the locations of raw materials, the
locations of battery and other component manufacturing
locations, and the points of final vehicle assembly and
use. For example, lithium may be mined in South America,
minimally processed, and then shipped to China or Korea
for further processing into EV batteries. These batteries
may then be shipped, again as one example, to a vehicle
assembly plant in Mexico, for delivery to North American
markets. All of these steps involve transportation costs and
emissions, and potential for supply chain interruptions. In
response to these considerations, the US government has
launched a strategic initiative around sourcing materials
for lithium batteries with domestic supplies. New lithium
mines based on rich soil deposits are beginning to start
operations in Nevada to help support US production of
lithium batteries.
Furthermore, key issues involve battery re-purposing
(for stationary power) of EV batteries at “end of life” where
typically signicant (70–80%) power and capacity remains
in the battery. EV batteries with some degree of refurbish-
ment and re-conguration can have a “second life” in sta-
tionary applications until they are further degraded. This
could help reduce and more carefully manage the up to 4
million metric tons of spent EV batteries that are projected
through 2040 in one analysis.56 Another analysis highlights
the increased importance of closed-loop battery recycling
over time with greater EV adoption, as well as the fact that
second life purposing of batteries oers fundamental materi-
als use advantages, but somewhat delays the accumulation
of volumes of batteries to recycle.57
Ultimately, at end of life, EV batteries and other elec-
trical and structural components will be carefully re-pro-
cessed for recycling of materials economical to recover,
and disposal of other materials. A battery processing
industry is emerging around this resource, with the abil-
ity to produce similar quality materials (e.g., processed
nickel) upon re-processing as virgin materials. However,
one analysis finds that as of 2014, only 42% of the lithium
battery waste stream was currently being recycled in the
United States, including aluminum, cobalt, copper, nickel,
and steel, where lithium and manganese were not yet being
recycled at high rates.56
Conclusions
In conclusion, EV technologies employ a suite of materials
that are not traditionally used in the automotive industry.
These include a variety of elements, metals, and composite
materials that are used in EV batteries, motors, fuel cells,
hydrogen storage systems, lightweight body structures, and
electronics and control systems. Recycling of EV materials
in the future will be critical to reducing demands of virgin
materials, especially for strategic materials such as nickel,
cobalt, lithium, platinum, and rare-earth materials such as
neodymium, cerium, and dysprosium. Concerted indus-
try eorts to reduce reliance on these strategic materials
are likely to produce continued progress in the future, but
with uncertainties related to the extent and timing of these
improvements.
To some extent, use of these materials overlaps with
developments with advanced conventional vehicles, espe-
cially with regard to lighter weight vehicle body materials.
For combustion engine vehicles, lightweight construction has
previously focused on the car body and the engine compo-
nents, whereas EV material development is also important
for the larger bodywork as well as the battery housing. The
development of lightweight materials that can withstand
high temperatures is now including properties such as shock
resistance and thermal conductivity. The mechanisms and
methods for material development are based on the same
fundamentals, but manufacturing processes, such as additive
manufacturing for functional graded materials, are constantly
evolving.
Thus, EV technologies will surely continue to evolve rap-
idly in the coming years, suggesting shifts in materials and
resources as these developments occur. Future battery, electric
motor, fuel cell, and other technologies will continue to pre-
sent challenges and opportunities for the automotive indus-
try from a materials perspective, hopefully with a shift to the
most environmentally benign and recyclable materials in the
future. Considerations should include environmentally and
socially responsible materials extraction and use, along with

MRS BULLETIN • VOLUME 46 • DECEMBER 2021 • mrs.org/bulletin
11
ADVAnCED MAtERiALs sUppLy COnsiDERAtiOns fOR ELECtRiC VEhiCLE AppLiCAtiOns
the economic eciency of EV materials supply chains as they
expand in the future.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the assistance of the journal editors
and additional reviewers in improving this manuscript. On
behalf of all the authors, the corresponding author states that
there is no conict of interest in preparing this manuscript.
Open Access
This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribu-
tion 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or
format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com-
mons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images
or other third party material in this article are included in the
article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated other-
wise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included
in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the
permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly
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http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.
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s43246- 020- 00095-x⃞

12 MRS BULLETIN • VOLUME 46 • DECEMBER 2021 • mrs.org/bulletin
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Timothy E. Lipman is an energy and envi-
ronmental technology, economics, and policy
researcher with the University of California (UC),
Berkeley. He is currently serving as Co-Director
of the Transportation Sustainability Research
Center at the Institute of Transportation Studies.
He is also a Research Afliate with the Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory. He received his
PhD degree in environmental policy analysis
from the UC, Davis, in 1999, and also received
an MS degree from UC, Davis in transportation
technology and policy in 1998, and a BA degree
from Stanford University in 1990. His research
focuses on electric vehicles, fuel cell technology,
combined heat and power systems, renewable
energy, and electricity and hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure. He is
a member of the Transportation Energy Committee of the Transportation Research
Board of the National Academies of Science and Engineering, and on the editorial
boards of the journals Transportation Research-D, Energies, and Fuels. Lipman can
be reached by email at telipman@berkeley.edu.
Petra Maier has been a professor of materials
and production engineering at the University of
Applied Sciences Stralsund, Germany, since
2008. She received her doctoral degree from
Loughborough University, UK, in materials sci-
ence in 2002. She was a postdoctoral Fellow at
the University of Applied Sciences Wildau, Ger-
many, focusing on characterization by nanoin-
dentation. From 2004 to 2006, she was a
research associate the Helmholtz-Zentrum
Geesthacht, Germany. At the Technical University
Berlin, Germany, she specialized in corrosion-
fatigue on magnesium. Maier can be reached by
email at petra.maier@hochschule-stralsund.de.