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Evaluation of the management of marine protected areas. Comparative study in Costa Rica
Abstract
Costa Rica is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world, and stands out for its commitment to conservation. Along its two coasts, it presents a great heterogeneity of ecosystems and social realities. Social factors, more than physical-natural factors, determine the success or failure of an MPA, so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. The objective of this work is to analyze the management of three marine protected areas, to establish improvements. These areas are Santa Rosa National Park, Marino Ballena National Park and Cahuita National Park. The methodology used assesses 26 indicators grouped into 4 key factotres: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The results of this evaluation are 5 possible scenarios. These scenarios have been termed (from the ideal situation to the least favourable): proactive (1), learning (2), interactive (3), centralized (4) and formal (5) management. The results of this study show that both Santa Rosa and Cahuita present a proactive scenario (1), with high citizen participation, although in practice the way the two MPAs are managed is very different. Marino Ballena, on the other hand, is in scenario 5 (formal), and a series of measures are presented that can move it towards scenario 2 (learning). In general, MPA management in Costa Rica tends to be adaptive, with high public participation, as determined by its public policies. However, the existence of a public policy favors but does not guarantee success in MPA management, as can be seen in the difference in results. Therefore, the periodic evaluation of its management, allowing for feedback, is essential.
... Costa Rica is one of the 20 most biodiverse countries in the world due to its geographic location; it experiences tropical weather, is surrounded by the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean, and includes the oceanic Cocos Island (Alvarado et al., 2012). With 92% of its total territory being marine area, Costa Rica possesses a great variety of marine ecosystems, including gulfs, bays, rocky shores, beaches, islands, and deep-sea ecosystems (e. g., seamounts, methane seeps, and mesophotic corals) hosting high marine richness (Alvarado et al., 2012;Levin et al., 2015;Cortés, 2019;Maestro et al., 2022). The country also stands out for its commitment to conservation and has recently expanded its marine protected area to ~30% of the country's marine territory (MINAE, 2022). ...
... The country also stands out for its commitment to conservation and has recently expanded its marine protected area to ~30% of the country's marine territory (MINAE, 2022). Although public participation in management efforts has been increasing in recent years (Maestro et al., 2022), the lack of adequate stakeholder participation, limited coordination among governmental agencies, and a shortage of economic resources are the main threats to marine management in the country (Alvarado et al., 2012). ...
... In general, in Costa Rica, MPA management tends to be adaptive with high public participation (Maestro et al., 2022), and the existence value of biodiversity given by Costa Ricans in our survey is reflected in the country's position toward marine conservation. Costa Rica recently expanded the Cocos Island National Park and the Bicentennial Marine Management Area from 2.7% to ~30% of the country's marine territory (MINAE, 2022), achieving for Costa Rican waters the global goal of protecting 30% of the world's ocean by 2030. ...
Methane seeps are highly productive ecosystems that provide carbon sequestration services, host diverse com- munities including endemic species, and serve as habitats for commercial fisheries. Little is known about the economic value the public places on them. Discrete Choice Experiments (DCEs) are administered to a sample of Costa Rican taxpayers to evaluate their willingness to pay (WTP) in monetary terms using tradeoffs made in a survey context involving three of the main attributes of methane seep ecosystems to provide insights for future conservation and management efforts. Extensive effort is devoted to understanding how Costa Ricans view different aspects of the deep sea. We find that they associate it with strange animals, natural resources, the unknown, and being far from reach. Perhaps surprisingly, they underestimate how much they know about the deep sea. We find that WTP for methane seep protection is the highest for programs that protect seeps with endemic species, followed by seeps with high climate change mitigation potential and commercial fishing habitat. Higher-income groups and women are more likely to prefer options that increase the current level of protection. We discuss how science communication and community engagement contribute to care expressed toward the deep sea.
... The methodology used to evaluate the management of the Galapagos National Park and the Marine Reserve was designed by Maestro [4] and it was applied before in one protected area in Portugal [60], three national parks in Costa Rica [61], and three protected areas in Croatia [62]. ...
... This integrative approach favors the proactive scenario and adapts to international trends that advocate an ecosystem approach [2]. Other case studies that enjoy proactive management are the Santa Rosa and Cahuita National Parks in Costa Rica [61]. In both cases, the population is highly involved and governance mechanisms are transparent. ...
The Galapagos Islands are one of the most emblematic protected areas on the planet and also one of the most studied. Their main economic activity is tourism, which has grown rapidly in recent years. The increase in tourists is associated with the increase in population and the introduction of invasive species, which puts conservation at risk. This makes adequate management even more necessary and relevant on an international scale since the economy of Galapagos depends on the good state of conservation of its ecosystems and species. Numerous studies have shown that social factors, rather than physical–natural ones, determine the success or failure of a marine protected area (MPA), so they must be urgently incorporated into all phases of MPA management. In this study, we analyzed the management of the protected areas of Galapagos, including the National Park and the Marine Reserve, with the purpose of highlighting their weaknesses and strengths. The methodology used presents five prescribed scenarios in which priority is given to one or other factors, each of which has an impact on the biophysical and socio-economic systems that are influenced by the MPA. These scenarios were called proactive, interactive, centralized, learning, and formal management. Data were obtained through a comprehensive literature review and primary data collection methods, including in-depth interviews with key stakeholders and DPNG managers, as well as direct observations. Interviewees covered the main relevant sectors in the archipelago (fishing, tourism, and conservation). The results show that the archipelago’s protected areas follow a proactive management model with a continuous feedback loop. This feedback is a key element in any adaptive management process, which also allows practitioners to anticipate future problems. Both public participation and strategic planning are essential.
... The methodology used to analyze the management of Pakleni Islands, Telašćica Nature Park, and Brijuni National Park has been applied before in Azores Marine Park [50] and in three national parks of Costa Rica [51]. It has a social perspective that is based on the analysis of two fundamental elements: processes and people involved. ...
... At the more operational levels, there is compulsory training to enable them to carry out certain activities. The absence of a regulated training program is a shortcoming observed in other MPAs around the world, such as Costa Rica [51], even though they manage their resources adequately. ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely used tools to conserve marine ecosystems and their services. They are complex socio-ecological systems where human activities and nature interact. Croatia has 409 protected areas, of which 19 are coastal-marine. The aim of this paper is to analyze the management model of MPAs in Croatia and to identify their strengths and weaknesses. For this purpose, three MPAs have been chosen: Brijuni National Park, Telašćica Nature Park, and Pakleni Islands Significant Landscape. The methodology used assesses 26 specific indicators to analyze the status of 4 key factors: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The results of this evaluation are 5 possible scenarios: proactive (1), learning (2), interactive (3), centralized (4), and formal (5) management. The results show that Brijuni presents a proactive scenario (1), Telašćica an interactive scenario (3), and Pakleni Islands a centralized scenario (4). A series of measures are presented, which can improve the score. In general, MPA management in Croatia tends towards a proactive model, where the management body is its greatest strength. There is a shift from a top-down to a bottom-up approach, which implies a greater involvement of the population in decision-making. However, public participation is not yet fully consolidated.
... The consequences of human-driven climate change are causing detrimental effects on marine ecosystems by altering key processes that negatively affect and influence biodiversity and the ecosystem services they provide (Mouillot et al. 2016;Hughes et al. 2017a). Consequently, integrated coastal management becomes a critical agenda among stakeholders as a comprehensive strategy to achieve resource sustainability despite the emergence of growing population, which would ultimately impact coastal and terrestrial ecosystems (Maestro et al. 2022;UNEP 2018). Ineffective measures in all aspects of conservation strategies and processes have resulted in substantial resource depletion and damage to productive coastal ecosystems (e.g., mangrove forests, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs) (Cowel et al. 2020;Balgos 2005;Cicin-Sain and Belfiore 2005). ...
Decentralized management of marine resources by local governments yields an enhanced opportunity to protect, restore, and create sustainable marine biodiversity in the provision of ecosystem services. However, due to the complexities associated with designing a level of protection for a specific marine resource, local stakeholders may find the process challenging, which may have adverse effects resulting from delayed conservation initiatives. Thus, under various criteria, a systematic approach that assigns a level of protection to marine resources is critical in managing these resources. Despite this criticality, such an agenda gains limited attention from the domain literature. This work advances this gap by proposing a multiple criteria sorting (MCS) method that comprehensively assigns marine resources to a pre-defined set of protection categories under the evaluation of several criteria. It utilizes (1) the entropy method in obtaining the priority weights of the identified criteria associated with evaluating the reef status of marine sites and (2) an extension of the combined compromise solution sorting method, termed CoCoSort, in evaluating marine sites to a pre-determined set of categories (i.e., Category 1, Category 2, Category 3), arranged in increasing order of protection. With the available indicators in the literature, the proposed CoCoSort was implemented in an actual case study of eight marine sites in an eastern Philippine municipality. Findings reveal that feather stars density, giant clams density, and butterfly abundance comprise the top priority criteria in evaluating the case sites. On the other hand, five identified sites are found to be under the maximum protection category, while three sites should be given moderate protection. Both sensitivity and comparative analyses show the efficacy of the proposed CoCoSort. The insights would help local governments manage the biodiversity protection of their marine environments.
... (Hockings et al., 2006). Therefore, different regions have developed specific indicators and methods to assess MPA ME properly (Ngoc et al., 2012;Muthiga, 2009;Garces et al., 2013;Tempesta and Otero, 2013;Tupper et al., 2015;Maestro et al., 2022;Ocean Conservation Administration, 2022). ...
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are important conservation tools; however, many fail to achieve their full potential because of design and management deficiencies. Evaluating MPA management effectiveness (ME) is essential for identifying deficiency issues in conservations and guiding improvements. This study established an indicator-based framework to evaluate ME tailored to Taiwan's MPAs through literature reviews, expert consultations, and stakeholder workshops. We applied 28 indicators to the ME evaluation of 30 fishery conservation zones (FCZs), utilizing semi-structured interviews with stakeholders, questionnaires, analysis of ecological reports, and on-site visits. Only two MPAs were rated as highly effective; most were poorly managed, with deficiencies in ecological monitoring, enforcement, and stakeholder participation. A case study combined a quantitative ME evaluation with collaborative action research involving governments, scientists, and communities to address issues and accelerate enhancements in the Qimei FCZ. Initial low scores prompted workshops to engage stakeholders in identifying problems such as incorrect boundaries, lack of ecological data, and enforcement challenges. This led to boundary revisions, citizen scientist training, and proposals for no-take zones to improve enforcement. The evaluation revealed management deficiencies in Taiwan's MPAs, while action research catalyzed solutions through participative processes. Region-specific indicator frameworks aligned with local priorities are vital for optimizing MPA benefits. This study provides an exemplary quantitative–qualitative approach, coupling evidence-based evaluations and collaborative action research to improve MPA management.
... Sustainable beach management depends on the availability of essential information [34] and requires the appropriate tools to develop sound management strategies and improve management practices. Appropriate management is always necessary to ensure the equitable and sustainable use of marine ecosystems and the proposal of new tools and instruments to help managers exercise these practices is still encouraged [35,36]. Within this framework, several tools employed by managers can be mentioned, including Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), Marine Spatial Planning (MSP) and the Blue Flag award. ...
Beaches are ecologically valuable ecosystems and sites that attract many tourists from all over the world, therefore, knowledge of their environmental conditions to establish sound management strategies is of extreme relevance. This study aims to assess and classify 50 beaches through an innovative coastal management approach called “Sector Analysis”, which integrates Litter grading, the coastal scenic quality and beach typology in order to classify sites into one of three sectors: Green (high value sites), Red (low value sites) and Yellow (sites with contradictory values). Litter Grade makes it possible to classify a site according to the quantity of litter using four grades from “A” (low) to “D” (high amount). The Coastal Scenic Evaluation System (CSES) allows to classify sites into five classes, ranging from extremely attractive natural sites (Class I) to unattractive degraded and urbanized sites (Class V). This innovative methodology for sustainable coastal area management can be easily applied to any beach in the world. The results on Litter Grade and CSES considered in this paper were obtained from previous studies and used to obtain the Sector Analysis that showed only 8 sites (16%) are in the Green sector, 18 sites (36%) in the Red sector and 24 sites (48%) in the Yellow sector. The significant percentage of sites in the Red sector (one third of the sites studied) clearly indicates the degradation that the Moroccan Mediterranean coast has undergone due to considerable anthropogenic activities and the lack of adequate coastal management programs. In this study, various management interventions were proposed to conserve and improve the aesthetic quality of beaches and reduce the impact and presence of litter in the coastal areas.
To contribute to the sustainable management of the coastal fishing in the future Marine Protected Area (MPA) of “Taza” (Algeria, SW Mediterranean), the aim of this study was to evaluate the Local Knowledge (LK) of fishers operating near the forthcoming MPA and to understand their conservation-oriented attitudes. Data were collected through interviews and participatory mapping. To this end, 30 face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted between June and September 2017 with fishers, collecting socioeconomic, biological, and ecological information in the fishing harbor of Ziama (Jijel, NE Algeria). The case study focuses on both professional and recreational coastal fisheries. This fishing harbor is located in the eastern part of the Gulf of Béjaia, a Bay located within the area of this future MPA, but outside its boundaries. Based on fishers' LK, cartography of fishing grounds within the MPA perimeter was obtained, while the perceived healthy bottom habitats and polluted areas in the Gulf were mapped by the use of a hard copy map. The results show that fishers present detailed knowledge that is consistent with literature about different target species and their breeding seasons, showing awareness about the reserve effects ‘spillover’ in enhancing local fisheries. Overall, the fishers noted that the good management of the MPA relies on limiting trawling in coastal areas and avoiding land-based pollution within the Gulf. Some of such management measures are already included in the proposed zoning plan, but lack of enforcement is a perceived constraint. Given the gap observed between the two shores of the Mediterranean Sea in terms of both financial resources and MPA coverage, the use of local knowledge system (e.g., fishers' LK and their perceptions) can enable the implementation of a cost-effective method to encourage the creation of new MPAs in the Southern shore for more ecological representativeness systems of MPAs at a Mediterranean scale. Therefore, this work offers management opportunities that may be used for addressing the lack of scientific knowledge in managing coastal fishing and valuing MPAs in Southern Mediterranean low-income countries characterized by a data-poor context.
Considerado como el primer país en vías de desarrollo en contar con un programa de Gestión Costera Integrada, Costa Rica es un país pequeño con dos costas que inalienablemente debe manejar sus recursos marino-costeros de manera sostenible. Este país centroamericano posee una extensión territorial marina de 577,731 km 2, una extensión 11 veces mayor a la de su territorio continental (51,100 km 2), con una línea costera que abarca 1,016 km en la vertiente del Pacífico y 212 km en la del Caribe. La biodiversidad marina y costera de este país representa cerca del 4% de la biodiversidad mundial. Es por ello que es de gran importancia que en Costa Rica se desarrolle una gestión costera y marina eficiente y eficaz bajo la dirección del Gobierno de la República en conjunto con la participación activa e informada de los diferentes sectores y comunidades. El fortalecimiento de la gobernanza de la Zona Económica Exclusiva y las áreas costeras costarricenses son esenciales para el buen manejo y conservación de los ecosistemas, especies y recursos presentes. En años recientes el país ha logrado avanzar en la definición de su Política Nacional del Mar 2013-2028, así como numerosos otros instrumentos de política pública que dimensionan los alcances de la agenda azul y sus áreas de mayor interés, superando la veintena de estos instrumentos. La participación de Costa Rica en la Red IBERMAR le ha permitido al país mantener activo un espacio de intercambio, capaz de propiciar la discusión y construcción de acciones favorables al logro de una gestión integrada de las zonas costeras y los ambientes marinos. Dichos esfuerzos y políticas le han permitido a Costa Rica impulsar acciones en beneficio del mar y las zonas costeras, su conservación, el ordenamiento de las actividades económicas y la promoción de mecanismos de gobernanza para las comunidades y diversos actores que dependen de los recursos marino costeros. De cara al Bicentenario de la República de Costa Rica en el 2021, se visibiliza que las autoridades gubernamentales buscan destacar el territorio marino y costero como un componente esencial para el desarrollo sostenible.
In a protected natural area, a load capacity study must use a systemic approach as the basis for the planning process. Load capacity is determined as the number of visitors who can visit a tourist zone without putting the area’s natural resources at risk. The main objective of this investigation was to determine the load capacity in the case of the Marino Ballena National Park, located in Puntarenas Province in Costa Rica. The work methodology was mixed, conducting quantitative and qualitative analyses at different stages. Tools such as the interview, (participant and non-participant) observation, working field trips, photographic records, analyses in geographic information systems, analyses of aerial photographs and multispectral images, analyses of the management plans, spatial relations between the protected areas and their areas of influence and adjustment of load capacity methodologies to the characteristics of the zone were used. The results show the need to invest in personnel and infrastructure for the suitable attention to tourism, without diminishing the conservation goals of the site. The maximum number of visitors for the four park entrances was determined and maps were drawn indicating the sites to place new lavatory facilities and watchtowers. An important implication of this work is that load capacity studies, limits of acceptable change or visitor management in protected areas must adapt to the conditions of the systems where the analyses will be applied.
When conservation can keep up with development´s pace: Health status of coral ecosystems in the North Pacific of Costa Rica. Coral reefs are diverse and productive ecosystems, despite this, they are being threatened by human activities that enhance the detrimental impact of the natural phenomenon's like Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB). The north Pacific of Costa Rica has been characterized as one of the best regions for the coral reefs development in the country. However, many of these ecosystems are being lost as a result of eutrophication , overfishing, invasive species and others impacts that affect the region. In the present study, live coral cover in the north Pacific was 5.0 ± 10.4(s.d.) %, with a domination in the ecosystems by turf algae. Twenty-six invertebrate taxa were registered in the region with the predominance of the sea urchin Diadema mexicanum. Ninety-four species of reef fish were identified. Snappers and some planktivores species were the groups with the highest frequency and abundance. The localities previously studied in the 1990 decade, presented a mean live coral cover between 40-50 %, whereby the actual state of the reef reflect a significant deterioration. This decline in coral cover is due to natural events like the El Niño, as well as the decrease in water quality in the region. In recent years, proliferations of the invasive seaweed Caulerpa sertularioides and high densities of bioerosive sea urchins have been reported, mainly associated with HAB events. Likewise, fish communities have low biomass, especially in the vicinity of fishing villages. The state of the reefs in the North Pacific is worrying and requires actions for its recovery and conservation, for which there must be better planning of the development of projects and activities on the coast. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(Suppl. 1): S280-S308. Epub 2018 April 01.
Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), marine areas in which human activities are restricted, are implemented worldwide to protect the marine environment. However, with a large proportion of these MPAs being no more than paper parks, it is important to be able to evaluate MPA success, determined by improvements to biophysical, socio-economic and governance conditions. In this study a systematic literature review was conducted to determine the most frequently used indicators of MPA success. These were then applied to a case study to demonstrate how success can be evaluated. The fifteen most frequently used indicators included species abundance, level of stakeholder participation and the existence of a decision-making and management body. Using the indicator framework with a traffic light system, we demonstrate how an MPA can be evaluated in terms of how well it performs against the indicators using secondary data from the literature. The framework can be used flexibly. For example, where no MPA data currently exist, the framework can be populated by qualitative data provided by local stakeholder knowledge. This system provides a cost-effective and straightforward method for managers and decision-makers to determine the level of success of any MPA and identify areas of weakness. However, given the variety of motivations for MPA establishment, this success needs to be determined in the context of the original management objectives of the MPA with greater weighting being placed on those objectives where appropriate.
Coral reefs of Isla del Coco National Park, Costa Rica: structure and comparison (1987-2014). Isla del Coco has one of the most diverse and well conserved coral reefs in Costa Rica. These reefs have been extensively studied since the 1980’s, however those studies focused mainly on coral coverage. The aim of this study is to evaluate the coral reefs of the island, not only by the coverage of the substrate but also the composition of fish, invertebrates and reef complexity. A total of 17 sites around the island were sampled in July 2013 and in February-March 2014. At each site, we evaluated three depths (4-8m, 9-12m and 13-16m), where three 10m long transects were sampled. Turf algae was the predominant substrate cover with 38.18±5.58 %. The crustose calcareous algae (Order Corallinales) had a 28.12±5.85 % cover and live coral was 18.64±3.55 %, with Porites lobata as the main reef builder. A total of 18 taxa of macroinvertebrates were observed in the study sites, of which 56 % of the species were not abundant, 33 % were common, and the sea urchin Diadema mexicanum was the only dominant species. The density of lobsters of the genus Panulirus was 388±385ind ha-1, which is the highest density reported in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. Also we observed high densities of the sea cucumber Isostichopus fuscus (550ind ha-1), which has a high commercial value. We recorded 45 338 fish individuals, distributed in 93 species, with an average of 1.2±8.5tn ha-1. From the total of species, 51 % were uncommon, 31 % common, 11 % predominant and 8 % occasional. The fish community at Isla del Coco is represented by a large number of carnivorous species, followed by top predators, herbivores and planktivorous species. According to the fish categories of the IUCN Red List, 16 % of species are in threatened categories and represent 25 % of the total sampled biomass. When comparing with studies carried out from 1987 to the present, the recovery in coral cover over time is evident, mainly due to: 1) a decrease in the pressure of the bioerosive action of D. mexicanum; and 2) the conservation actions that have been taken on the island. This has been translated in complex and more rugose reefs. Isla del Coco reefs are healthy, with functional and complex food webs; where species of high commercial value have large populations. The effectiveness of conservation and management activities in Isla del Coco has resulted in the recovery of the reef communities.
Compilation of scientific papers based on research on the North Pacific of Costa Rica.
The importance of local participation in biodiversity governance was recently recognised by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) through the incorporation of Indigenous Peoples' and Local Community Conserved Territories and Areas (ICCAs) as a protected area category. This paper explores what barriers ICCAs might face in their successful implementation within already existing protected area systems. I look at this issue in the context of the decentralisation of biodiversity governance in Costa Rica and examine the internal makeup of four different conservation areas within the National System of Conservation Areas. My findings suggest that it is not enough to enact legal reforms allowing and encouraging local participation. Successfully involving local participation requires attention to the class-based relationships within the protected area bureaucracy that create incentives (or not) to link with the local rural citizenry affected by these areas. In three out of four conservation areas, the dominant social class and urban-rural dynamics combined with a lack of accountability mechanisms have discouraged any real rural involvement and empowerment for decision-making. The strategy of the one area that succeeded at sorting these obstacles to incorporate local participation is described in detail.
Protected areas (PAs) are at the forefront of conservation efforts, and yet despite considerable progress towards the global target of having 17% of the world's land area within protected areas by 2020, biodiversity continues to decline. The discrepancy between increasing PA coverage and negative biodiversity trends has resulted in renewed efforts to enhance PA effectiveness. The global conservation community has conducted thousands of assessments of protected area management effectiveness (PAME), and interest in the use of these data to help measure the conservation impact of PA management interventions is high. Here, we summarize the status of PAME assessment, review the published evidence for a link between PAME assessment results and the conservation impacts of PAs, and discuss the limitations and future use of PAME data in measuring the impact of PA management interventions on conservation outcomes. We conclude that PAME data, while designed as a tool for local adaptive management, may also help to provide insights into the impact of PA management interventions from the local-to-global scale. However, the subjective and ordinal characteristics of the data present significant limitations for their application in rigorous scientific impact evaluations, a problem that should be recognized and mitigated where possible.
The classification and management of coastal marine protected areas is traditionally implemented without a strong public participation process in its early stage, resulting in conflicts. A bottom-up approach with public participation before defining regulations is an innovative, yet difficult process. The case study presented is a local experience of Avencas Biophysical Interest Zone in Cascais, Portugal. The objective of this paper is to evaluate a new approach, to assess the success of the management action applied in terms of the short-term response from users of the costal marine protected area.
Economic activities that depend on ichthyofauna in the North Pacific of Costa Rica. The North Pacific of Costa Rica is characterized by a large diversity of fish species. This diversity sustains two of the main economic activities developed there: fishing and tourism. We synthesized information from: semi-structured interviews with local stakeholders, biodiversity database from the Museo de Zoología, Universidad de Costa Rica, landings database from Costa Rican government (INCOPESCA) and the literature. A total of 424 fish species are reported from the area and the main target species for each fishery are: mahi-mahi, silky shark, hammerhead shark, tuna, sailfish, swordfish for longline fisheries; snappers, croakers, snook and groupers for artisanal fisheries; invertebrates and ornamental fish in dive-fisheries; shrimp in trawl fisheries; and wahoo, yellow-fin tuna, rooster fish, mahi-mahi, swordfish, sailfish, marlin in tourism fisheries. INCOPESCA does not take into account fishing effort but most species landings are decreasing, especially mahi-mahi, groupers and snappers. Conflicts between fisheries and tourism are arising due to competition for resources and over-exploitation. The main conflicts found were: (1) between sport and longline fisheries, (2) between recreational diving and dive-fisheries, (3) between the artisanal and shrimp trawling fisheries, and (4) among artisanal fisher-men from different zones of the Pacific. These conflicts demonstrate the urgency of developing and effectively implementing management strategies that will guarantee the sustainability of fish resources in the area. Future studies should focus on generating information that will guide and support these management efforts. Rev. Biol. Trop. 62 (Suppl. 4): 119-138. Epub 2014 Diciembre 01.
Fishes at Isla del Coco National Park, Costa Rica, were surveyed as part of a larger scientific expedition to the area in September 2009. The average total biomass of nearshore fishes was 7.8 tonnes per ha, among the largest observed in the tropics, with apex predators such as sharks, jacks, and groupers accounting for nearly 40% of the total biomass. The abundance of reef and pelagic sharks, particularly large aggregations of threatened species such as the scalloped hammerhead shark (up to 42 hammerheads ha-1) and large schools of jacks and snappers show the capacity for high biomass in unfished ecosystems in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. However, the abundance of hammerhead and reef whitetip sharks appears to have been declining since the late 1990s, and likely causes may include increasing fishing pressure on sharks in the region and illegal fishing inside the Park. One Galapagos shark tagged on September 20, 2009 in the Isla del Coco National Park moved 255km southeast towards Malpelo Island in Colombia, when it stopped transmitting. These results contribute to the evidence that sharks conduct large-scale movements between marine protected areas (Isla del Coco, Malpelo, Galápagos) in the Eastern tropical Pacific and emphasize the need for regional-scale management. More than half of the species and 90% of the individuals observed were endemic to the tropical eastern Pacific. These high biomass and endemicity values highlight the uniqueness of the fish assemblage at Isla del Coco and its importance as a global biodiversity hotspot.
In line with global targets agreed under the Convention on Biological Diversity, the number of marine protected areas (MPAs) is increasing rapidly, yet socio-economic benefits generated by MPAs remain difficult to predict and under debate1, 2. MPAs often fail to reach their full potential as a consequence of factors such as illegal harvesting, regulations that legally allow detrimental harvesting, or emigration of animals outside boundaries because of continuous habitat or inadequate size of reserve3, 4, 5. Here we show that the conservation benefits of 87 MPAs investigated worldwide increase exponentially with the accumulation of five key features: no take, well enforced, old (>10 years), large (>100 km2), and isolated by deep water or sand. Using effective MPAs with four or five key features as an unfished standard, comparisons of underwater survey data from effective MPAs with predictions based on survey data from fished coasts indicate that total fish biomass has declined about two-thirds from historical baselines as a result of fishing. Effective MPAs also had twice as many large (>250 mm total length) fish species per transect, five times more large fish biomass, and fourteen times more shark biomass than fished areas. Most (59%) of the MPAs studied had only one or two key features and were not ecologically distinguishable from fished sites. Our results show that global conservation targets based on area alone will not optimize protection of marine biodiversity. More emphasis is needed on better MPA design, durable management and compliance to ensure that MPAs achieve their desired conservation value.
Daniel Janzen has researched as biologist, ecologist, and conservationist in the forests of Costa Rica. In September 1999 he gave the following paper at The Norway/UN Conference on the Ecosystem Approach for Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in Trondheim. The paper has been slightly adapted for publication in the journal and Biodiversity thanks both the author and Odd Sandlund at NINA (Norwegian Institute for Nature Research) for permitting publication in the journal in advance of the publication of the proceedings. All photos were taken by Daniel Janzen.
Protected areas are an important means of preserving biodiversity. This special issue investigates different ways of effectively managing protected areas. The ideal of undisturbed nature must be reconciled with people's need to use natural resources.
This article reflects on the Costa Rican experiences with ecotourism by assessing the positive and negative environmental,
economic and social impacts of ecotourism development at four tourist destinations—Manuel Antonio, Monteverde, Tortuguero
and ASCOMAFOR. These destinations represent different stages of tourism development. The assessment shows that the development
of ecotourism has a dilemma character. Compared to alternative land-use options, ecotourism remains a promising development
strategy. However, it should be embedded in a broader process of capacity building.
With 51 100km2 of terrestrial area and 589 000km2 of national waters, Costa Rica is considered one of the countries with the greatest biodiversity. It has approximately 3.5% of the world marine species. In the last four decades, Costa Rica has done a considerable effort to create a representative system of Protected Areas (PA), mainly terrestrial. We present an assessment of the current situation of the Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in Costa Rica, through an historical analysis, and an evaluation of their distribution, coverage and management categories. Costa Rica has 166 protected areas covering 50% of the coastline; of these 20 are MPAs, classified as National Parks (90.6%), National Wildlife Refuges (6.6%), Wetlands (1.5%), Biological Reserves (1%), and one Absolute Natural Reserve (0.3%). According to IUCN criteria, 93.7% correspond to category II, 5% to IV and 1.3% to I. The marine protected surface is 5 296.5km2, corresponding to 17.5% of the territorial waters and 0.9% of the Exclusive Economic Zone. The median distance between MPAs is 22.4km in the Pacific and 32.9km along the Caribbean. The median size is close to 54km2. The main threats to MPAs are the lack of coordination between governmental agencies, limited economic resources, restricted patrolling and control, poor watershed management, and rampant coastal alteration.
Se estudiaron las comunidades y arrecifes coralinos del Parque Nacional Marino Ballena (PNMB), en el Pacífico sur de Costa Rica, mediante tres transectos por sitio, de 10 m de largo cada uno y paralelos a la costa, utilizando una cuadrícula de 1 m2. Se encontró un total de 15 especies de corales (11 hermatípicas y 4 ahermatípicas), las que sumadas a informes previos para el parque hacen un total de 18 especies. El coral Porites lobata presentó la mayor cobertura coralina (36.5 ± 3.7%) y fue el único presente en todos los sitios. Las otras especies de coral presentaron bajas coberturas (<10%) y sólo fueron observadas en pocos sitios. El porcentaje de coral muerto fue de 1.8 ± 0.6% y el porcentaje de blanqueamiento (0.7 ± 0.2%) está dado por P. lobata en un solo sitio. El PNMB y la Isla del Caño poseen el mayor número de especies de coral (18 especies) de la región sur de Costa Rica; sin embargo, difieren en su composición. La baja diversidad y la baja cobertura coralina de varios sitios del parque se atribuyen al impacto del fenómeno de El Niño en los últimos años, a la sedimentación y a la dilución de las aguas en época de lluvias. Se sugiere la necesidad de realizar un monitoreo a largo plazo sobre estos ecosistemas y determinar futuras estrategias de manejo y conservación.
Estuarine and coastal transformation is as old as civilization yet has dramatically accelerated over the past 150 to 300 years.
Reconstructed time lines, causes, and consequences of change in 12 once diverse and productive estuaries and coastal seas
worldwide show similar patterns: Human impacts have depleted >90% of formerly important species, destroyed >65% of seagrass
and wetland habitat, degraded water quality, and accelerated species invasions. Twentieth-century conservation efforts achieved
partial recovery of upper trophic levels but have so far failed to restore former ecosystem structure and function. Our results
provide detailed historical baselines and quantitative targets for ecosystem-based management and marine conservation.
The management and conservation of the world's oceans require synthesis of spatial data on the distribution and intensity of human activities and the overlap of their impacts on marine ecosystems. We developed an ecosystem-specific, multiscale spatial model to synthesize 17 global data sets of anthropogenic drivers of ecological change for 20 marine ecosystems. Our analysis indicates that no area is unaffected by human influence and that a large fraction (41%) is strongly affected by multiple drivers. However, large areas of relatively little human impact remain, particularly near the poles. The analytical process and resulting maps provide flexible tools for regional and global efforts to allocate conservation resources; to implement ecosystem-based management; and to inform marine spatial planning, education, and basic research.
Coastal dunes can offer a series of Ecosystem Services (ES), especially to local communities. This study aimed to evaluate these benefits by exploring the perception of the Mapuche communities and representatives of the local government concerning the ES provided by the coastal dune fields of the Araucanía Region of Chile. Binary, multiple-choice, Likert scale and open questions were used to explore the general knowledge of 49 subjects about the ES provided by the dunes. Closed questions were analysed using Fisher's exact test, and tests of goodness of fit chi-square and G, while open questions were analysed by qualitative content analysis. The results showed that (1) cultural services were more important for Mapuche communities, while tourism was more valued for local government, (2) tourism and stock-raising were the most frequent use given to the dunes in the opinion of local government and Mapuche communities respondents, respectively, (3) both groups think that dunes offer habitat for biodiversity, and (4) the regulation of natural processes is one of the most important functions for both groups, although Mapuche communities consider that dune fields would not attenuate the effects of a tsunami. The conclusion is that dune fields offer a series of benefits, which are perceived in different ways by Mapuche communities and representatives of the local government. The lack of recognition of this knowledge is one of the main gaps in Chile's territorial planning instruments since it could make a decisive contribution to the management of social-ecological systems by zoning areas and identifying singular components, especially in Mapuche territories.
The coastal lagoon of Lesina, is situated on the Italian southern Adriatic coast, in a primarily rural area. Agriculture is the primary economic activity, while the lagoon supports only small scale fisheries and one aquafarm enterprise. However, the lagoon ecological state shows a slow but constant deterioration. In this study, we a) assess the causes for this decline; b) evaluate why the existing regulations have failed to protect the environment from this deterioration; c) explore the potential for community involvement in the management of the lagoon; d) formulate suggestions for developing a management plan that will ensure the preservation of the lagoon and the well-being of the community, according to a shared stakeholders’ vision. For this purpose, available social, economic and physical data were gathered, organized and successively used to identify the causes for the lagoon deterioration. We found that the main causes are: increased discharge of sediments and nutrients from inland activities; unmanaged fishing; loss of human capital; unclear regulations due to vertical and horizontal lack of coordination among authorities. Further, three workshops were conducted with local stakeholders to identify the multiple problems affecting the lagoon area and discuss possible shared solutions. The workshops highlighted that participants perceived the lagoon as an unexploited source of income, mostly in terms of nature based tourism, and suggested that negative externalities caused by the inland activities and mismanagement of the fishery sector should be accounted for by the authorities. However, the mapping of stakeholders indicates that the tourist sector in the area is not developed enough to effectively promote in a bottom-up fashion the development of a management plan of the lagoon area, which could encourage sustainable tourism by protecting the lagoon and generating economic development for the area.
A significant number of declared marine protected areas (MPAs) lack management plans, or they are not being applied appropriately, leading to poor management and, in the worst case scenario, so-called "paper parks". Evaluating the management of an MPA helps detect strengths and weaknesses, make decisions and correct mistakes in the future. Unfortunately, few evaluations have been done. In recent decades, management has gone from a traditional governance system to a more inclusive and participatory one that seeks to understand and integrate the interests and needs of all parties. Social actors are participating more actively in decision-making, and their support is fundamental for the success of an MPA. This study analyses the management of the Marine Park of the Azores (Portugal), one of the most emblematic areas of the European Union (EU). For this purpose, a methodology has been developed to evaluate the management of MPAs. It is based on the analysis of four key aspects: managing body, planning, public participation and implementation. For each one, specific indicators have been designed, resulting in five possible scenarios being proposed where priority is given to one or other factors, where each one has consequences on the biophysical and socioeconomic systems of the MPA. These scenarios are defined as: proactive, consultative, centralized, by learning and formal management. The results demonstrate that the Marine Park of the Azores is currently under centralized management, with a sound management body, but yet should be consolidates the process of planning and public participation.
The ecological management effectiveness (EME) of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) is the degree to which MPAs reach their ecological goals. The significant variability of EME among MPAs has been partly explained by MPA design, management and implementation features (e.g. surface area, enforcement, age of protection). We investigated EME variability by employing, for the first time, Organization Science. Eight Mediterranean MPAs were taken into account as case studies to explore the relationships between EME and MPA features, such as: 1) organizational size (i.e. the ratio between the number of full-time employees and the total MPA surface area), 2) management performance (i.e. the level of effort exerted to enhance and sustain the MPA management, including enforcement), 3) total surface area, and 4) MPA age. The log-response ratios of fish biomass and density in protected vs unprotected (control) areas were used as a proxy of EME. Management performance, organizational size and, to a lesser extent, MPA age were positively correlated with the log-response ratio of fish biomass, whereas total surface area did not display a significant role. None of the four features considered was significantly correlated with the log-response ratio of fish density. Based on our findings, we argue that the employment of Organization Science in the management effectiveness assessment can assist MPA managers to reach MPAs goals more effectively, with a more efficient use of available resources.
The aim of this investigation is to analyse the evolution of current trends in the management of MPAs within the international framework. To that end, three specific objectives are proposed: Analyse the current situation of the MPAs within the international framework. Determine if there are differences in the declaration of MPAs across different regions of the world. Assess the progress made in the management of MPAs since the beginning of the 21st century.
In the absence of world government, effective national policy is essential to the success of international environmental initiatives. Yet research on global environmental cooperation has proceeded without models of policy change in developing countries, where most of the world's people, land, and species are found. In this book Paul Steinberg provides a theoretical framework to explain the domestic responses of developing countries to global environmental concerns. Drawing on extensive field research, he traces the evolution of public policies to protect biological diversity in Costa Rica and Bolivia over the past four decades, to understand how these countries emerged as leaders in tropical conservation and how international institutions might support similar outcomes in other countries.
Environmental Leadership in Developing Countries explodes the myth that developing countries are too preoccupied with short-term economic growth and material survival to devote attention to global environmental concerns. Instead it offers a nuanced account of complex, decades-long efforts to create effective institutions, and analyzes the relative roles of foreign and domestic actors in this process.
In recent years, there has been a health decrease in marine ecosystems. Due to this accelerated degradation, there is a more pressing need to investigate the effectiveness of MPAs in these degraded zones. In this work, we evaluate the effect of MPAs over species richness, biomass and size of reef fishes. The sampling was conducted in 31 sites in the north Pacific coast of Costa Rica in 2013 and 2014. We found a positive effect of MPAs on biomass and community structure, as almost all commercially important species were more abundant in MPAs. Apex predators, carnivores and herbivores showed higher biomasses in protected areas, while planktivorous were similar among sites. As well, target species of artisanal fisheries and dive-ornamental fisheries were larger in MPAs. Areas closed to fishing can contribute to keeping biomass high, improve species richness in the region, and help to recover ecosystem services in coral reefs, even in anthropogenic impacted areas. The improving of regulations in and out of MPAs will assure the ecosystem services and life quality of coastal populations.
As a part of a scenario planning process, or other futures oriented study, workshops are often arranged. They are participatory events where the intention can be to produce future-related knowledge, strengthen the futures thinking of the participants, network and co-operate, enhance the mutual understanding and social learning, communicate research results, or resolve a conflict. This paper reviews the literature of scenario planning and future oriented workshops, and discusses the findings of five scenario workshops arranged for lake management stakeholders in Finland. The findings suggest that scenario workshops can act as empowering events that enhance the futures consciousness of the participants, network people interested in the same topic, and enhance social learning. Scenario workshops are also an effective tool for participatory planning, enabling collecting of the views of the future of a certain topic and creating scenarios, as well as a platform for research communication. However, it is unlikely that the in-depth perceptions of the participants would drastically change due to the new knowledge obtained at a single workshop. The previous assumptions and cognitive schemas dominate the thinking, and are converted into workshop outcomes. To change the conventional paradigms, a longer-term process and typically a competitive new paradigm is required.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a critical element of fisheries management and biodiversity conservation strategies. However, MPA planning is a complex undertaking that requires consideration of ecological and other knowledge, including indigenous knowledge, as well as balancing social, cultural, and economic interests. Engaging a range of stakeholders and indigenous partners in MPA planning, establishment, and management has consistently been identified as key to successful MPA implementation. This paper interrogates MPA planning in Aotearoa New Zealand, with a focus on the role of participation and collaboration in the development and implementation of MPAs. Previous and current MPA processes were evaluated using best practice principles drawn from international MPA and other participatory process literature. Several factors hypothesised to be associated with improvements and efficiencies in the involvement of participants in MPA decision making are assessed, including aspects of participation, best available information, social learning and capacity, fair and respective process, and efficiency of administration. Processes were compared before and after introduction of the New Zealand Marine Protected Areas Policy and Implementation Plan in 2005. Areas for improvement in future evolutions of MPA planning also emerged from this research; these centre primarily on the need for inclusive and balanced participation; inclusion of multiple values and information types in MPA decision-making; time to build trust and establish shared understanding; and resourcing. These recommendations represent a conceptualisation of MPAs operating within holistic social-ecological systems frameworks that encompass more than biodiversity conservation or extractive use, potentially redefining how MPAs are conceived of, developed, implemented and valued.
The ocean is increasingly facing direct and indirect threats from multiple human activities that alter marine ecosystems worldwide. Mitigating these threats requires a global shift in the way people perceive and interact with the marine environment. Marine public perceptions research has emerged as a useful tool to understand public awareness and attitudes towards the sea. This study compares available surveys of public perceptions of marine threats and protection involving >32,000 respondents across 21 countries. Results indicate that 70% of respondents believe the marine environment is under threat from human activities, and 45% believe the threat is high or very high. Yet when asked about the ocean's health, only 15% thought it was poor or threatened. Respondents consistently ranked pollution issues as the highest threat, followed by fishing, habitat alteration and climate change. With respect to ocean protection, 73% of respondents support marine protected areas in their region. Most respondents overestimated the area of ocean currently protected, and would like to see much larger areas protected in the future. Overall, a clear picture emerged of the perceived threats and support for protection which can inform marine managers, policy makers, conservation practitioners and educators to improve marine management and conservation programs.
Marine protection has gained increased attention since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) set the target of protecting 10% of all coastal and marine areas by 2020. Despite this target, only 2.3% of the oceans’ surface is currently protected and many existing marine protected areas (MPAs) face significant shortcomings. Because poor performance appears to be linked to the rules shaping MPA governance, a problem particularly for developing nations, this book considers MPA governance through a case study of MPAs in Costa Rica. Costa Rica has a long history of terrestrial conservation, most recently also turning its attentions to its MPAs. For this reason, it provides an interesting opportunity to observe how governance challenges have been reproduced over time and how stakeholders are trying to overcome them. To explain this situation, I used qualitative research and drew on theories of institutional change and stability. More than one hundred interviews were done at four MPA study sites and in San José, the national capital of Costa Rica. Seven issues of MPA governance were found. The book traces the trajectory of these governance issues since the 1970s when the Costa Rican protected area system was first established. Above all, it makes the case for the careful consideration of previously adopted solutions to MPA governance before new rules are crafted.
The incorporation of local and traditional knowledges into environmental governance regimes is increasingly recognised as a critical component of effective and equitable conservation efforts. However, there remain significant barriers to integration of community-based knowledge within mainstream environmental governance. This paper explores community-based knowledge in the context of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), a widely-used governance tool designed to predict and manage the impacts of development. Drawing on a social survey and interviews, the paper documents local community knowledge of environmental changes associated with dredging and the construction of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plants in a large industrial harbour located in the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, and compares this knowledge with public consultation opportunities offered throughout the project lifecycle, including during assessment and after project approval. The findings highlight a misalignment between community knowledge of environmental change, which is acquired largely after impacts become apparent, and the public participation opportunities afforded through EIA, which generally occur before construction or dredging is undertaken.
Protected areas are home to biodiversity, habitats and ecosystem as well as a critical component of human well-being and a generator of leisure-related revenues. However, management is sometimes unsatisfactory and requires new ways of evaluation. Management effectiveness of 36 protected areas in southern Ecuador have been assessed. The protected areas belong to three categories: Heritage of Natural Areas of the Ecuadorian State (PANE), created and funded by the State, Areas of Forest and Protective Vegetation (ABVP), created but no funded by the State, and private reserves, declared and funded by private entities. Management effectiveness was evaluated by answers of managers of the protected areas to questionnaires adapted to the socio-economic and environmental characteristics of the region. Questions were classified into six elements of evaluation: context, planning, inputs, processes, outputs and outcomes as recommended by IUCN. Results were classified into four levels: unsatisfactory, slightly satisfactory, satisfactory and very satisfactory. The PANE areas and private reserves showed higher management effectiveness levels (satisfactory and very satisfactory) than ABVP areas, where slightly satisfactory and unsatisfactory levels prevailed. Resources availability was found as the main reason behind this difference. The extension, age and province of location were found irrelevant. Outputs, inputs and processes require main efforts to improve management effectiveness. Improving planning and input in the PANE areas and inputs and outcomes on ABVP areas is necessary to obtain a similar result in all areas.
Qualitative characterization of the zooplankton of the Cocos Island Marine Conservation Area (Area de Conservacion Marina Isla del Coco, ACMIC), Pacific Ocean of Costa Rica. During November 2001, zooplankton samples were obtained from sites around Isla del Coco, a protected oceanic island off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Vertical (0-50 m) and horizontal hauls were performed. This first qualitative analysis of the zooplankton shows a very diverse community, with copepods being dominant (68 species). Up to 19 species of Copepoda represent new records for Costa Rican Pacific waters and thus, increase the relative number of species recorded from Costa Rica in relation to the overall copepod species richness of the eastern tropical Pacific. Hyperiid amphipods were represented by 20 species; this is the first reference about this group from waters around Isla del Coco. Other planktic crustaceans recorded were Evadne sp. (Cladocera), Cypridina americana and Euconchoecia sp. (Ostracoda), and unidentified euphausiids and mysidaceans. Six families of planktic gastropods were found, including Limacinidae, Cavolinidae, Pneumodermopsidae, and Desmopteridae; heteropod molluscs were also collected (Pterotracheidae, Carinariidae and Atlantidae), and also the nudibranch Phylliroe bucephala (Phylliroidae). Seven species of chaetognaths were recorded, Flaccisagitta enflata and Serratosagitta pacifica being the commonest. Appendicularians (five species of Oikopleura and Stegosoma) and salps (Salpa sp. and Doliolum sp.) were also present in the samples. Pyrosomatida (Thaliacea) are first records for Costa Rican Pacific waters. The gelatinous zooplankton included seven species of siphonophores and three of medusae, Rhopalonema velatum being the most frequent medusa. Overall zooplankton species diversity (including ichthyoplankton) of Isla del Coco is lower, but not by much, than in the Costa Rica Dome (136 vs 178). Some ideas are discussed about the value of Isla del Coco as a zooplankton diversity hot spot. Rev. Biol. Trop. 56 (Suppl. 2): 159-169. Epub 2008 August 29.
Costa Rica has a long customary and legal history of reserving its Pacific Coast and Caribbean Sea for public benefit. The most important law for the management of the coast, enacted in 1977, focuses on the zona maritimo‐terrestre (the marine and terrestrial zone). It has been actively implemented by national and local government. Costa Rica thus has the distinction of possessing the longest history (now 12 years) of coastal program implementation among developing nations. A review of the literature on environmental management in developing countries indicates that there are few other success stories. The analysis of Costa Rica's program demonstrates that it has achieved many of its objectives. The public has more access to the beaches, the aesthetic quality of coastal development has improved, and important coastal habitats have more protection. Seven factors are selected to explain why the program is succeeding. Although the program is 12 years old, there is still much work to be done. The institutional and implementation arrangements are sound and provide optimism that the program will continue its record of achievement.
If managed in isolation, coastal and marine protected areas (MPAs) are vulnerable to natural resource development and exploitation occurring outside these areas—in particular, overfishing, alteration and destruction of habitats, and water pollution. Thus, protection of coastal and marine areas—of species, habitats, landscapes, and seascapes—should be integrated into spatial development strategies for larger areas, under the umbrella of integrated coastal and ocean management (ICM). This is typically easier said than done, since the actors involved in MPA networks and in ICM programs are often different, reflecting different cultures, networks of relationships, ministries, and goals and motivations.This article reviews the ecological, social and economic linkages between MPAs and the governance of broader ocean and coastal areas; sets forth nine guiding principles for managing MPAs within an ICM context; reviews work conducted under the Convention on Biological Diversity to operationalize the linkages between ICM and MPAs; and develops strategic guidance for addressing these linkages. The article ends with a call to bring together the diverse communities involved in marine protected areas, coastal and ocean management, and watershed management to collaborate in national-level ocean and coastal planning, including in the designation of networks of marine protected areas.
Participatory fisheries management has been increasingly proposed as a useful management approach to address fisheries problems. However, the criteria regarding its applicability and measures of success still seem unclear. This study reviews the main concepts and theory behind two participatory resource-management approaches and compares them to the reality of fisheries management in Costa Rica. The analysis shows that while the implementation of a participatory approach in fisheries management should be encouraged, it is essential to keep in mind the possible limitations these approaches have. Furthermore, it seems important to improve institutional coordination and develop social, legal and economic policies that will allow the state, together with coastal communities, to contribute in an effective way to fisheries management.
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