An Overview of Dominant Approaches for Teacher Learning in Second Language Teaching

Abstract

The current review offers an analysis of the prevailing literature on teacher learning in language teaching from an international perspective. We initially revisit several contributions from a general education perspective. Then, we focus on three dominant approaches, identified through the literature, to understand teacher learning from a language teaching perspective. Finally, we provide implications for teacher educators to consider in the preparation of prospective language teachers. These include acknowledging future teachers’ prior cognitions and learning experiences, highlighting the benefits of collaborative work and communities of practice, and adapting and innovating within the social constraints of their teaching context.

Full text

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Diego Fernando Macías,
Wilson Hernández-Varona
212
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Volume 29, Number 1, pages 212 - 231
https://doi.org/10.19183/how.29.1.631
An Overview of Dominant Approaches for Teacher
Learning in Second Language Teaching
Una Mirada General de los Enfoques Dominantes para el
Aprendizaje Docente en la Enseñanza de Segundas Lenguas
Diego Fernando Macías1
Universidad Surcolombiana, Neiva, Colombia
Wilson Hernández-Varona2
Concordia University, Montreal, Canada
Abstract
The current review offers an analysis of the prevailing literature on teacher learning in language
teaching from an international perspective. We initially revisit several contributions from a general
education perspective. Then, we focus on three dominant approaches, identied through the literature,
to understand teacher learning from a language teaching perspective. Finally, we provide implications
for teacher educators to consider in the preparation of prospective language teachers. These include
acknowledging future teachers’ prior cognitions and learning experiences, highlighting the benets
of collaborative work and communities of practice, and adapting and innovating within the social
constraints of their teaching context.
Keywords: language teacher education, learning to teach, second language teaching, teacher
cognition, teacher learning
1 He is an associate professor of English in the College of Education at Universidad Surcolombiana in Neiva,
Colombia. His research and professional interests span the areas of language teacher education and profes-
sional development, classroom management, and teaching English as an International Language.
diego.macias@usco.edu.co
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4750-6714
2 He is a Ph.D. student in the department of Education, at Concordia University in Montreal, Quebec. His
current research interests are constituting teacher subjectivities in conict and post-conict environments,
oral history research, and teacher education and development.
wilson.hernandez@mail.concordia.ca
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0383-0088
Received: January 19th, 2021. Accepted: October 26th, 2021.
This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial-No-Derivatives 4.0 Inter-
national License. License Deed can be consulted at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0.

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An Overview of Dominant Approaches for
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Resumen
La presente revisión ofrece un análisis de la literatura predominante sobre el aprendizaje docente
en la enseñanza de lenguas desde una perspectiva internacional. Inicialmente, revisamos varias con-
tribuciones desde una perspectiva de la educación en general. Luego, nos centramos en tres enfoques
dominantes, identicados a través de la literatura, para entender el aprendizaje docente desde la pers-
pectiva de la formación de los profesores de lenguas. Finalmente, ofrecemos algunas implicaciones para
ser tenidas en cuenta por formadores de docentes en la preparación de futuros profesores de lenguas.
Estas incluyen el reconocimiento de las experiencias previas de aprendizaje de los futuros docentes, el
benecio del trabajo colaborativo y las comunidades de práctica, y la adaptación e innovación dentro
de las limitaciones sociales de su contexto de enseñanza.
Palabras clave: aprender a enseñar, aprendizaje docente, conocimiento docente, enseñanza de se-
gundas lenguas, formación de docentes de lenguas
Introduction
Research on teacher learning from a general education perspective is rather extensive.
We the authors revisit here a number of key constructs in an attempt to make possible
connections with the eld of second language3 teacher education. One initial consideration
relates to the role played by teachers as learners, as they move through the different
stages of general and specialized education. Lortie (1975) captures this in the concept of
“apprenticeship of observation” as “the phenomenon whereby student teachers arrive for
their training courses [after] having spent thousands of hours as schoolchildren observing
and evaluating professionals in action” (Borg, 2004, p. 274). It follows that teachers’ personal
past experiences as students are likely to inuence how teachers learn to teach. Teachers
are largely “self-made” and they “emerge from their induction experiences with a strongly
biographical orientation to pedagogical decision-making” (Lortie, 1975, p. 81).
Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle is equally relevant. It consists of four modes:
concrete experience involves intuitive or ‘gut’ feeling; reective observation, that is, perception and
comprehension of what happened; abstract conceptualization, which requires the teacher to think
and formulate a concept in relation to what happened whereas active experimentation involves
the teacher trying and applying what he learned from a teaching event in a subsequent lesson.
Eventually, this active experimentation will require further concrete experience and so the
cycle goes on. Joyce and Showers (2002, as cited in Hammerness, Darling-Hammond, &
3 We thought of ‘second language’ as the eld often seems to be referred to as ‘second language teacher
education’ across many international settings and sources. Our choice of ‘second language’ is also related to
Graddol (2006), who claims that the term English as a ‘foreign Language’ “tends to highlight the impor-
tance of learning about the culture and society of native speakers; it stresses the centrality of methodology
in discussions of effective learning; and emphasizes the importance of emulating native speaker language
behaviour” (p. 82). The previous argument goes against the perspective from which this review has been
constructed.

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Bransford, 2005) similarly state that teachers go through an iterative process of learning,
experimenting, and reecting as they develop new skills for use in their classrooms.
Hammerness et al. (2005) describe the concept of teachers’ adaptive expertise as
something that supports lifelong learning and may involve giving up old routines and
transforming prior beliefs and practices. This adaptive expertise appears to be a response to
the fact that knowledge, skills, and attitudes for effective teaching cannot be fully developed
in pre-service teacher education programs. Hammerness et al. (2005) conclude that teachers
learn to teach within a community that enables them to develop the following aspects: A
vision for what they want to do in their practice; a set of understandings about teaching, learning,
and children; dispositions or habits of thinking about how to use that knowledge; practices that
facilitate the implementation of various instructional activities for student learning; and tools
that support their efforts. These tools can be of a conceptual nature (e.g., learning theories,
frameworks, ideas about teaching and learning) or a practical nature (e.g., instructional
approaches and strategies, resources, textbooks, etc.).
Feiman-Nemser (2008) conceptualizes learning to teach in terms of four broad themes:
learning to think like a teacher, learning to know like a teacher, learning to feel like a teacher and
learning to act like a teacher. Learning to think like a teacher involves “a critical examination
of one’s existing beliefs, a transition to pedagogical thinking, and the development of
metacognitive awareness” (p. 698). Learning to know like a teacher emphasizes the various
kinds of knowledge that are inherent to good teaching. Feiman-Nemser (2008) adds that
teachers need deep knowledge of subject matter and how to teach it, knowledge of how
children grow and learn, of the inuence of culture and language on learning, knowledge
about “curriculum, pedagogy, classroom organization and assessment…and the broad
purposes of schooling and how those purposes affect their work” (p. 699).
Learning to feel like a teacher refers to the emotional, personal, identity-related side of
teaching while learning to act like a teacher involves a kind of instinct or personal judgement
to know what to do when and next, that is, to gure out how to act or react to the multitude
of circumstances that characterize teaching. Feiman-Nemser (2008) nally considers that
teachers have to learn to combine the various ways of thinking, knowing, feeling, and acting
into a principled and responsive teaching practice. This can be achieved inside the classroom by
means of engaging in “a wide range of activities— explaining, listening, questioning, managing,
demonstrating, assessing, inspiring” and outside the classroom where teachers can “plan for
teaching, collaborate with colleagues, and work with parents and administrators” (p. 699).
In short, the literature in general education shows that learning to teach is an a priori
process and goes way beyond the boundaries of formal teacher preparation. It is certainly
not a passive process of merely receiving new information. Feiman-Nemser (2008) points
out that just like all learners,

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Teachers interpret new knowledge and experience through their existing beliefs and modify
and reinterpret new ideas on the basis of what they already know and believe. What teachers
learn is also inuenced by the social and cultural contexts where knowledge is acquired and
used, including the particulars of subject matter and students. (p. 700)
The above description captures what seems to be a common view of learning to
teach from a general education perspective. In this regard, Barnes and Smagorinsky (2016)
conclude that teacher education programs constitute only one (not necessarily the primary)
source of learning for beginning teachers. They claim that there are factors such as the
apprenticeship of observation, the politics of the school environment, the community,
their individual and personal lives, among others, that are often overlooked or taken
for granted, but that can be equally accountable for teachers’ conceptions of effective
teaching. These authors also stress that teacher candidates make sense of those inuential
factors in different ways.
Several authors (for instance, Freeman, 1989, 1996b; Tarone & Allwright, 2005; Johnson,
2009b, Wright, 2010) have claimed that despite an interest in what second language teachers
need to know and the inuence of areas such as applied linguistics, second language acquisition,
and teaching methodologies, how teachers learn to teach is an area in need of further research
and discussion. As Freeman and Johnson (1998) note, the task of understanding the complex
nature of how teachers learn to teach should be an area of common interest for pre-service
teachers, in-service teachers, policy makers, teacher educators, and the community at large.
Currently, teacher learning in second language teacher education is becoming a relevant eld
of study as it takes more complex and exciting directions.
It is our goal in this paper to review the literature on how second language teachers
learn to teach across international contexts4. We similarly aim to consolidate teacher learning
as a relevant issue in the preparation of language teachers and to raise awareness among
practicing teacher educators in second language teacher education to better respond to the
many challenges derived from the activity of learning to teach. We will start with an overview
of the most dominant approaches for teacher learning in the eld of international second
language teacher education followed by a more detailed perspective of current trends in
learning to teach in the same eld. Then, we will provide conclusions and implications for
language teacher educators in diverse international contexts.
4 It is not our goal to limit this review to a particular context. This manuscript gathers what we read and
observed across a number of conceptual and empirical sources that (explicitly or implicitly) address the
phenomenon of teacher learning in language teacher education from a general perspective for the most
part. Interestingly, many of those sources appear to be implicitly referring to the eld of language teacher
education as a worldwide phenomenon. Put differently, we aim to provide an overview of what has been
happening to teacher learning in language teaching as observed in the sources consulted and cited.

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Dominant Approaches to Teacher Learning in Second Language
Teacher Education
In examining the literature, we identied three dominant approaches on the subject of
teacher learning in second language teacher education from an international perspective. These
approaches serve to inform how teachers conceptualize teaching and how various scholars
believe teachers learn to teach. We must clarify that there may be inevitable overlapping
between these approaches as learning to teach involves a multiplicity of factors and practices
which make it a long and complex process that starts even before prospective teachers enroll
in teacher preparation programs and continues into their years of professional teaching.
Content Knowledge + Teaching Skills = Eective Teaching
This rst approach follows a behavioral orientation, supports the notion of teaching
as transmission, and is based on the process-product paradigm in general education which
emphasizes the connection between a teacher’s actions and students’ learning outcomes.
Teaching effectiveness within a process-product paradigm is determined “in terms of
relationships between measures of teacher classroom behavior (processes) and measures of
student learning outcomes (products)” (Doyle, 1977, p. 165). This paradigm clearly implies
a causal relationship between what teachers do and what students are able to achieve at
the end of an instructional sequence. One of the challenges here is that this relationship
may lead to disregarding other variables, different from teacher variables, which may equally
affect student learning outcomes. This rst approach also relies on the belief that content
knowledge and teaching skills would be sufcient for teachers to convey the content to
students, that is, second language teachers were supposed to have knowledge of the target
language and knowledge of a series of methods and techniques to be able to teach. As
Freeman (2016) further argues, the teacher needed to “know the what as it was dened
through the disciplines” … [and] “to know the how of various methodologies and more
crucially have a basis on which to choose among these different ‘how’s” (p. 166).
According to Freeman (2002), new teachers were considered to enter professional
training tabula rasa, “with no prior knowledge of teaching or the teachers’ role” (p. 5).
Teachers were then seen as doers and implementers of other people’s ideas and thoughts
in the classroom without much consideration for the physical and social contexts where
learning would occur. This also seems to correspond to the craft and applied science models
proposed by Wallace (1991) through which beginning teachers learn from observing and
imitating the behavior and techniques of more experienced teachers, and applying the
theoretical and scientic concepts given by experts. These models promote the transmission
of knowledge in a top-down fashion and seek to maintain a separation between the expert or
researcher and the teacher. Another concept that may be associated with this rst approach

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is the ‘learn-then-apply’ design. Accordingly, teacher candidates “are expected to develop
subject-matter knowledge in their rst years of university study, and to then rene it as they
apply it in practice teaching and school settings in later years” (Freeman, 2016, p. 189).
This rst approach seemingly relates to a micro approach to teacher education
(Richards, 1987, 1990), which considers teaching in terms of its most visible
characteristics. Teachers were prescriptively taught discrete teaching skills (e.g., giving
instructions, monitoring students’ work, etc.) and their effectiveness relied on mastering
a repertoire of those skills and knowledge. Further evidence can be found in Freeman’s
(1996a) behavioral view of teaching which describes teaching as doing, in terms of
teachers’ and learners’ behaviors in the classroom. In short, emphasis was on training
teachers to imitate a series of teaching/teacher behaviors and methodologies that had
proved to be successful in other countries.
Teacher education programs worldwide expose future teachers to a great amount of
disciplinary knowledge, typically in the form of methods and theories; and provide them
with a eld experience (teaching practicum) in which they are expected to apply their
theoretical knowledge regardless of the context of actual classrooms. Not surprisingly, Atay
(2004) contends that current education and training programs “are found to be insufcient
due to the fact that they do not provide the participant teachers with opportunities to reect
on their own experiences, nor do they give them support in modifying teaching practice”
(p. 143). This perspective of teacher learning has similarly led to reinforce the view of
language teacher education as front loading and updating (Freeman, 2016), that is, most of
the knowledge and skills teachers need in order to teach can be front loaded or given at the
beginning of their teaching career. It then follows that teachers are expected to continue
their professional learning particularly by means of professional development activities, also
known as ‘updating’ opportunities which tend to “reinforce the assumption that the core
knowledge comes in initial preparation at the start of teaching” (p. 192). This act of front
loading in teacher education tends to overlook the contributions of the actual experiences
associated with doing the job in the classroom.
Freeman (1989) seemingly criticized the misconception that a transmission of knowledge
about applied linguistics and language acquisition, usually based on theoretical readings,
university-based lectures, and/or professional development workshops, was enough for an
effective pre-service language teacher. It is based on the misconception that Freeman and
Johnson (1998) later states as:
Teacher educators have come to recognize that teachers are not empty vessels waiting to be
lled with theoretical and pedagogical skills. They are individuals who enter teacher education
programs with prior experiences, personal values, and beliefs that inform their knowledge
about teaching and shape what they do. (p. 401)

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It is precisely this nal statement that leads us to the second dominant approach for
teacher learning in language teacher education that highlights the mental side, prior beliefs,
and learning experiences of language teacher learners.
Teachers’ Hidden Pedagogy and Prior Experiences
The second approach to teacher learning in global settings seeks to move from teachers’
behaviors and actions to examining their thinking and past experiences. A common
assumption here is that what teachers do in the language classroom originates in thoughts or
mental acts and that is equally shaped by teachers’ experiences; a number of them can play
a more noticeable role than others. Duarte (1998) states that “to understand how teachers
learn to teach and how they come to conceptualize what they do, we need to focus on the
mental lives of teachers” (p. 618). It follows that concepts such as teachers’ beliefs, decision
making, hidden pedagogy, reection, apprenticeship of observation, and personal theories
of learning play a more prominent role as teachers in diverse contexts are encouraged to
turn to their cognitions and reect on how their past learning experiences interact with their
present ways of thinking.
Borg (2006) denes teacher cognition as the “complex, practically-oriented, personalized,
and context-sensitive networks of knowledge, thoughts and beliefs that language teachers
draw on in their work” (p. 272). Accordingly, four areas contribute to shape teacher cognition:
“schooling…which denes early cognitions” to “professional coursework… [which] may affect
existing cognitions”, to “contextual factors …[which] inuence practice” (p. 272). The previous
three areas lead to “classroom practice” which is “dened by the interaction of cognitions
and contextual factors” (Borg, 2003, p. 82). Borg (2009) later claims that “we cannot
make adequate sense of teachers’ experiences of learning to teach without examining the
unobservable mental dimension of this learning process” (p. 163). This represents language
teachers’ inner voices, which are built over time and tested against different circumstances
and teaching settings. Reection therefore plays a crucial role in helping teachers to explore
or make better use of their implicit theories of teaching. Thus, Richards (1998) claims
that “reective approaches often seek to engage teachers in articulating and examining
the assumptions that underlie their teaching and in developing personal principles of best
practice that can support their approach to teaching” (p. 3).
Wallace’s (1991) reective model that encourages teachers to constantly reect upon,
evaluate, and modify their own teaching practice also belongs to this second approach of
learning to teach second languages. This reective model, according to Wallace (1991),
includes ‘received knowledge’ and ‘experiential knowledge’. The former refers to the theories,
skills, and research ndings that usually constitute the intellectual content of the profession
whereas experiential knowledge makes reference to the knowledge gained by the practice of

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An Overview of Dominant Approaches for
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the profession and the chance to constantly reect on knowledge-in-action5. Wallace (1991)
also adds that the reective model highlights what teacher learners bring to the training
process and therefore recognizes that they do not come with empty minds hoping to merely
receive knowledge from others. Despite the relevance of the reective model, Buendia
& Macías (2019) suggest that language teacher professional development in Colombia is
moving “from applied science (Schon, 1987) and reective-cooperative-process models
(Wallace, 1991) towards more critical ones in which basic aspects such as the design criteria
for professional development programs, teachers’ roles, and teachers’ ways of learning, have
been redened” (p. 108).
This approach reects a macro approach to teacher education (Richards, 1987, 1990)
and follows a non-prescriptive orientation through which teachers are offered opportunities
to “focus on clarifying and elucidating the concepts and thinking processes that guide
effective language teaching” (Richards, 1990, p. 14). Similarly, Freeman’s (1996a) cognitive
view recognizes teachers as affective and thinking beings. Thus, not only do teachers know
the behaviors but they also articulate this knowledge in order to cope with unexpected and
complex situations that arise in the actual teaching practice. There is a growing interest
not only in what teachers do in the classroom but in what they think about as they do it
(Freeman, 1996a). An equally relevant theme here relates to language teachers’ decision-
making. Woods’ (1996) ethno-cognitive model of decision-making highlights three main
components: the planning process or what happened before the lesson, the interactive decisions
or what occurred during the lesson, and the interpretative processes as the teacher engaged in
retrospective examination after the lesson.
A preliminary conclusion in relation to teachers’ mental lives, as stated by Freeman
(2002), is that while accurate maps of teaching can be observed by studying it from the
outside in, what is truly happening will not be grasped until the people who are doing it
articulate what they understand about it. This promotes a perspective from inside out,
teachers constructing knowledge about how to teach as a result of being mentally engaged
with the teaching process. Johnson (2006) similarly emphasizes that:
Teacher educators should no longer ignore the fact that teachers’ prior experiences, their
interpretations of the activities they engage in, and the contexts within which they work
are extremely inuential in shaping how and why teachers do what they do (Johnson, 2006,
p. 236)
Accordingly, helping beginning teachers to interpret and give meaning to their own
experiences might lead them to develop empirical and pedagogical insights which will
5 In Colombia, this reective model has been widely cited (Cuesta et al., 2019; Viáfara, 2005; Chaves & Guapa-
cha, 2016) but often in terms of highlighting its benets or advantages.

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simultaneously allow them “to theorize from practice and practice what they theorize”
(Kumaravadivelu, 1994, p. 27).
This second approach considers then that learning to teach is shaped by teachers’
previous learning experiences as students, as language learners, and as learners of language
teaching. For instance, Lin (2005) emphasizes that “a teacher’s experience as a student before
she enters the teacher education program could have an impact on her experience as a teacher
learner in such a program as well as on her actual teaching practice” (p. 11). In another study
with four ESL student teachers, Gutiérrez (1996) identied the origins of these teachers’
pre-training knowledge as connected to formal and informal language learning experiences,
the way they were taught during their schooling years, their fellow students and other people
they interacted with in different situations.
As admitted by Freeman and Johnson (1998), teachers’ hidden pedagogy and past
experiences as learners tend to create ways of thinking about teaching that often conict
with the images of teaching advocated in teacher education programs. Thus, these authors
argue that teacher educators now have come to realize that prior knowledge is a powerful
factor in teacher learning in its own right, one that clearly deserves attention and study so as
to strengthen and improve, rather than simply preserve and replicate, educational practice.
This is equally supported by Yates and Muchiski (2003) who claim that language teacher
educators have experiences as language learners and language teachers and should therefore
be aware of how coursework alone becomes insufcient for helping a teacher learner become
a competent language teacher.
e Social Context in Learning to Teach
A third approach emphasizes how the role of social and cultural context contributes
to shaping teacher learning and thinking. Learning to teach is not merely an individual
and isolated task. It is a process embedded in the social, political, economic, and cultural
circumstances of the contexts where teachers study, the contexts where they later receive
initial preparation and induction to teaching, and the contexts where they eventually teach
and integrate professionally with colleagues. As part of a socially-situated view of learning
to teach, Johnson and Freeman (2001) propose a framework for the knowledge base of
language teacher education based on three interrelated domains which, according to the
authors, describe the sociocultural environment where individuals learn to teach and carry
out their work as teachers.
The rst domain refers to teachers as learners of teaching contrary to their students
or themselves as learners of language. The second domain seeks to integrate schools as
the physical settings where teaching and learning occur and schooling as “the socio-cultural
processes of participation in schools, processes that gain value and meaning for participants

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through time” (Johnson & Freeman, 2001, p. 59). The third domain centers on the activity
of teaching and learning as experienced by teachers and learners in classrooms. This involves
examining…
How teachers think (or theorize) about their work, how they transform content to make it
accessible to … learners, how they understand and function within the institutions in which
they teach, how their learning relates to what and how students learn in their classrooms.
(Johnson & Freeman, 2001, p. 60)
In short, the authors emphasize that it is only by examining the sociocultural context
that language teachers go through as learners of language teaching that the teacher education
community can come to understand teacher learning in the North American context.
Freeman (2016) more recently incorporated many of the previous ideas in the concept
of learning-in-place or situated learning theory which emphasizes elements such as learning
by doing things in contexts, and knowing in situations (original italics). One of the greatest
challenges of situated learning theory relates to the congruence between language as situated
content and teacher education as situated preparation. Other central ideas for teacher
education from the perspective of situated learning theory involve, according to Freeman
(2016), language teachers as teacher educators, training new teachers through teaching actual
language students, and learning collectively from and with one another – in situ.
This third approach for teacher learning also relies on a sociocultural perspective through
which learning to teach becomes “a continual, mutually mediating process of appropriation
and social action, where practitioners take on the cultural practices that are valued in the
social situations of their development… and employ them in turn to shape that social
situation” (Ellis, Edwards, & Smagorinsky, 2010, p. 4). This social perspective allows the
analysis of elements that are inherent to teacher learning such as the relevance of dialogue
and collaboration in the construction of knowledge, the status of the teaching profession,
the cultural norms of school and schooling, and the use of action research as a fundamental
tool to generate theories of social change.
Going back to the idea of mediation in learning to teach, Johnson (2009a) points out
how teacher learning is mediated by social practices and tools (e.g., scientic concepts,
everyday concepts, human and social relations) and that these constitute a temporary “other”
which “support the transformative process and enable each teacher to move from external
social activity to internal control over their cognitive and emotional states” (p. 39). It follows
that through these mediators, teachers were able to challenge their ways of thinking about
teaching and develop new conceptions of teaching. Johnson (2009b) argues that second
language teacher education programs are beginning to see language teaching as “a dialogic
process of co-constructing knowledge that is situated in and emerges out of participation in
particular sociocultural practices and contexts” (p. 21). In short, learning to teach, Johnson

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(2009b) adds, is not seen as “the straightforward appropriation of skills from the outside
in, but [as] the progressive movement from externally, socially mediated activity to internal
control by individual teachers” (p. 2).
As this approach involves a careful examination of the context, Freeman’s (1996a)
interpretivist view of teaching may have a role to play here as it suggests that action and
thinking are now accompanied by the interpretation of the context. Put differently, this view
of teaching is a more complex one in which teachers know the behaviors, are cognitively and
affectively engaged with what goes on in class and know what to do in complex contexts,
thus displaying interpretative knowledge of teaching. Johnson and Freeman (2001) reinforce
this idea when they claim that “how teachers actually use their knowledge in classrooms
has come to be seen as highly interpretive, socially negotiated, and continually restructured
within the classrooms and schools where teachers work” (p. 56).
Current Trends in Learning to Teach Second Languages
We came to the conclusion that a current trend in learning to teach in second language
teacher education across several international settings seeks to combine features of the
second and third approaches previously described. In other words, elements such as teacher
cognition, teachers’ experiential knowledge and the social conditions of the teaching setting
appear to play a more relevant role. Wright (2010) states that an emerging pedagogy in second
language teacher education emphasizes aspects such as “student teachers’ LEARNING to
teach, …becoming a THINKING teacher, …REFLECTIVE ACTIVITY, … student teacher
INQUIRY, …and …LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE” (uppercase in original) (p. 273). This
reects a particular trend to teacher learning in which teachers are expected to be cognitively,
affectively, and socially engaged with respectful regard for the impact of their prior learning
experiences. The following studies, compiled with a broad international readership in mind,
help to illustrate this current trend as they lead us to understand how second language
teachers learn to teach in different contexts around the world.
Barahona (2014a) examined the social origin of teachers’ beliefs in the activity of
learning to teach with a group of twenty-four EFL teachers in Chile. She found that teachers’
beliefs are shaped and reshaped as teachers engaged in the activity of learning to teach
English: from their past experiences as language learners, to teacher learners in a university
teacher education program, and then to their school-based actual teaching experiences. These
teachers’ beliefs “emerged in the actions they engaged in learning to teach English and the
interplay between theory, personal understandings and practical applications” (p. 120). The
author highlights that these pre-service EFL teachers’ beliefs kept changing as they engaged
in professional teaching and that, consequently, they used their beliefs about learning and
teaching to direct their actions.

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Kang and Cheng (2014) investigated the relationship between a novice EFL teacher’s
classroom practices and cognition development as she learned to teach in her everyday work
in a middle school in Beijing, China. Results revealed a considerable amount of teacher
‘change’ while the factors that inuenced such change included the teacher’s professional
learning experience, teaching experience, their reection on practice, and the teaching
context. This study contributes to validate the view that many second language teachers
tend to practice what they have experienced as opposed to what they have studied in teacher
preparation programs. The study also shows that the development of teacher cognition is
the result of a continuous process of interaction between teachers’ knowledge and belief
systems and their classroom practices under the mediation of teacher reection.
In examining the current practices of three pre-service English teachers in Hong Kong,
Tsang (2004) found that about half of the interactive decisions in these teachers’ lessons were
guided by explicit maxims; the other half seemed to be connected to contextual factors such
as limited class time, students’ language level, and classroom management issues. A major
implication here is that teachers’ actions and decision making must not be understood with
exclusive reference to what they think or know; an understanding of their teaching context
and work setting is also necessary. Vieira (2006) focused on how the beliefs, assumptions, and
knowledge that prospective EFL teachers in Brazil bring to their teacher education program
interacted with the practical and theoretical content they were exposed to in such a program.
The last phase of the project revealed that participants’ teaching practice reected new
perspectives which were constructed during the teacher education program. This supports
the importance of reecting on theories and practices for teachers’ knowledge construction.
Vieira (2006) highlights that a teacher education program based on a social-constructivist view
of teaching that accounts for the beliefs, assumptions and knowledge students bring to such a
program, provides elements for the construction of a more coherent classroom practice.
Childs (2011) followed a novice ESL teacher in exploring his experiences in becoming
a teacher in the United States. The study was conducted within a sociocultural perspective
to analyze this teacher’s struggle to conceptualize teaching. Findings show that this teacher’s
learning to teach process was mediated by several activity systems: his language learning
beliefs (language learning as social practice), balancing his roles as a graduate student and
a novice teacher, his support systems (coming from supervising professor, the professional
development program, other ESL teachers, graduate courses), and his classroom teaching
activity. Childs (2011) reports that although this teacher participated in these same activities
in both semesters of professional teaching, the context of each activity changed from the rst
to the second semester. The study also conrms the view of teacher learning as a twisting
path shaped and reshaped by different settings and communities of practice (Smagorinsky,
Cook, & Johnson, 2003) that individually and collectively comprise the rst-year teaching
experience.

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Farrell (2003) similarly reports on the role that support plays as a beginning EFL teacher
experienced his rst year of teaching in a school in Singapore. The author focused on the
teacher’s specic context, the school, and how he interpreted his own process of becoming
a teacher during that rst year. Findings relate to three major aspects: the reality of this
teacher’s rst year characterized by an increase in his workload and in having to cope with
lower prociency students; the role of support from colleagues and administrators which
led him to experience a culture of individualism with limited opportunities of sharing and
communicating with colleagues; and a series of phases this teacher went through during the
year where he moved from an initial shock regarding the reality of the classroom to paying
more attention to the quality of his students’ learning.
Studies by Johnson (2007) and Johnson and Golombek (2011a) serve to illustrate the use
of narratives as representations of a socially-mediated view of human experience. Johnson
(2007), for example, analyzed an ESL teacher’s narrative with an emphasis on what it revealed
about the internal activity of teacher learning, and the cultural artifacts this teacher relied
on to mediate her learning. Findings showed that teacher-authored narratives allowed this
teacher to “integrate theoretical and experiential knowledge as she articulated a rationale
for reconceptualizing her instruction” (p. 185). The teacher in the study similarly relied on
cultural artifacts to mediate her learning. These artifacts took various forms: interaction with
a co-teacher with whom she was able to externalize her thoughts; theoretical constructs
which she appropriated and recongured; the enactment of new instructional practices; and
the narrative inquiry itself, in which, according to Johnson (2007), this teacher documented
“the struggles she experienced as she regained self-regulation and resolved her sense of
emotional dissonance” (p. 185) she had initially revealed.
Johnson and Golombek (2011a) later state that the use of narrative as a mediational tool
involved three interrelated functions: narrative as externalization, narrative as verbalization,
and narrative as systematic examination. Narrative as externalization leads teachers to disclose
their current and tacit understandings and feelings so that these could be exposed to social
inuence and restructuring. Narrative as verbalization involves the use of concepts (every day
and scientic) as tools for understanding or facilitating the internalization process. Johnson
and Golombek (2011b) claim that “scientic concepts are presented to teachers in order to
restructure and transform their everyday concepts so that they are no longer constrained” by
Lortie’s (1975) apprenticeship of observation. Narrative as systematic examination seeks to
engage teachers in systematic examinations of themselves, their teaching practices, and their
social, historical, cultural, and political contexts that constituted their professional worlds in
particular ways. Together these functions contribute to fostering teacher learning within what
Johnson and Golombek (2011a) called the transformative power of narrative.
Other studies (Poehner, 2009; Kiely & Davis, 2010) have also identied how learning
to teach in second language education takes place through collaborative work and reective

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practice. Poehner (2009) studied how a Vygotskian theoretical framework contributed to
understanding teacher learning in the context of a critical friends’ group in a small university
town in the United States. He found that as a result of interacting with the critical friends’
group, the participating teacher was able to build on her own history and the professional
expertise provided by the group to reconceptualize the dilemma she had presented to the
group and so was able to transform her instructional activities in ways that enhance student
learning.
In working with more experienced English language teachers in a continuing
professional development program in the United Kingdom, Kiely and Davis (2010) found
that reective practice was less successful, even though the analysis of Critical Learning
Episodes of teachers’ own lessons reafrmed the value of collaborative work in learning to
teach while reading research literature in the eld of English language teaching to facilitate
the analysis of episodes. A reective approach to teacher learning that allows the inclusion
of previous experiences and teachers’ beliefs and personal theories of teaching can also be
found elsewhere (Vélez-Rendón, 2002; Richards & Farrell, 2011).
Teacher learning along with other related constructs (e.g., teacher identity, teaching
methods, reection), has also been of interest to local researchers in the Colombian context.
For instance, the work of Fajardo (2014) reasserts the view that although learning to teach is
individually constructed and experienced, it is socially negotiated, that is, it occurs as teachers
negotiate ways of participation in a teacher community. The same author adds that learning
to teach “is characterized by continuous interaction, communication, and social participation
within the school community, local education authority, and broader contexts of professional
connection” (p. 56). In contrast, Diaz (2013) examined the process of identity formation of
a group of student teachers through a reection cycle. He concluded that “identity is a social
process that evolves in the settings where people learn and interact simultaneously” (p. 47),
whereas reection allows student teachers to think of new possibilities to act within the
teaching context while shaping their self-images as teachers.
In conducting a study with thirty-two modern language graduates from a Colombian
university, Mosquera (2021) reveals that “the most used methods and approaches that
graduates prefer are the Communicative Language Approach and the Eclectic Method” (p.
112) and highlights the teaching and learning context, and resources as fundamental criteria
for adopting such methods. This nding appears to reinforce the view that the circumstances
of the contexts where teachers study and later teach, shape and restructure their teaching
methods and approaches through a reective-creative action and not merely an imposition
of contextualities.
Castañeda-Trujillo and Aguirre-Hernández (2018) reported on a pedagogical experience
with pre-service English teachers in the Colombian teacher education context. Interestingly,

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the authors mentioned the necessity, stressed by participants, of reecting on their teaching,
to think about all that happens in their classes including the impact they have on students’
lives. Castañeda-Trujillo and Aguirre-Hernández (2018) also emphasize “the importance of
having mentoring, not as a one-way process, but as a multiple-way process in which pre-
service teachers are able to feel they can express themselves and their peers and mentor
are going to listen” (p. 164). This study contributes to the discussion on learning to teach
second languages from a local – to us – perspective, and points at taking into consideration
the reections of those “directly involved in the [teaching] process” (p. 169), mainly as an
opportunity to explore our habituation to traditional – and maybe incongruous – methodologies.
Conclusions
Teacher learning in second language teacher education across international settings
has experienced various moves in its relatively short history. It has moved from a process-
product paradigm with an emphasis on teachers’ behaviors and students’ outcomes, to a
consideration of teachers’ cognitions and prior learning experiences, and more recently to
be embedded in the social and institutional context of teaching. It is clear that the process-
product paradigm has become insufcient to fully understand teachers’ hidden pedagogy
and the complexity of classrooms, schools and communities where learning to teach occurs.
In contrast, there seems to be a movement towards an ecological perspective with a focus on
teachers’ own experiences as insiders and a closer examination of the variables that inuence
the learning environment. Ecological studies hold the idea that classrooms are environmental
settings and rely on the assumption that “one needs to take into account the affordances and
constraints created by teachers, peers, and other human actors, not just the settings’ physical
characteristics” (Brophy, 2006, p. 27).
Despite the relevance of the various approaches and designs in second language teacher
education worldwide, Freeman (2016) argues that designs such as learn-then-apply continue
to be predominant in teacher preparation despite the fact that disciplinary knowledge
seems to play a less central role in the knowledge base of language teaching in the last few
decades. Nonetheless, other conceptual changes “have had little inuence on the learn-then-
apply framework … [and] on how teaching knowledge is treated throughout a teacher’s
career” (p. 192). This review has led us, the authors, to believe that the learning to teach
process in second language teacher education should be based on the interactions among
social, cultural, and historical contexts. Additionally, we argue that the same process should
rely on the interplay between teachers’ hidden pedagogy and the individual and collective
reconstruction of their experiential knowledge. As claimed by Barahona (2014b), “learning
to teach is not a solo activity but a conuence of the pre-service teachers’ personal histories
(for example, no English, poor schools), the culture of the university (diverse and socially

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committed), and the nature of the pre-service teacher education program (critical, and
change agents)” (p. 63). Thus, we can now more condently reafrm the view that language
teachers do not learn to teach as a result of just mastering the language and pedagogical
skills, or by exploring their own prior experiences, mental lives, or the social characteristics of
their teaching context. Instead, it is the sum of these and many other aspects that eventually
illuminates the developmental path of learning to teach for language teachers.
Implications for Language Teacher Educators
Language teacher educators in teacher preparation programs around the world should
put themselves in a position to consider aspects of several approaches framed within the
local needs and conditions of those involved in learning to teach. For example, several
researchers (for example, Loughran, 2012; Borg, 2009; Johnson, 2006, 2009b) have claimed
that teacher educators must work on acknowledging, helping make explicit, and challenging
prospective teachers’ prior cognitions and learning experiences as an important precondition
within a transformational view of learning to teach.
Teacher educators in diverse second language teacher education programs should
consider the benets of collaborative work and communities of practice in teacher learning.
This should lead to the establishment and maintenance of school-university partnerships,
as well as other forms of collaborative inquiry (e.g., critical friends groups, team teaching,
action research, online discussion groups, etc.) to help reduce the existing gap between the
skills and knowledge typically gained in teacher education programs and the practical reality
of the workplace. Teacher educators should also promote the development of adaptive
expertise (Hammerness et al., 2005) so that teachers can adapt in appropriate ways and
innovate within the constraints while they gain awareness of the larger social contexts within
which they operate.
Finally, language teacher educators should help prospective teachers to understand
that their views of teaching will develop over time. This, according to Childs (2011), can
remove the pressure teachers might feel to “get it” immediately and also may remind teacher
educators “to have realistic expectations of their students’ growth and development” (p. 84).
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