"Ağaçların Diyarı" Guatemala'nın Ülke Analizi /// Country Analysis of the "Land of Trees" Guatemala

Abstract

Özet:

Latin Amerika ve Karayipler’de yer alan 33 ülkenin her birinin tarihsel gelişimi ve ülke yapısı, tüm ortak paylaşımlarına ve miraslarına rağmen, birçok farklı özelliğe sahiptir. Orta Amerika’nın en büyük nüfusa ve ekonomisine sahip olan Guatemala; demografisi, siyasal sistemi, iktisadi yapısının iniş çıkışları ve sosyokültürel çeşitliliğinin var olma mücadelesi ile kayda değer zenginlikler barındırmaktadır. Maya uygarlığına ev sahipliği yapan, 15. yüzyıl sonlarında kıtanın keşfiyle İspanya sömürgesi olarak 16. yüzyıldan 19. yüzyıla kadar yaklaşık 300 yıl geçiren bu ülke, 2021 yılında bağımsızlığının 200. yılını kutlamaktadır. Fark edilmektedir ki gerek Orta Amerika gerekse de Guatemala özelinde ulusal literatürde çalışmalar oldukça azdır. Dolayısıyla bu çalışma literatüre katkı sunabilmek için Guatemala’nın yapısal özelliklerine yönelik güncel bir ülke analizi olarak hazırlanmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Guatemala, Siyasal Sistem, Demografi, Dış Politika, Ekonomi.

///

Abstract:

The historical development and country structure of each of the 33 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, despite all their common shares and heritage, has many different characteristics. Guatemala, which has the largest population and economy in Central America has unique features with its demography, political system, fluctuations in its economic structure and the struggle for the existence of sociocultural diversity. Home to the Maya Civilization, Guatemala, which spent 300 years as a Spanish colony from the 16th to the 19th century with the discovery of the continent in the late 15th century, celebrates the 200th anniversary of its independence in 2021. It is noticed that there are very few studies in the national literature both in Central America and in Guatemala. Therefore, this study has been prepared as a country analysis for the structural features of Guatemala in order to contribute to the literature.

Keywords: Guatemala, Political System, Demography, Foreign Politics, Economy.

Full text

(GLWÐUOHU
'RÁ'UñVPDLO(UPDðDQ
'RÁ'U(PLQH7DKVLQ
'RÁ'U6HJ¼K7HNLQ
'h1<$6ú<$6(7ú1'(/$7ú1
$0(5ú.$

%ªgÄQÄ+Qg%+\Qge+QZdz
+ôĚŰōŠĮúŠȣ%Ńñȡ%ŠȡQŧķÒĚĮ+ŠķÒďÒĹȼ%Ńñȡ%Šȡ+ķĚĹúÒĕŧĚĹ
%Ńñȡ%ŠȡúĎÛĕúīĚĹ
ÄÒƗěĹgŃȡDzǷǴǷ
úŪúŠĚĚĮĚķĮúŠgŃȡDzǶǯ
JgȣǸǶǷȺǵDZǴȺdzǰǶȺDzǰǰȺǯ
+ȺJgȣǸǶǷȺǵDZǴȺdzǰǶȺDzǰDZȺǶ
ÒŧěķÒƗěŧěȣǰȡÒŧěķȢZÒŧěķDZǯDZǰ
ʕŃŝƗŠĚĎĕŰDZǯDZǰȢgp+\Z%+eQZÄÄJgJ\JZ+?QQe%gJeg\JZQȡ\%ȡQȡ+Q=QZgpȡdzǯDzdzǯ
ŸíÒŧīěĹěĹíŽŰŽĹĕÒīĮÒŠěgŃíúĮīÒôúķĚīÄÒƗěĹîěĮěī+ďĚŰĚķ%ÒĹěŪķÒĹĮěīĚîȡ\ŰôȡŰĚȡĹúÒĚŰŰĚŠȡ
ÄÒƗěĹúƐĚĹĚĹƗÒƠěĮěĚƠĹĚŃĮķÒīŧěƠěĹīĚŰÒíěĹŰŽķŽĹŽĹƐúƗÒíĚŠīěŧķěĹěĹúĮúīŰŠŃĹĚīȢķúīÒĹĚīƗÒôÒ
čŃŰŃīŃŝĚƗŃĮŸƗĮÒíÒŧěķěȢƗÒƗěķěȢñŃďÒĮŰěķěƐúôÒďěŰěķěƗÒŝěĮÒķÒƠȡ
gŃíúĮÄÒƗěĹ>ŠŸíŸȢǰǸǷdzƗěĮěĹôÒĹĚŰĚíÒŠúĹŸĮŸŧÒĮƐúDZǯǰǰƗěĮěĹôÒĹĚŰĚíÒŠúĹĚŧúŸĮŸŧĮÒŠÒŠÒŧěôŽƠúƗôú
ôŽƠúĹĮĚŃĮÒŠÒīčÒÒĮĚƗúŰƗŽŠŽŰķúīŰúƐúƗÒƗěķĮÒôěďěīĚŰÒŝĮÒŠȢŸĮŸŧÒĮƐúŸĮŸŧĮÒŠÒŠÒŧěôŽƠúƗôúīĚ
ƗŽīŧúīōďŠúŰĚķīŸŠŸķĮÒŠěīÒŰÒĮŃĎĮÒŠěĹôÒƗúŠÒĮķÒīŰÒôěŠȡ
>úĹúĮÄÒƗěĹÄōĹúŰķúĹĚȣgúƐƠÒŰŠĎŸĹȺĹÒŠĎŸĹʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
>úĹúĮÄÒƗěĹZŃŃŠôĚĹÒŰōŠŽȣ>ŽĮčúķ%ŸŠŧŸĹȺĎŸĮčúķʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
ÒƗčÒÒŧÒŠěķȣÒŠīÒĹZÒŠÒȺúŠôÒĮʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
úôÒīŧĚƗŃĹȣ+ķŠú>ŽŠíŽƠȺúķŠúĎŸŠíŸƠʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
ZÒŝÒīÒŧÒŠěķȣúƠÒĚzƠôúĹȺŧúƠÒĚʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
>ōŠŧúĮÒŧÒŠěķ¥ƠķÒĹěȣeúĕŰÒŝÄŽŠŽķúƠȺķúĕŰÒŝʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
ÒŧīěŃŠŸķĮŸŧŸȣÄÒƐŸƠÒĕĚĹȺƗÒƐŸƠʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
ÒŧīěƐúĚĮŰȣÒŠěƗěĮôěƠpčŧúŰķíȡZÒďȡÒƠȡÒĹȡƐúĚîȡ\ŰôúŠŰĚƥīÒgŃȡDZDzǴǸDz
QƐúôĚīďÒñQŪĮúŠĚÒĹȡĚŰȡǰDzǴdzȡÒôȡǰDzǴǷȡŃīȡgŃȡDzǰpŧŰĚķȮgZ
ZŽŰŽŝĕÒĹúĚĮĎĚZÒŠŰě
+ŠķÒďÒĹȢQŧķÒĚĮȡȢÒĕŧĚĹȢ+ķĚĹúȡȢúīĚĹȢúĎÛĕ
%ŽĹƗÒĚƗÒŧúŰĚĹôú\ÒŰĚĹķúŠĚīÒdzȮ+ôĚŰōŠĮúŠȣ%Ńñȡ%ŠȡQŧķÒĚĮ+ŠķÒďÒĹȼ%Ńñȡ%Šȡ+ķĚĹúÒĕŧĚĹȼ
%Ńñȡ%ŠȡúĎÛĕúīĚĹ
ǰȡÒŧěķȢÃÃÃɪǵǴǵŧȡȢǰǵƖDZDzȢǴîķȡZÒƗĹÒīñÒƐÒŠȢôĚƠĚĹƗŃīȡ
JgȣǸǶǷȺǵDZǴȺdzǰǶȺDzǰǰȺǯ
+ȺJgȣǸǶǷȺǵDZǴȺdzǰǶȺDzǰDZȺǶ
ǰȡ%ŽĹƗÒĚƗÒŧúŰĚ  DZȡ\ÒŰĚĹķúŠĚīÒ  DzȡŽŠīĚƗú
>úĹúĮ%ÒďěŰěķ
\Z%+eQZJeÄÄJg%?JJeQȡ\%ȡQȡ
ôŠúŧȣÒĕñúīÒŝěeÒĕȡDZdzǵǴŃīȡpŰŃÒĹÒƗĚĚŰúŧĚgŃȡǶŃôŠŸķZÒŰȢÒŪķÒƠȮgZ
úĮúčŃĹȣɪǸǯDzǰDZDZǶǷǴǯǶǶȺ=ÒīŧȣǯDzǰDZDZǶǷDZǰǵǴȺĚŝÒŠĚŪȣŧĚŝÒŠĚŧʑĹŃíúĮƗÒƗĚĹȡîŃķȺ
+ȺÒŰěŪȣƑƑƑȡĹŃíúĮīĚŰÒŝȡîŃķȺúŧÒŰĚŧʑĹŃíúĮīĚŰÒŝȡîŃķȮƑƑƑȡÒŰĮÒŧīĚŰÒŝȡîŃķȺĚĹčŃʑÒŰĮÒŧīĚŰÒŝȡîŃķ
%ÒďěŰěķƐúÒŰěŪgŃīŰÒĮÒŠěȣĮčÒÒŧěķ%ÒďěŰěķȢŠÒŧŰÒȢŠīÒôÒŪZĚŰÒíúƐĚȢ%ʒeÒďÒƠÒĮÒŠěȢ%ŃŧŰ%ÒďěŰěķȢ
+īĚŝ%ÒďěŰěķȢZĚôÒ%ÒďěŰěķȢZĚŰÒŝŧÒĹȢgúƠĚĕZĚŰÒíúƐĮúŠĚȢÒĹôŃŠÒȢŠúƥƖȢúķƠĚZĚŰÒíúƐĮúŠĚ

III
 \×OODU×QGD .ED·GD J|UHY VWOHQPLü ELU EURNUDW RODUDN LIDGH
HGHELOLULPNL WRSODPQIXVX PLO\RQX DüDQ/DWLQ $PHULNDYH .DUD\LSOHU
/$.PDDOHVHI7UN NDPXR\XQXQXQLOJLVLQL \HWHULQFHoHNHELOHQELU E|OJH
GHùLOGLU\×O×QGDQLWLEDUHQ'×üLüOHUL%DNDQO×ù×P×]×Q|QGHUOLùLQGHJHUoHN-
OHüWLULOHQ/$.Do×O×P×VD\HVLQGH ONHPL]LQE|OJHLOHVL\DVL YHHNRQRPLNLOLü-
NLOHULDUWP×ü PHYFXW E\NHOoLOHULPL]LQ VD\×V×·GDQ ·\H o×NDU×OP×üW×U 6|]
NRQXVXDo×O×PDSDUDOHORODUDNE|OJH\HLOLüNLQDUDüW×UPDODU×Q\D\×QODU×QYHPD-
NDOHOHULQDUWPDV×\ODELUOLNWH7UNL\H·GH/$.ONHOHULQH\|QHOLNLOJLQLQ\NVH-
OHFHùLQHLQDQ×\RUXP%XQRNWDGDLON LNLVD\×V×6D\×QúVPDLO(UPDùDQ VRQLNL
VD\×V×GD 6D\×Q úVPDLO (UPDùDQ6D\×Q (PLQH 7DKVLQ6D\×Q6HJkK 7HNLQ HGL-
W|UOùQGHKD]×UODQDQ´'Q\D6L\DVHWLQGH/DWLQ$PHULNDµNLWDSVHULVLONH
OLWHUDWULoLQVHYLQGLULFLELUJHOLüPHGLU
/DWLQ$PHULNDGHQLQFH7UNL\H·GHDNODIXWEROYHWDQJRG×ü×QGDPDDOHVHI
X\XüWXUXFXWLFDUHWLPDI\DWDUDI×QGDQNDo×U×ODQ|OGUOHQPDVXPLQVDQODUID-
NLUOLNYHLüVL]OLNJHOPHNWHGLU2\VDEX]FLQVDQPDQ]DUDODU\ROVX]OXNODU×Q
JHOLUGDù×O×P×QGDNL HüLWVL]OLNOHULQ YH WHPHO KDNODUD |QFHOLN WDQ×PD\DQ VL\DVL
VLVWHPOHULQVRQXoODU×G×UhONHPL]GH/$.E|OJHVL\OHLOJLOLDUDüW×UPDODUV|\OHüL-
OHUPDNDOHOHUQHNDGDUDUWDUVD7UNRNXUX/$.E|OJHVLQLQVRUXQODU×Q×RNDGDU
GDKDL\LNDYUD\DFDNYHROD\ODU×QDUNDSODQ×Q×GDKDUDKDWJ|UHELOHFHNWLU
*HUL\H GRùUX WRSOX Do×GDQ EDNW×ù×P×]GD * \HVL  ONHQLQ %UH]LO\D
0HNVLNDYH$UMDQWLQGHGkKLOROGXùX/$.E|OJHVLQLQGQ\DVL\DVHWLQGHG|-
QHPLQLoYHG×üNRüXOODU×GRùUXOWXVXQGDKDEHUOHUH\DQV×G×ù×Q×YH|QHo×NW×ù×Q×
J|UU]+DPPDGGHIL\DWODU×Q×Q\NVHNROGXùX\×OODUGD/$.O-
ÖN SÖZ -1:
A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-Y959fx9x8xi
2x9=-h592-7Ć=3;Ćg3-ć5;A5ć5

NHOHULQGHHNRQRPLNE\PH\HSDUDOHORODUDNRUWDV×Q×IODU×QJHOLULQGHDUW×üODU
\DüDQG×ù×Q×IDNLUOLùLQD]DOG×ù×Q×UHIDK×QDUWW×ù×Q×PHPQXQL\HWOHL]OHGLN$Q-
FDNVRQ \×OODUGD /$. E|OJHVLQGHQLo Do×F× KDEHUOHU JHOPHPHNWHGLU \×O×
VRQEDKDU×QGDûLOL·GHQEDüOD\DUDNQHUHGH\VHN×WDQ×QWDPDP×QD\D\×ODQEDüNDO-
G×U×YH SURWHVWRODU×Q JHULVLQGH HùLWLPYH VDùO×N KL]PHWOHULQH HULüLPGHNLJo-
ONOHULOH VRV\DOJYHQOLN VLVWHPLQLQ]D\×IO×ù× \DWPDNWDG×U%DüNDQO×N VLVWHPL
LOH\|QHWLOHQ/$.ONHOHULQGHNL\|QHWLFLNDGURODU×Q\×OODU×QELULNWLUGLùLGHYD-
VD VRUXQODUD oDUH UHWHPHGLNOHUL GLNNDW oHNPHNWHGLU gWH \DQGDQ &RYLG
SDQGHPLVLQLQE|OJHQLQN|NOVRUXQODU×Q×GDKDGDGHULQOHüWLUGLùLQLDNO×P×]GD
WXWDO×P
/XODGD6LOYD·Q×QEDüNDQROGXùX\×OODUGDGQ\DVL\DVHWLQGHELU\×OG×]JLEL
SDUOD\DQ%UH]LO\D·GDQ\×O×QGDQLWLEDUHQDUW×NVDGHFHVNDQGDOYH\ROVX]-
OXN KDEHUOHUL \DQV×PDV× GüQGUFGU +XJR &KDYH] '|QHPL·QGH UHIDK
VHYL\HVLQGH E\N DUW×ü ND\GHGHQ 9HQH]XHOD VRQ  \×OG×U GHULQ ELU o|Nü
LoLQGHGLUONHQIXVXQXQGDELUL\XUWG×ü×QDNDoP×üW×U$UMDQWLQ·GHLNWLGDU×Q
VRO YH VDù KNPHWOHU DUDV×QGD HO GHùLüWLUPHVLQH NDUü×Q HQIODV\RQ RUDQ×
GüUOHPHPHNWH G×ü ERUo VRUXQX Dü×ODPDPDNWDG×U )$5& LOH  \×O×QGD
EDU×üDQODüPDV× LP]DODPD\D PXYDIIDNRODQ .RORPEL\D·GD LüOHU EHNOHQWLOHULQ
DNVLQH L\L\H JLWPHPHNWH VRV\DO oDONDQW×ODU JLGHUHN \D\J×QODüPDNWDG×U
/$. E|OJHVLQLQ HQ JHOLüPLü ONHVL NDEXO HGLOHQ ûLOL·GH  VRQEDKDU×QGD
o×NDQROD\ODU×Q \DW×üW×U×ODELOPHVL LoLQ D\ODU VUHQ oDEDODU JHUHNPLüWLU 6RV\DO
KX]XUVX]OXNODU×Q N|NHQLQGH JHOLU GDù×O×P× HüLWVL]OLùL LOH HùLWLP YH VDùO×N
DODQODU×QGDNL \D\J×Q \HWHUVL]OLùLQ \DWW×ù×Q× J|UHQ OLEHUDO KNPHW ONHGH
ELU VLVWHP VRUXQX ROGXùXQX NDEXOOHQHUHN PHYFXW DQD\DVD\× GHùLüWLUPHN
]HUHKDUHNHWH JHoPLüWLU 8]XQ\×OODU OLEHUDO VDù SROLWLNDODUL]OH\HQ 3HUX·GD
JHoWLùLPL]\×OLoLQGHGHYOHWEDüNDQODU×J|UHYGHQD]OHGLOPLüoRNVD\×GDHVNL
OLGHU YH SROLWLNDF× \ROVX]OXNODUD NDU×üPDNWDQ |WU KkNLP NDUü×V×QD o×NPDN
]RUXQGDNDOP×üHVNLELUGHYOHWEDüNDQ×LQWLKDUHWPLüWLU<ROVX]OXNODUGDQE×N-
P×üGXUXPGDNL3HUXVHoPHQLVRQXQGDOLEHUDOVDùVL\DVHWoLOHUHWHSNLVLQLJ|V-
WHUPLüJHoWLùLPL]D\ODUGDVHQGLNDF×VROFXYHID]ODWDQ×QPDP×üELU|ùUHWPH-
QLGHYOHW EDüNDQ× NROWXùXQDRWXUWPXüWXU /$. E|OJHVLQLQ LNLQFLOLGHU ONHVL
0HNVLND·Q×QVROSRSOLVWOLGHULX\XüWXUXFXNDUWHOOHULLOHPFDGHOHVLQGHKHQ]
ELUEDüDU×HOGHHGHPHPLüWLU2UWD$PHULND·Q×QüLGGHWYHIDNLUOLNVDUPDO×QGDNL
oONHVL+RQGXUDV(O6DOYDGRU YH*XDWHPDOD·Q×Q GXUXPODU×QGDELU L\LOHü-
PHND\GHGLOHPHPHNWHGLU6HoLPOHUHKD]×UODQDQE|OJHONHOHULQGHQ´VDQGLQLVW
YH VRV\DOLVWµ 1LNDUDJXD PXKDOHIHW OLGHUOHULQL KDSVH DWPDN LOH PHüJXOGU
.DUD\LSOHU·LQ HQ IDNLU YH HQ LVWLNUDUV×] ONHVL +DLWL·GH GHYOHW EDüNDQ× HYLQH
JHUoHNOHüWLULOHQVLODKO×VDOG×U×GDKD\DW×Q× ND\EHWPLüWLUhONHQLQ|QQGHNLVRQ

üDQV(\OOD\×QGDG]HQOHQHFHNVHoLPOHUGL.ED·Q×Q&RYLGSDQGHPLVLYH
$%'DPEDUJRVXQGDQND\QDNODQDQV×N×QW×ODU×DUWDUDNGHYDPHWPHNWHGLU
úüWH  \D] D\ODU×QGD /$. E|OJHVLQGHQ GQ\D\D \DQV×\DQ WDEOR EX
üHNLOGHNDUDPVDUG×U7DEORQXQE|\OHVLQHPRUDOER]XFXROPDV×QGDE|OJHOLGHUL
%UH]LO\DLOHSHWURO]HQJLQL9HQH]XHOD·Q×QYDV×IV×]\|QHWLFLOHULQLQVRUXPOXOXNODU×
V|] NRQXVXGXU %D]× oHYUHOHULQ ×UNo× IDüLVW YH NDo×N V|]OHUL\OH WDULI HWWLNOHUL
GHYOHWEDüNDQ×-DLU%ROVRQDUR·QXQVHoLPOHUL\OHGHYUHG×ü×NDOPDV×\DQ×Q-
GD9HQH]XHODOLGHUL0DGXUR·QXQPXKDOHIHWLOHGHUKDOPDVD\DRWXUDUDNDGLOYH
VHUEHVWVHoLPOHU\DS×OPDV×Q×NDEXOHWPHVL/$.E|OJHVLQLQJHOHFHùLDo×V×QGDQ
KD\DWL|QHPWDü×PDNWDG×U9HQH]XHOD·Q×QGHPRNUDWLNX]ODü×YHVRV\DOEDU×üD
\|QHOHUHN\HQLELUVD\IDDoPD\DPXYDIIDNROPDV×\DN×QoHYUHVLQLQYHWP*-
QH\$PHULND·Q×QKX]XUDHNRQRPLNE\PH\HYHVL\DVLLVWLNUDUDG|QüQQ
LONDG×P×Q×WHüNLOHGHELOHFHNWLU
(%\NHOoL+DVDQ6HUYHWgNWHP


´'Q\DKHUQHNDGDUNUHVHOELUN|\KkOLQHJHOVHGH7UNL\H·QLQXOXVODUD-
UDV×LOLüNLOHUDù×LoLoHJHoPLüNPHOHULNDSVD\DQELUoHüLWOLOLNKHQ]DU]HGHPH-
PHNWHGLU%DONDQODU·GDQ2UWD$V\D·\D2UWD'RùX·GDQ$IULND·\DHWNLVDKDODU×
EXOXQDQ7UNG×üSROLWLNDV×QGDNLPL´\×OLODQHWPHOHUµYH\DGLOLQGHQNOWU-
QHNDPX GLSORPDVLVLQGHQ KDON HWNLOHüLPLQH X]DQDQ ELU YL]\RQOD VLVWHPDWLN
ELUKkODOPDODUGDROVDKkOkNULWLNV×N×QW×ODU\DüDQPDNWDG×U'HVWLQDV\RQRODUDN
´\D$YUXSD%LUOLùL\DGD2UWD'RùXLNLOHPLµ\DN×Q]DPDQGDDQFDNWHUNHGLOH-
ELOPLüVHGHONHDNDGHPLV\HQOHULEXoHüLWOLOLùHJHFLNPHOLRODUDNDGDSWHRODELO-
PHNWHGLU$UW×NGXUXPüXNL7UNL\H·QLQGHYOHWDNO×/DWLQ$PHULND·GDQ'RùX
$V\D·\D$YUXSD·GDQúVODPGQ\DV×QD LOLüNLOHULQLoRNOXG]OHPGH\UWPH-
QLQHO]HPOLùLQLJ|UPHNWHGLUµ1'LùHULIDGH\OH$YUXSD%LUOLùL·QH\HRODO×P\D
GD$YUXSDLOHLOLüNLOHULPL]LNHVHOLPûDQJD\úüELUOLùLgUJWYH\DúVODPúüELUOL-
ùL7HüNLODW×LOHRUWDNO×NODUNXUDO×PELOHOLPNLKLoELUKHGHIVHSHWLQoHüLWOHQPHVL-
QHHQJHOGHùLO%LODNLV´NUHVHON|\µGHHWUDI×QDEDNDPD\DQNHQGLVLQHDOGDW×O-
P×üO×NWDQEDüNDELUüH\KHGL\HHWPH]$V\D3DVLILN$IULNDJLEL/DWLQ$PHULND
E|OJHVLGHGQ\D|OoHùLQGHONHOHUHND\GDGHùHUI×UVDWODUVXQPDNWDG×U
%LOPHNWH\L]NL\]\×OGDDV×OEDüDU×LQVDQLJHOLüLPHQGHNVOHULQGH\XND-
U×ODUGDNRQXPODQP×üYHULOHUH XODüPDNW×UúQVDQLJHOLüLP NDON×QPDKHSELOJL
ND\QDNO×ONHOHUGHSHWUROGRùDOJD]ND\QDNODU×QDVDKLSONHOHUHQD]DUDQGDKD
ID]ODRUDQGDJHUoHNOHüPHNWHGLU7UNL\H 6RùXN6DYDü·×QELWLPLQGHQ LWLEDUHQ
|QFH 2UWD $V\D .DINDV\D %DONDQODU YH DNDELQGH $IULND JLEL FRùUDI\DODUGD
1úVPDLO(UPDùDQ6HJkK7HNLQ7UN'×ü3ROLWLNDV×²/DWLQ$PHULNDYH.DUD\LSOHU(G+DVDQ
$FDU7UN'×ü3ROLWLNDV×1REHO$NDGHPLN<D\×QF×O×NV
VII
ÖN SÖZ -2:
D383A-8-Dx;7Ć=3Y231wAf3
AĆD3;-Dx;x9x9ÆA<Õ<8<9-
7-D75h-ćA-8-7D5;K

GLSORPDWLNWLFDULYHNOWUHOEDùODPODUGDLOLüNLOHUJHOLüWLUHUHNONHQLQGQ\D
NRQMRQNWUQGH´HGHULQLµ\NVHOWPHNDU]XVXQGDG×U)DNDWG×üSROLWLNELULP-
OHUGHQWLFDUHWDWDüHOLNOHULQH 67.·OHUGHQQLYHUVLWHHQVWLWOHULQH ELOJLUHWPH
\HWHUOLGHùLOGLU%XoDO×üPD7UNL\H·GH/DWLQ$PHULND]HULQHDNDGHPLNoDO×ü-
PDODUKXVXVXQGDELUND\QDNELUEDVDPDNROPDJD\HVLQGHGLU)DUNHGLOPHNWH-
GLUNLEXE|OJH]HULQH7UNoHND\QDNODUGDKD\HQL\HQLJHOLüPHNWHGLU
6RUXQODUD]OPHNHQNROD\× SODQODPDNJHUHNLUoQN 7UNL\H·GHDUDüW×UPD
PHUNH]LRODUDNNXUJXODQDQQLYHUVLWH\DS×ODU×üLPGL\HNDGDU´WDEHODHQVWLWµ
ROPDNWDQ|WH\HJHoHPHPHNWHYHPDDOHVHIGRQDQ×PGDQX]DNODU'LùHUE|OJHOHU
JLEL/DWLQ$PHULNDLOHLOJLOLDNDGHPLNoDO×üPDODUELUSODQoHUoHYHVLQGHYHDG×P
DG×PGDROVDGHVWHNOHQPHOLGLU
.LWDE×QRUWD\Do×NPDV×QDNDWN×VXQDQGHùHUOL\D]DUODUDPHVOHNWDüODU×P×]D
RNXUDG×QDPWHüHNNLUL]$UW×NoHGLW|UOHNDUü×Q×]GD\×]RNXUDGDKDNDOLWHOLYH
X]XQVUHOL\D\×Q×VL]OHUOHEXOXüWXUPD\×XPX\RUX]
%XHVHUGHNLPLQLYHUVLWHOHUGHGHUVNLWDE×RODFDNW×UYH\DG×üLüOHULRUJDQ-
ODU×WDUDI×QGDQVLSDULüHGLOHFHNWLUdQNEL]\LQHoRNoDO×üW×NYHRNXUDLüLPL]L
\DSW×NPRGXQDJHOGLNûXQX EWQ\UHNOLOLNOHGHNODUH HGHUL]NL7UNL\H·GH
GDKDID\GDO×EHQ]HU\D\×QODUo×NDUEXE|OJHONHPL]GHKDNHWWLùLGHùHULDO×U
E|OJHONHOHULLOHRODQLOLüNLOHUKHP67.YHDNDGHPLKHPGHLNWLGDUYHPXKD-
OHIHWNDQDOODU×QGDRODQGDQGDKDL\L\|QHWLOLU(NVLNKHU]DPDQRODELOLUEL]LP
Do×P×]GDQ|QHPOLYH HO]HPRODQDNDGHPLN NDWN×\×VXQPDNW×U %XEDùODPGD
EL]LQüDOODKGDKDoRNoDO×üDFDù×]
1RW%H\DQHGLOLUNLNLWDE×QE|OPOHULQGHLIDGHHGLOHQJ|UüOHU\D]DUODU×Q
NHQGLOHULQHDLWWLU
'Q\D\D EDNDO×P oQN GQ\D\D EDNPDN DVO×QGD NHQGLPL]LQ Lo RUJDQODU×Q×Q
U|QWJHQLQLoHNPHNWLUQHIHVDOPDNW×UJHOLüPHNWLU
'Ro'UúVPDLO(UPDùDQ
7HPPX]
VIII

IX
úONNH]·GH\D\×QODQDQ ´'Q\D6L\DVHWLQGH/DWLQ$PHULNDµ GHUOHPH
VHULVLQLQG|UGQFVQRNXUODUODEXOXüWXUX\RUX]%XEDùODPGDRUWD\Do×NDQ
´VUHNOLOLNµYH´oHüLWOLOLNµ7UNL\H|]HOLQGH/DWLQ$PHULNDYH.DUD\LSOHUE|O-
JHVLQH\|QHOLNLOJLYHoDO×üPDODU×QNDSVDP×Do×V×QGDQEL]OHULXPXWODQG×U×\RU
&RYLGVDOJ×Q×\DüDP×Q KHUDODQ×QGD RODùDQVWNRüXOODUOD \]OHüPH-
PL]LEHUDEHULQGHJHWLULUNHQWRSOXPODU×ELUoRNDODQGDGHùLüLPOHUH]RUOD\DQNR-
üXOODU×RUWD\D o×NDUG× /DWLQ$PHULND YH .DUD\LSOHUONHOHUL Do×V×QGDQ GD EX
VUHoE|OJH\H|]JQ\HQLN×U×OJDQO×NODU×YHVRUXQODU×JQGHPHJHWLUGL%XNR-
üXOODUD\Q×]DPDQGDEL]OHUHE|OJHQLQWRSOXPVDOGLQDPLNOHULQLNDYUDPDYHDQD-
OL]HGHELOPHQLQQHGHQOL|QHPOLROGXùXQXELUNH]GDKDJ|VWHUGL/DWLQ$PH-
ULND YH .DUD\LSOHU E|OJHVLQH LOJL GX\DQ DUDüW×UPDF×ODU YH RNXUODU Do×V×QGDQ
EXGHUOHPHGHGHE|OJHQLQJHoPLüLQHEXJQQHYHJHOHFHùLQHRGDNODQ×OPDV×
DPDoODQG×%XQXQODELUOLNWH/$.GHUOHPHVLQGH\HUDODQoDO×üPDODUGDN×VPHQ
GHROVDE|OJHQLQJQP]GH\]OHüWLùLVRUXQODU×GLNNDWH DODQEDüO×NODUD\HU
YHULOPH\HoDO×ü×OG×
&RYLGVDOJ×Q×QQLYHUVLWHOHULGHGHùLüLPOHUH]RUODG×ù×EXJQOHUGHDUDü-
W×UPDF×ODU×ELUDUD\DJHWLUHQSODWIRUPODU×QIDUNO×ODüPDV×LOHELOLPVHODUDüW×UPDODU
Do×V×QGDQELOJL\HHULüLPNRüXOODU×YHRUWDNUHWLPOHULQQHGHQOL|QHPOLXQVXUODU
ROGXùXQXJ|]OHPOHGLN%XNRüXOODU/$.·QE|OJH\HLOJLGX\DQDUDüW×UPD-
F×ODU×ELUDUD\DJHWLUHQ ELU]HPLQROXüWXUPDV×Do×V×QGDQ GD|]HOELULüOHYH VD-
KLSROGXùXQXGüQGUG/$.GHUOHPHVLLOHELUOLNWHRUWD\Do×NDQUHWNHQ-
OLNRODùDQVWNRüXOODU×QYHoDEDODU×QELUUQRODUDNGHùHUOHQGLULOPHOLGLU
ÖN SÖZ -3:
1<=-=59-2-Ć;1Ć;1ĆAfĆA392Ć;83

/$.oDO×üPD\DNDWN×VXQDQ\D]DUODU×QEXDODQD\|QHOLNLOJLYHPRWLYDV\RQX
|]YHULVLROPDVDRUWD\Do×NPD]G×
´'Q\D6L\DVHWLQGH/DWLQ$PHULNDµGHUOHPHOHULNDSVDP×QGDRUWD\Do×NDQ
UHWNHQOLNYHVUHNOLOLN|QFHNLGHUOHPHOHUGHGHYXUJXODQG×ù×]HUH|]HOOLNOH
7UNL\HQLYHUVLWHOHULQGHVRV\DOELOLPOHUDODQ×QGDOLVDQVYHOLVDQVVWG]H\-
GHE|OJH\H\|QHOLN´IDUN×QGDO×ù×QµDUWPDV×YHLOJLQLQ\D\J×QODüPDV×E|OJH\H
\|QHOLN DNDGHPLN UHWLPLQ GH LYPH ND]DQPDV×QD NDWN× VXQPD\× DPDoO×\RU
%|OJH\H\|QHOLNELOLPVHOUHWLPD\Q×]DPDQGD7UNL\H·QLQ|]JQONOHULWRS-
OXPVDOVL\DVL LNWLVDGL YH NOWUHO \DS×V×Q×Q NXUDPVDO RODUDN HOH DO×QPDV×QD
NDWN×VXQDFDNELU]HQJLQOLùLEDU×QG×UPDNWDG×U%XEDùODPGDGHUOHPH\OHE|OJH-
QLQ|]JQGLQDPLNOHULQLYH E|OJH\H\|QHOLNNXUDPVDO\DNODü×PODU×Q 7UNL\H
\D]×Q×QGDWDUW×ü×OPDV×VUHFLQHNRQX\D LOJLGX\DQODU×QDUDüW×UPDPRWLYDV\R-
QXQDNDWN×VXQPDV×GLOHQPHNWHGLU      
'Ro'U(PLQH7DKVLQ
7HPPX]
X

*QP]GQ\DV×QGDGHYOHWOHUDUDV×LOLüNLOHUGHJo\DOQ×]FDDVNHUvNDSD-
VLWHGHQLEDUHWROPD\×SHNRQRPLNOWUWXUL]PVL\DVDOG]HQWRSOXPVDO|]HO-
OLNOHUHùLWLPVLVWHPLJ|o\|QHWLPLJLELSHNoRNDODQGDNLEDüDU×ONHOHULFD]LS
N×OPDNWDYHNUHVHOoDSWDRUWDNO×NODUJHOLüWLUPHOHULQH]HPLQKD]×UODPDNWDG×U
%XEDùODPGD\]\×OGD7UNL\H·QLQoHüLWOLDODQODUGDDUWDQJFYHNUHVHO
DODQGDEDüDWDNW|UROPDLVWHNOLOLùL7UNG×üSROLWLNDV×QDLYPHND]DQG×UP×üYH
NUHVHODo×O×PODUSROLWLNDV×Q×EHUDEHULQGHJHWLUPLüWLU7UNL\H·QLQ/DWLQ$PH-
ULNDYH.DUD\LSOHU/$.E|OJHVL\OHJQJHoWLNoHJHOLüHQLOLüNLOHULGHONHQLQ
oHüLWOLDODQODUGDDUWDQJoNDSDVLWHVLQLQ YHNUHVHOHWNLQOLùLQLJ|UQU N×OPD
QRNWDV×QGDNLLVWHNOLOLùLQLQVRQXFXGXU
hONHPL]LQ/$.ONHOHUL\OHLOLüNLOHUL2VPDQO×úPSDUDWRUOXùX'|QHPL·QH
E|OJHGHV|PUJHFLOLN IDDOL\HWL \UWPHPLü GLùHU EDüDW GHYOHWOHU JLEL E\N
|OoGH\]\×OGDHNRQRPLNGLSORPDWLNYHWRSOXPVDOLOLüNLOHULQNXUXOPDV×-
QDGD\DQPDNWDG×U\]\×O×QLON\DU×V×QGD/$.oRùXQOXNODNUHVHOVLVWHPH
\HQLNDW×ODQEDù×PV×]ONHOHUGHQROXüDQELUFRùUDI\D\DG|QüPüWU%XONH-
OHULQPRGHUQXOXVODUDUDV×VLVWHPHNDW×OPDYHWLFDUHWRUWDNODU×EXOPDLVWHNOLOLN-
OHUL2VPDQO×úPSDUDWRUOXùXLOHLONWHPDVODU×QQHWLFHVLQGHGLSORPDWLNLOLüNLOHULQ
NXUXOPDV×QD\RODoP×üW×U úP]DODQDQLONDQODüPDODU WLFDUHWNRQXOXROPXüWXU
2VPDQO× úPSDUDWRUOXùX LOH /$. E|OJHVLQL ELUELULQH EDùOD\DQ HVDV XQVXU LVH
J|oROPXüWXU'|QHPLQNUHVHOJ|oKDUHNHWOLOLùLHùLOLPOHUL\OHX\XPOXRODUDN
|]HOOLNOH/HYDQWE|OJHVLQGHQoRNVD\×GD2VPDQO×YDWDQGDü×$PHULNDN×WDODU×QD
J|oHWPLüWLU%XJ|oPHQOHULoOHULQGHPXKWHPHOHQoRND]VD\×GDHWQLN7UNED-
ÖN SÖZ -4:
Dx;7Ć=3cA-DĆ9-83;Ć7-g3
7-;-=Ć:A3;ĆAĆÕ7ĆA3;Ć93;3=3J
XI

U×QG×UPDODU×QDUDùPHQJHOGLNOHULONH\HQLVSHWOHWXUFRVRODUDNUHVPvND\×WODUD
JLUPLüOHUGLU%|\OHOLNOHLNLFRùUDI\DDUDV×QGDJQP]HGHNVUHQWRSOXPVDO
YHNOWUHOELUEDùROXüPXüWXU\]\×OGDFRùUDILX]DNO×NEDüWDROPDN]HUH
LoYHG×üSROLWLND\DGDLUoHüLWOLQHGHQOHUOH7UNL\H/$.LOHLOLüNLOHUL]D\×INDO-
P×üW×U%XQXQODEHUDEHU7UNL\HYHE|OJHONHOHULDUDV×QGDJHQoONHOHURODUDN
PRGHUQOHüPH YH NUHVHO VLVWHPGH \HU HGLQPH oDEDV× HNRQRPLN JHOLüPLüOLN
G]H\LEHQ]HUOLùLQLQ JHWLUGLùL RUWDN VRUXQODU YH \LQH GHPRNUDVLQLQ NRQVROL-
GDV\RQXYHVL\DVDOLVWLNUDU×QVDùODQPDV×QGDNDUü×ODü×ODQ]RUOXNODUJLELSHNoRN
DODQGDEHQ]HUOLNOHUGLNNDWoHNLFLGLU1LWHNLP7UNL\H·QLQ.XUWXOXü6DYDü×·QGD
HPSHU\DOLVW$YUXSDO×JoOHUHNDUü×$WDWUN OLGHUOLùLQGHYHUGLùLPFDGHOHYH
DVNHUvVL\DVLYHWRSOXPVDOER\XWODU×\OD\UWOHQPRGHUQXOXVLQüDV×SURMHVL
E|OJHGHLOJL\OHWDNLSHGLOPLüYHWDNGLUJ|UPüWU
6RùXN6DYDüVRQUDV× G|QHPGHNUHVHOVLVWHPLQ GHùLüHQGHQJHOHULLoLQGH
\HQL RUWDNO×NODU NXUPDN LVWH\HQ 7UNL\H ·ODUGD EX oHUoHYHGH JLULüLPOHU
EDüODWVDGD/$.LOHLOLüNLOHULQJHOLüPHVLQGHHQ|QHPOL]DPDQGLOLPL·OHURO-
PXüWXU7UNL\H·QLQDUWDQHNRQRPLNJFYHVL\DVDOHWNLQOLùL\OHRUDQW×O×RODUDN
7UNG×üSROLWLNDV×QGDKHGHIE|OJHOHUGHQELULNRQXPXQDJHOHQ/$.LOHLOLüNL-
OHULQJHOLüWLULOPHVLQH |]HO |QHPYHULOPLüWLU 'HYOHW EDüNDQ×EDüEDNDQ YH ED-
NDQODUG]H\LQGHNDUü×O×NO×VWG]H\]L\DUHWOHUJHUoHNOHüPLü7UNL\HE|OJH-
QLQ|QHPOLDNW|UOHULRODQ%UH]LO\DYH0HNVLNDLOH|]HOGLSORPDWLNJLULüLPOHUGH
RUWDNO×NODUNXUDUNHQ9HQH]XHOD.RORPEL\DûLOLJLELONHOHUOHLNLOLLOLüNLOHULQL
GHULQOHüWLUPLüWLU.DUü×O×NO× RODUDNE\NHOoLOLN YH GLSORPDWLNWHPVLOFLOLNOHULQ
VD\×V×DUW×U×OP×üE|OJHQLQ|QHPOLNHQWOHULQH7UNL\H·GHQXoDNVHIHUOHULNRQPXü
YHWLFDULLOLüNLOHULQYHWXULVWLN]L\DUHWOHULQDUWW×ù×J|]OHPOHQPLüWLU7UNL\H/$.
E|OJHVLQGHYDURODQoRNVD\×GDE|OJHVHOYHDOWE|OJHVHO|UJWOHGLSORPDWLNGL\D-
ORJNXUPXüDQODüPDODULP]DODQP×üYH3DVLILNúüELUOLùLJLELoHüLWOL|UJWOHUHGH
J|]OHPFL\HRODUDNGkKLOROPXüWXU7UNL\H·QLQ/$.SROLWLNDV×NODVLNPDQDGD
GLSORPDWLNLOLüNLOHULQ YH WLFDUHW KDFPLQLQ JHOLüWLULOPHVL\OH V×Q×UO× NDOPDP×üW×U
*QP]GH7UNL\H·QLQDUWDQ\XPXüDNJFJHUHN7ú.$'L\DQHWúüOHUL%Dü-
NDQO×ù×YH<XQXV(PUH(QVWLWOHULJLELNXUXPODU×QNDPXGLSORPDVLVLIDDOL\HW-
OHULYH757YH$QDGROX$MDQV×Q×QE|OJHGLOOHULQGHNL\D\×QODU×JHUHNVH7UNGL-
]LOHULQLQE|OJHGHNLSRSODULWHVLQLQVDùODG×ù×7UNL\H·\H7UNGLOLYHNOWUQH
\|QHOLNLOJLQLQDUWPDV×\ODE|OJH\OHLOLüNLOHUGHNHQGLQLJ|VWHUPHNWHGLU
7UNL\H·QLQ EX JLULüLPOHUL ONHPL]LQ JHUHN NXUXPVDO YH PDOL NDSDVLWH
JHUHNVHLQVDQND\QDNODU×EDùODP×QGD /$.E|OJHVLQH|]HO|QHP YHUGLùLQLYH
X]XQYDGHOLLOLüNLOHUJHOLüWLUPHN]HUH\DW×U×P\DSW×ù×Q×J|VWHUPHNWHGLU.UH-
VHOVLVWHPLQLüOH\LüLQGHELUG|QüPVUHFLQLQ\DüDQPDNWDROGXùXJQP]-
GH/$.GQ\DQ×QSHNoRNQRNWDV×QDFRùUDILX]DNO×ù×QDUDùPHQ$V\D3DVLILN
XII

WLFDUHWLQLQDUWDQ|QHPL$WODQWLNWLFDUHWLYHFRùUDI\DV×QGDNLNRQXPXVDKLSRO-
GXùXYH\HQLOHULQLQNHüIHGLOGLùLHQHUMLND\QDNODU×GRùDOND\QDNODU×]HQJLQWD-
U×PDUD]LOHULYHWDWO×VX]HQJLQOLùL\OHNUHVHOoDSWD\DOQ×]DE\NJoOHULQGHùLO
NoNGHYOHWOHULQGHLOLüNLOHULQLJHOLüWLUPHNLVWHGLùLELUE|OJHGLU%XEDùODPGD
NUHVHOVLVWHPLQLüOH\LüLQGHHWNLQOLùLJLGHUHNDUWDQYHEX\|QGHKHGHIOHULRODQ
ONHPL]LQ/$.E|OJHVLQLQDUWDQ|QHPLQL YHE|OJHONHOHUL\OHNDO×F× RUWDNO×N-
ODUNXUPDQ×Q\DOQ×]FDLNLOLLOLüNLOHUGHGHùLOoRNWDUDIO×XOXVODUDUDV×|UJWOHUYH
SODWIRUPODUQH]GLQGH KHU LNL WDUDID GD VDùOD\DFDù× \DUDUODU×J|] DUG× HWPHVL
PPNQGHùLOGLU1LWHNLPONHPL]LQNDUü×O×NO×LOLüNLOHULJHOLüWLUPHN]HUHDWW×-
ù×NDUDUO×DG×PODUGDEX\|QGHGLU%XoHUoHYHGH/$.E|OJHVLQLQHNRQRPLGHQ
VLQHPD\DVL\DVDO\DS×V×QGDQ\HUOLKDONODU×QGXUXPXQDNDGDUIDUNO×\|QOHUL\OH
|ùUHQLOPHVLYHDQODü×OPDV×E|OJH\H\|QHOLNRUWDNO×NSROLWLNDV×Q×QVDùO×NO×LOHU-
OH\LüLQHYHVUHNOLOLùLQHNDWN×VXQDFDNW×U
'Ro'U6HJkK7HNLQ
7HPPX]
XIII

XV
½O4Ú[-BUJO"NFSJLBOJO(àOàNà[%àOZBTOEBLĉ:FSJWF"ĈSMĈ ...................III
½O4Ú[5FNFM"NBÎ5àSLJZFEF#ÚMHF-JUFSBUàSàOàO0MVĆVNVOB,BUL
4BĈMBNBLUS .......................................................................................................... VI
½O4Ú[#V:BZOB%BJS#JS#JMHJMFOEJSNF ......................................................... IX
½O4Ú[5àSLJZF-BUJO"NFSJLBWF,BSBZJQMFSĉMJĆLJMFSJ/FSFZF ........................ XI
1wAx8M
¦-ć-A-;592Ć=-;5§f<-D38-A-Y959xA73-9-AĆiĆ
-Č7+
Özet ....................................................................................................................... 1
(ĉ3ĉą .................................................................................................................... 2
$PĈSBý½[FMMJLMFS ............................................................................................... 3
%FNPHSBýL:BQ ................................................................................................ 5
4JZBTJWFĉEBSJ:BQ ............................................................................................ 7
%Ć1PMJUJLB ....................................................................................................... 10
&LPOPNJL½[FMMJLMFS ......................................................................................... 15
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................. 17
,BZOBLÎB ............................................................................................................. 19
&LMFS ..................................................................................................................... 24
ĆĆ9237ĆA3;

XVI
1wAx8L
ÕĆAĆY237Ć8-:<3-D5Õ8-h5959D-;Ć4h3A-9-AĆiĆ
hÈÉDÉß%ċÉÊch*Éw*%
Özet: ................................................................................................................... 29
(JSJĆ ..................................................................................................................... 30
.BQVÎF±BUĆNBT ........................................................................................... 32
.BQVÎF±BUĆNBTOO5BSJITFM"SLB1MBO ................................................ 34
:à[ZMEB.BQVÎF±BUĆNBT ............................................................... 37
4PĈVL4BWBĆ4POSBT.BQVÎF±BUĆNBT ................................................ 40
4POVÎ .................................................................................................................. 47
,BZOBLÎB ............................................................................................................. 50
1wAx8N
1-ć58h5iA57D-9238Æ7;-hĆ=3ZMSMQcM^SN[T
-;6-9DĆ9Y23hĆ=-h-A4-=-D
fÉ*=ċÈċċ
Özet ..................................................................................................................... 53
(JSJĆ ..................................................................................................................... 54
"SKBOUJO$VNIVSJZFUJOJO,VSVMNBT ...................................................... 55
3BEJLBMMFSJO:àLTFMJĆJ)JQPMJUP:SJHPZFOWF1PQàMJ[N ..................................... 58
%ÏDBEB*OGBNF,ÚUàąÚISFUMJ0O:M............................................ 61
,JUMFMFSJO-JEFSJ+VBO%PNJOHP1FSØOWF1FSPOJ[N ...................... 63
"TLFSÔ)àLßNFUMFSWF,SMHBO4JWJM)àLßNFUMFS ........................... 65
,JSMJ4BWBĆ5BSJIMFSJ"SBTOEB"SKBOUJO ........................................... 71
4POVÎ .................................................................................................................. 75
,BZOBLÎB ............................................................................................................. 76

XVII
1wAx8O
-12Y9Ć9A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-:ÆAĆDĆ7-h5T
Æ1-8-Y2-9D;<8:Y-g393i<3A-w;93ćĆ
8$É É-ß
Özet ..................................................................................................................... 79
(JSJĆ ..................................................................................................................... 80
"#%-BUJO"NFSJLBĉMJĆLJMFSJOJO5BSJITFM"SLB1MBO .......................................... 82
"#%OJO-BUJO"NFSJLB1PMJUJLBTOąFLJMMFOEJSFO%PLUSJOMFS ............................ 84
4PĈVL4BWBĆUBO(àOàNà[F"#%OJO-BUJO"NFSJLB1PMJUJLBT....................... 85
$IBWF[EFO(àOàNà[F"#%7FOF[VFMBĉMJĆLJMFSJ ............................................ 88
ĉLJMJĉMJĆLJMFSJO#FMJSMFZJDJ6OTVSMBS .............................................................. 88
0CBNBOO7FOF[VFMB1PMJUJLBT ............................................................... 91
5SVNQO7FOF[VFMB1PMJUJLBT ................................................................... 93
4POVÎ .................................................................................................................. 97
,BZOBLÎB ............................................................................................................. 99
1wAx8P
:<DĆ92w938ĆY923;<h=-@323;-h=Æ9<Y9<9A-DĆ9
-83;Ć7-g37-;-=Ć:A3;3=w93AĆ7=<8<Õ-7fx
:ÆAĆDĆ7-h5
8ÉÈ7É$ċ+"chÇD%Ê
Özet ................................................................................................................... 103
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 104
1VUJO%ÚOFNJ3VT%Ć1PMJUJLBTOEB:VNVĆBL(àÎWF-", ......................... 105
3'OJO-",B:ÚOFMJL:VNVĆBL(àÎ1PMJUJLBTOO6ZHVMBONBT ................... 108
%FWMFU%à[FZJOEF:BQMBOÃTU%à[FZ(ÚSàĆNFWF;JZBSFUMFS ................. 108
6MVTMBSBSBTWF#ÚMHFTFM½SHàUMFSEFLJ5FNBTMBS ..................................... 110
&LPOPNJLĉMJĆLJMFS .................................................................................... 112
,àMUàS&ĈJUJNWF4QPS ............................................................................. 114
%JKJUBM%JQMPNBTJ ..................................................................................... 116
3VT%JBTQPSBT ...................................................................................... 117
3VT0SUPEPLT,JMJTFTJOJO'BBMJZFUMFSJ ..................................................... 118
$PWJE4BMHO%ÚOFNJOEFLJ(FMJĆNFMFSWF"Ć%JQMPNBTJTJ ............... 119

XVIII
3GOVO-",B:ÚOFMJL:VNVĆBL(àÎ1PMJUJLBTOO½MÎàNà ............................ 120
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 123
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 124
1wAx8Q
ÕĆAĆY9Ć9=39Ć238Æ7;-DĆ7-9-=-h-=-:58hx;3BĆ
hÊ7ÉÉÊÉÕÊ+
Özet ................................................................................................................... 129
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 130
"OBZBTB:BQNOB5FPSJL:BLMBĆNMBS............................................................ 131
ąJMJOJO:BLO4JZBTJ(FÎNJĆJWF1JOPDIFU"OBZBTBT ..................................... 135
WF"OBZBTB%FĈJĆJLMJLMFSJ ............................................................ 141
:FOJ"OBZBTB4àSFDJ ...................................................................................... 144
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 147
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 149
1wAx8R
7x1-h-ćA572Ć:AÆ8-hĆhĆ
8%DČÉ2+
Özet ................................................................................................................... 153
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 154
4BĈML%JQMPNBTJTJ ......................................................................................... 156
,àCB4BĈML%JQMPNBTJTJ ................................................................................ 159
(FOFM:BQ ............................................................................................. 159
ĉĆMFZJĆWF'JOBOT ..................................................................................... 162
ĉĆ#JSMJLMFSJ ..................................................................................................... 164
-BUJO"NFSJLBWF,BSBZJQMFS#ÚMHFTFMĉĆ#JSMJLMFSJ .................................. 164
-BUJO"NFSJLBWF,BSBZJQMFS#ÚMHFTJ%ĆOEBLJĉĆ#JSMJLMFSJ ...................... 167
&MFĆUJSJMFS ........................................................................................................ 172
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 173
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 176

XIX
1wAx8S
A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-xA73A3;Ć9232Ć983i43:A3;g3
DÆ:A<8h-A=-9h58-A-;5
=ÉßÉ:ċÊÉw*Ê
Özet ................................................................................................................... 181
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 182
-BUJO"NFSJLB%JOMFSJOF(FOFM#BLĆ ............................................................. 184
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB,BUPMJL)SJTUJZBOML ............................................................. 187
:FSMJĉOBOÎMBSMB,BUPMJL)SJTUJZBOMĈO&ULJMFĆJNJ ....................................... 188
:JSNJ#JSJODJ:à[ZMEB,BUPMJL)SJTUJZBOML ................................................ 190
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB1SPUFTUBOMBĆNBOO/FEFOMFSJ ..................................... 193
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB%JOJO4PTZPQPMJUJL&ULJTJ .................................................... 195
,VSUVMVĆ5FPMPKJTJ .................................................................................... 196
(àOàNà[4JZBTFUJOEF%JOJO&ULJTJ .......................................................... 198
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 200
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 201
1wAx8^
7x;3h3A1Ć;A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-:3;h:37DĆ@ĆÆA-;-7
xx9BxhĆ938-
=$ i&Éf%%
Özet ................................................................................................................... 203
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 204
.àĆUFSFLMFS½[HàOMàLMFS ............................................................................... 206
ĉUBMZBO:FOJ(FSÎFLÎJMFS,BNFSBZ4PLBĈB±LBSEÃÎàODà
4JOFNBDMBS.FZEBOB ........................................................................ 208
ÃÎàODà4JOFNBOOi,VTVSVw ................................................................. 209
ÃÎàODà4JOFNBZB%PĈSV ...................................................................... 211
1FSØOJ[N0EBLMCJS4JOFNB ........................................................ 212
±JSLJO"Î.VUTV[.àLFNNFM0MNBZBO#JS-BUJO"NFSJLB'JMNJ ................. 215
ĉ[MFZJDJMJLUFO4VÎ0SUBLMĈOB ................................................................... 216
ÃÎàODà4JOFNB,BWSBNTBM#JS(FOFM±FSÎFWFWF5BSUĆNBMBS .............. 218

1àSà[Tà[)JLÉZFZF,VTVSMV.àEBIBMF ................................................... 220
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 221
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 223
1wAx8Mb
Ćh-g-Õ2Ć7D-Dw;Ax7
93Æ7ÆAÆ9=-AD-4-77x823Æ;D-7A-Õ8-7T
Æ;D--83;Ć7-hĆ938-h5
ÆÉÊh*ÇÊc=$ i&Éf%%
Özet ................................................................................................................... 225
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 227
.àMUFDJ±FUFDJ.JMJUBO)POEVSBT1BOBNB,PTUB3JLB/JLBSBHVB ........... 228
,VSVDVTV5VSDP0MBOCJS4JOFNB)POEVSBT4JOFNBT .......................... 229
1BOBNB4JOFNBT#FZB[1FSEFi,BOBMw .............................................. 231
4JZBTFU1PMJUJLBZ,FĆGFEJZPS ........................................................ 232
,PTUB3JLB.BEVO½ODFMJLMJ6MVTBM4JOFNB .......................................... 235
/JLBSBHVB4JOFNBTJ4PNP[BEBO4BOEJOJTUMFSF.................................... 236
4BOEJOJTUB6MVTBM,VSUVMVĆ$FQIFTJ%FWSJNEFO%PĈBO4JOFNB 237
/FPJJCFSBMJ[NWF:FOJ#JO:MEB/JLBSBHVB4JOFNBT ................... 239
%JLUBUÚSMàL4BWBĆWF/FPMJCFSBMJ[N&M4BMWBEPSWF
(VBUFNBMB4JOFNBMBS ................................................................................... 240
&M4BMWBEPS4BWBĆ%ÚOFNJ4JOFNBT(FSJMMB'JMN:BQNDMĈ ............... 243
&M4BMWBEPS4BWBĆ4POSBT4JOFNBT ............................................ 245
ĉÎ4BWBĆMBSEBO%FNPLSBTJZF(VBUFNBMB4JOFNBT ............................... 246
ĉÎ4BWBĆ:MMBSOEB4JOFNB ........................................................... 247
ÃMLF4JOFNBT:FOJEFO%PĈVZPS .................................................. 248
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 248
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 249
XX

1wAx8MM
A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-Y2-<i-=-A5Õ8-A-;5
Ć$É3ÉČÉÊ4É$DÉÉß
Özet ................................................................................................................... 253
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 254
6MVTMBSBSBTĉMJĆLJMFSWF6[BZ±BMĆNBMBS ....................................................... 255
-BUJO"NFSJLB#ÚMHFTJOEF6[BZ±BMĆNBMBS .................................................. 258
#SF[JMZB ................................................................................................... 259
6MVTMBSBSBTĉĆ#JSMJLMFSJ ........................................................................ 261
"NBÎMBSWF)FEFþFS ............................................................................ 262
2.2. Arjantin .................................................................................................. 263
6MVTBM6[BZ1MBO ......................................................................... 265
2.2. Meksika .................................................................................................. 266
#PMJWZB ................................................................................................... 267
&LWBEPS ................................................................................................. 267
,PMPNCJZB ............................................................................................. 268
1BSBHVBZ ............................................................................................... 269
1FSV ....................................................................................................... 269
6SVHVBZ ................................................................................................. 270
7FOF[VFMB .............................................................................................. 270
(àOFZ"NFSJLB6[BZ4KBOT4"4" .................................................... 270
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 271
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 272
1wAx8ML
Lb=xi=5A59Ć7Ć9BĆ=-;5h592-1;3iĆA=-8Ć8-;ĆhĆ
DÉÊ8È+"É1ÊÉ%c3 -ċċ
Özet ................................................................................................................... 275
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 276
M:MMBS"SBTOEB#SF[JMZB.JNBSJTJOJO:BQTBMWF
)BDJNTFM,PNQP[JTZPOMBSOO;FOHJOMJĈJ ....................................................... 280
#SF[JMZB.JNBSJTJOJO#JÎJNTFMWF.FLÉOTBM±Ú[àNMFSJOJOĉLMJNTFM
,PĆVMMBSMBĉMJĆLJTJ ............................................................................................ 285
XXI

XXII
#BĆLFOU#SBTJMJBOO.JNBSJTJOEF#SF[JMZBM.JNBSMBSO
:FOJ:BSBUD:BLMBĆNMBS ............................................................................... 294
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 301
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 302
1wAx8MN
837hĆ7-8Æ23;9;3hĆ8h-9-D59592Æć<Õ<
9$-ċÊ+%
Özet ................................................................................................................... 305
(JSJĆ .................................................................................................................. 306
:M#BĈNT[ML(àOàOàO:M%ÚOàNà,VUMBNBMBSWF#V7FTJMFZMF:BQMBO
ĉTQBOZPMWF.FLTJLB3FTJN4FSHJMFSJ ............................................................. 307
:à[ZMEB.FLTJLBEB:BĆBOBO5PQMVNTBM0MBZMBSWF#VOMBSO3FTJN
4BOBUOB:BOTNBMBS ..................................................................................... 308
&VHFOJP-BOEFTJP+PTF.BSJB7FMBTDPWF.BO[BSB3FTNJ ................... 309
5VWBMMFSEFĉTQBOZPM)ÉLJNJZFUJ½ODFTJ5BSJIJOĉĆMFONFTJ ....................... 311
%FWSJNJWF/FEFOMFSJ ............................................................................ 313
%FWSJNJOJO4BOBU±FWSFMFSOEFLJ&ULJMFSJ .............................................. 315
4BO$BSMPT"LBEFNJTJWF½ĈSFODJ1SPUFTUPMBS..................................... 315
.JMMÔ%VZBSMMLWF#BUZ½SOFL"MNB ...................................................... 316
ĉ[MFOJNDJMJL+PBRVJO$MBVTFMMWF"MGSFEP3BNPT.BSUÓOF[WF
:MOEB4BOUB"OJUB"ÎL)BWB0LVMVOVO"ÎMNBT ........................316
(FSBSEP.VSMMPWF:BOBSEBĈ3FTJNMFSJ ........................................................ 321
4BUVSOJOP)FSSBOWFĉML%FGB(FSÎFL"OMBNEB.JMMÔ,JNMJL&USBGOEB
.PEFSOMFĆNF±BCBMBS .................................................................................. 324
'FSNJO3FWVFMUBTWF:VSUĉÎJ(F[JMFSJ ............................................................ 326
+PTF7BTDPODFMPTWF.FLTJLB%VWBS3FTJNDJMJĈJ .......................................... 329
%JFHP3JWFSB ........................................................................................... 330
%BWJE"MGBSP4JRVJFSPT ............................................................................ 333
+PTF$MFNFOUF0SP[DP ........................................................................... 335
3VýOP5BNBZPJMF±BĈEBĆ.FLTJLB4BOBUOO5FNFMMFSJOJO"UMNBT ............ 336
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 338
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 340

XXIII
1wAx8MO
D-9fÆ9<9D-;Ć4h3Ah3;xg39Ć
ÆÉ-&ÈċÊ+Č
Özet ................................................................................................................... 341
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 342
5BOHP,FMJNFOJO,ÚLMFSJ ............................................................................... 347
.FMF[#JS,àMUàS0MBSBL5BOHPZV0SUBZB±LBSBO0SUBN ............................... 349
"SKBOUJO5BOHPTVOVO(FMJĆJNJWF%ÚOFNMFS ................................................... 352
5BOHP.à[JĈJOJO&WSJNJWFĉML%ÚOFN ............................................................ 355
(FÎJĆ%ÚOFNJWF4POSBT .............................................................................. 360
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 365
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 367
1wAx8MP
LbbbYAĆ=5AA-;2-A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-Y2-7-A7598-
D<i-7A-;5
@%ÉÊ1
Özet ................................................................................................................... 369
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 370
MJ:MMBSEB-BUJO"NFSJLBEB0SUB(FMJS5V[BĈ ....................................... 372
MJ:MMBSEB-BUJO"NFSJLBEBÃSFULFOMJL5V[BĈ ....................................... 380
MJ:MMBSEB-BUJO"NFSJLBEB,VSVN5V[BĈ ............................................ 388
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 394
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 396

XXIV
1wAx8MQ
:3;Æ9Ći82397Ć;B493;Ći83T-;6-9DĆ9Y23=39Ć
7-A7598-B5A5ć59=x7h3AĆÕĆg3=-:5h-A3AĆÕ7ĆA3;Ć
4Éf*ßBÉ"*
Özet ................................................................................................................... 399
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 400
ĉUIBMĉLBNFDJ4BOBZJMFĆNFEFO&LPOPNJL,SJ[JOF ...................... 401
:FOJ,BMLONBDMĈO:àLTFMJĆJ ........................................................................ 403
&LPOPNJ1PMJUJLBMBS ................................................................................ 403
%Ć&LPOPNJLĉMJĆLJMFS ............................................................................. 408
4PTZBM3FGBI1PMJUJLBMBS ......................................................................... 410
:FOJ,BMLONBDMĈO:BQTBM±FMJĆLJMFSJ .......................................................... 414
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 418
,BZOBLÎB .......................................................................................................... 418
1wAx8MR
37ÆAÆ6Ć7-2-A3D:3;h:37DĆ@Ć9239A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-Y2-
75;h-A7-A7598-g393Æ37D;-7DĆgĆi8ÆAf<h<
3 BÉÊfÉÊ
Özet ................................................................................................................... 423
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 424
&LPMPKJL"EBMFUWF&LTUSBLUJWJ[N,BWSBNTBM#JS±FSÎFWF ............................ 426
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB/FPFLTUSBLUJWJ[NWF&LPMPKJL"EBMFU ................................. 428
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 439
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 441

XXV
1wAx8MS
fx93=-83;Ć7-Y2-:ÆhD93ÆAĆ13;-A1wAf3h3AA3Õ83
2393=Ć8A3;ĆT-A1-g3<9-h<;
DÉß%ċÊD+É%Ć%
Özet: ................................................................................................................. 445
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 446
#ÚMHFTFM#àUàOMFĆNF,VSBNMBSOB#BLNBL .................................................. 448
#JSJODJ,VĆBL#ÚMHFTFMDJMJL ..................................................................... 449
ĉLJODJ,VĆBL#ÚMHFTFMDJMJL ....................................................................... 451
ÃÎàODà,VĆBL#ÚMHFTFMDJMJL ................................................................... 453
(àOFZ"NFSJLBEB/FPMJCFSBM%BMHB ............................................................ 455
1PTUOFPMJCFSBM#ÚMHFTFM#àUàOMFĆNF.PEFMMFSJ ............................................. 459
"-#"5$1 .............................................................................................. 460
6/"463 ................................................................................................. 465
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 469
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 471
1wAx8M^
1Ć;¦-571wAf3h3AA3Õ83§w;93ćĆÆA-;-7:-hĆ@Ć7
ĆDDĆ@-75Y95937Æ9Æ8Ć:ÆAĆDĆćĆ
3ÉÊ3+
Özet ................................................................................................................... 475
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 476
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB"ÎL#ÚMHFTFMMFĆNF%JOBNJLMFSJ ........................................ 477
1PTUMJCFSBM#ÚMHFTFMMFĆNFWF"-#"5$1 ...................................................... 479
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB4BĈ"ĆS4BĈ%BMHBWFi#ÚMHFTFMMFĆNFNFw ..................... 482
1BTJýLĉUUJGBLWFi:FOJEFOw"ÎL#ÚMHFTFMMFĆNFOJO+FPQPMJUJĈJ ..................... 485
1BTJýLĉUUJGBLOO,BQBTJUFTJWF(FMFDFĈJ ..................................................... 487
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 489
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 490

1wAx8Lb
LbbbYAĆ=5AA-;2-A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-Y2-f3AĆ;3ÕĆDhĆiAĆćĆ
g3=Æ7h<AA<7g3;ĆA3;Ć9237Ć23ćĆÕĆ8A3;
-&Ê-ċÊÉ&BÊÇ*
Özet ................................................................................................................... 493
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 494
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB:PLTVMMVLWF(FMJS&ĆJUTJ[MJĈJOF(FOFM#JS#BLĆ ................. 495
(FÎNJĆUFO#VHàOF-BUJO"NFSJLBEB:PLTVMMVLWF(FMJS&ĆJUTJ[MJĈJ ............... 497
MFSEF-BUJO"NFSJLBEB(FMJS%BĈMNWF:PLTVMMVL .............................. 499
MFSEF-BUJO"NFSJLBĉĆ(àDà1JZBTBTWF5FNFM&ĈJMJNMFS ..................... 502
ąBSUM/BLJU5SBOTGFSMFSJ6ZHVMBNBMBS............................................................ 503
$PWJE½ODFTJWF4POSBT-BUJO"NFSJLB ................................................... 510
-",ÃMLFMFSJOEF$PWJEVO)FNFO½ODFTJ4PTZBM
)BSDBNBMBSOĉĆMFWTFM%BĈMN ................................................................ 511
4PTZBM,PSVNB ...................................................................................... 511
&ĈJUJN .................................................................................................... 512
%JOMFONF,àMUàSWF%JO .......................................................................... 514
±FWSFTFM,PSVNB ................................................................................... 514
$PWJEVO4POSBT4PTZBM)BSDBNBMBSOĉĆMFWTFM%BĈMN ................. 514
&WSFOTFM4PTZBM,PSVNB ........................................................................ 515
1SJN,BULT[/BLJU5SBOTGFSMFSJOF4OSM&SJĆJN ..................................... 517
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 519
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 521
1wAx8LM
7-A7598-9597<;<8h-A37Æ9Æ8Ć:ÆAĆDĆćĆTfx93=
-83;Ć7-<A<hA-;1Ć;AĆćĆZ<9-h<;[xA73A3;ĆĆĆ91Ć;
23ć3;A392Ć;83
DÉ$Ê=ÉÉ%
Özet ................................................................................................................... 523
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 524
,PMPOZBM(FÎNJĆJO(ÚMHFTJOEF#àUàOMFĆNF±BCBMBS(àOFZ
"NFSJLB6MVTMBS#JSMJĈJ5PQMVMVĈV ................................................................ 526
XXVI

&LPOPNJL,BMLONB5BSUĆNBMBSOB,VSVNTBMĉLUJTBU1FSTQFLUJýOEFO
#BLĆ .............................................................................................................. 531
(àOFZ"NFSJLB6MVTMBS#JSMJĈJÃMLFMFSJOEF,BMLONBOO,VSVNTBM
&LPOPNJ1PMJUJĈJ ............................................................................................. 534
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 545
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 547
1wAx8LL
A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-xA73A3;Ć923
Ć=Ć=w93DĆÕĆ87<;<8A-;595937Æ9Æ8Ć:ÆAĆDĆćĆ
3hÉ&ÇċÊ
Özet ................................................................................................................... 551
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 552
ĉZJ:ÚOFUJĆJNJO5FPSJL±FSÎFWFTJ .................................................................... 554
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB4JZBTBM,SMHBOMLMBS ........................................................... 556
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB:PMTV[MVL"MHT ................................................................. 560
-BUJO"NFSJLBEB)VLVL&LPOPNJĉMJĆLJTJ ...................................................... 565
4POVÎĉZJ:ÚOFUJĆJNJO'STBU1FODFSFTJ ............................................................. 572
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 573
1wAx8LN
1;3iĆA=-g3Dx;78<D@-7A-;5959139i3;AĆ7A3;Ćg3
Ć7Ć7xADx;237-4g3
Æ$ÉÊfÈ
Özet ................................................................................................................... 577
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 578
,BIWBMU&LTFOJOEF'BSLMMLMBS ....................................................................... 581
ĉLJ.VUGBL,àMUàSàOEF#FO[FS½SOFLMFS ......................................................... 582
1BTUFM...................................................................................................... 582
±JĈ#ÚSFL.................................................................................... 583
2.2. Arroz ....................................................................................................... 583
1JMBW .............................................................................................. 584
XXVII

,VSV'BTVMZF ................................................................................ 585
$BSOFEFTPM .......................................................................................... 586
,VSV&U ......................................................................................... 588
#SF[JMZBWF5àSL,àMUàSàOEF,BIWF ................................................................ 589
4POVÎWF½OFSJMFS .............................................................................................. 591
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 593
1wAx8LO
837hĆ7-23g;Ć8ĆY9Ć97xADx;3AhÆ9<A-;5g3
Dx;7Ć=3B<84<;Ć=3DĆY9Ć9ĆA7=5AA-;5ĆA3
139i3;AĆ7A3;ĆT3ćĆDĆ8h3@3;13;AĆćĆ
9$ÉÊ7ÉÈċ%&
Özet ................................................................................................................... 597
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 598
.FLTJLBWF5àSLJZFEF(FSÎFLMFĆFO,àMUàSFM%FWSJNÃ[FSJOF ....................... 602
%JĈFS3FGPSNMBS ............................................................................................. 608
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 610
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 611
1wAx8LP
Dx;7Ć=3Y9Ć9A-DĆ9-83;Ć7-g37-;-=Ć:A3;
1wAf3hĆ9237Ć7-8<2Ć:AÆ8-hĆhĆg3=<8<Õ-7fx
-A5Õ8-A-;5
-=ċÈċ*
Özet ................................................................................................................... 613
(JSJĆ ................................................................................................................... 614
5àSLJZFOJO#ÚMHFEFLJ:VNVĆBL(àÎ,VSVMVĆMBSWF'BBMJZFUMFSJ .................... 615
,BNV,VSVMVĆMBS .................................................................................... 615
5àSLJZFĉĆCJSMJĈJWF,PPSEJOBTZPO"KBOT ....................................... 615
.FLTJLBWF,PMPNCJZB0ýTMFSJOJO±BMĆNBMBS ................ 616
XXVIII

ÃTU%à[FZ4JZBTJ;JZBSFUMFSF#BĈM0MBSBL(FSÎFLMFĆFO
1SPKFWF'BBMJZFUMFS ........................................................ 617
-",.àTMàNBOMBSOB:ÚOFMJL±BMĆNBMBS ......................... 619
:VOVT&NSF&OTUJUàTà .................................................................. 620
:VSUEĆ5àSLMFSWF"LSBCB5PQMVMVLMBS#BĆLBOMĈ ......................... 622
5àSLJZF.BBSJG7BLG ...................................................................... 623
"OBEPMV"KBOT ............................................................................. 623
5àSLJZF3BEZPWF5FMFWJ[ZPOV ...................................................... 624
5àSL)BWB:PMMBS ........................................................................... 625
-BUJO"NFSJLB±BMĆNBMBS"SBĆUSNBWF6ZHVMBNB.FSLF[J ......... 626
%JZBOFUĉĆMFSJ#BĆLBOMĈ ............................................................... 628
%Ć&LPOPNJLĉMJĆLJMFS,VSVMV ...................................................... 629
½[FM,VSVMVĆMBSWF±BMĆNBMBS ................................................................. 630
.àTUBLJM4BOBZJDJWFĉĆBEBNMBS%FSOFĈJ .................................................... 630
ĉOTBO)BLWF)àSSJZFUMFSJWFĉOTBOJ:BSEN7BLG ........................................ 630
ĉTMBN5PQMVNV.JMMÔ(ÚSàĆ5FĆLJMBU ........................................................... 632
%JĈFS:VNVĆBL(àÎ,VSVMVĆMBSOO±BMĆNBMBS .......................................... 633
5àSL%J[JMFSJ ................................................................................................. 634
4POVÎ ................................................................................................................ 636
,BZOBLÎB ........................................................................................................... 636
Yazar Bilgileri ................................................................................................... 643
XXIX

¦-ć-A-;592Ć=-;5§f<-D38-A-Y959
xA73-9-AĆiĆ
-Č7+
1
¦-ć-A-;592Ć=-;5§f<-D38-A-Y959
xA73-9-AĆiĆ
Bölüm
-Č7+
1
1
ÖZET
Latin Amerika ve Karayipler’de yer alan 33 ülkenin her birinin tarihsel gelişimi ve ülke
yapısı, tüm ortak paylaşımlarına ve miraslarına rağmen, birçok farklı özelliğe sahiptir. Orta
Amerika’nın en büyük nüfusa ve ekonomisine sahip olan Guatemala; demografisi, siyasal
sistemi, iktisadi yapısının iniş çıkışları ve sosyokültürel çeşitliliğinin var olma mücadelesi ile
kayda değer zenginlikler barındırmaktadır. Maya uygarlığına ev sahipliği yapan, 15. yüzyıl
sonlarında kıtanın keşfiyle İspanya sömürgesi olarak 16. yüzyıldan 19. yüzyıla kadar yakla-
şık 300 yıl geçiren bu ülke, 2021 yılında bağımsızlığının 200. yılını kutlamaktadır. Fark edil-
mektedir ki gerek Orta Amerika gerekse de Guatemala özelinde ulusal literatürde çalışmalar
oldukça azdır. Dolayısıyla bu çalışma literatüre katkı sunabilmek için Guatemala’nın yapısal
özelliklerine yönelik güncel bir ülke analizi olarak hazırlanmıştır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Guatemala, Siyasal Sistem, Demografi, Dış Politika, Ekonomi

2 Dünya Siyasetinde Latin Amerika 4
COUNTRY ANALYSIS OF THE “LAND OF TREES”
GUATEMALA
Abstract: e historical development and country structure of each of the 33 countri-
es in Latin America and the Caribbean, despite all their common shares and heritage, has
many dierent characteristics. Guatemala, which has the largest population and economy in
Central America has unique features with its demography, political system, uctuations in
its economic structure and the struggle for the existence of sociocultural diversity. Home to
the Maya Civilization, Guatemala, which spent 300 years as a Spanish colony from the 16th
to the 19th century with the discovery of the continent in the late 15th century, celebrates the
200th anniversary of its independence in 2021. It is noticed that there are very few studies
in the national literature both in Central America and in Guatemala. erefore, this study
has been prepared as a country analysis for the structural features of Guatemala in order to
contribute to the literature.
Keywords: Guatemala, Political System, Demography, Foreign Politics, Economy.
GĆRĆÕ
/DWLQ$PHULNDWDULKLQGHN|NOYHNDGLPPHGHQL\HWOHUHHYVDKLSOLùL\DS-
PDQ×QYHUGLùLNOWUHO|]JQONOHUWDü×PDNWDG×U/DWLQ$PHULNDWDULKLOLWHUD-
WUGHHQV×NNXOODQ×ODQWDELULOHIHWLKYHN|OHOLùLQ&KDVWHHQYHEXQODUD
NDUü×JHOLüHQLV\DQ×QWDULKLGLUg]EXGXQ/DWLQ$PHULNDYH
\]\×OLoHULVLQGHGHLVWLNUDUDNDYXüDPDP×üYHE|OJHXOXVODUDUDV×üLUNHWOHULQV|-
PUVQHLoVDYDüODUDDVNHUvGLNWDW|UONOHUHHNRQRPLNYHWRSOXPVDONUL]OHUH
PDUX]NDOP×üW×U2ùX]/DWLQ$PHULNDE|OJHVLQLQYH\HUOLWRSOXOXN-
ODU×QWRS\HNQKRPRMHQELU\DS×GDHOHDO×QPDPDV×JHUHNPHNWHGLU%|OJH|]HO-
OLNOH\]\×OLOHVRV\DOELOLPOHUDo×V×QGDQ|QHPOLELUDUDüW×UPDDODQ×RODUDN
RUWD\Do×NP×üW×U
 \×OODU× DUDV×QGD úVSDQ\RO V|PUJHVL RODQ *XDWHPDOD +\EHO
\×O×LWLEDUL\OHEDù×PV×]O×NVUHFLQHJLUPLüWLU-RQDV
%|OJHGHNLIHGHUDV\RQGHQHPHOHULEDüDU×V×]ROXQFD\×O×QGDWDPDPHQHJH-
PHQELUGHYOHWROPXü+HUULQJ\×O×QGDFXPKXUL\HWLQLOD-
Q×JHUoHNOHüPLüWLU&RUWH'H&RQVWLWXFLRQDOLGDGHQF\FORSHGLDFRP
W\8]XQ\×OODURWRULWHUUHMLPOHULOH\|QHWLOHQ*XDWHPDOD·GD\×O×QGDUH-
IRUPVUHoOHULQLQ|QQDoDFDNRODQGHPRNUDWLNG|QHPEDüODP×üDQFDN
\×O×QGDEXG|QHP$PHULND%LUOHüLN'HYOHWOHUL$%'GHVWHNOLELURSHUDV\RQLOH
NDSDQP×üW×U2Q\×OO×NWPUHIRUPODU×QJHULDO×QPD\DEDüODPDV×\ODD\DNODQDQ

i"ćBÎMBSO%JZBSw(VBUFNBMBOOÃMLF"OBMJ[J 3
\HUOLOHUYHN|\OOHULOHRUGXDUDV×QGD\×OODU×QGDVUHFHNRODQLoVDYDü
SDWODNYHUPLüWLU-RQDV
g]HOOLNOH0D\DX\JDUO×ù×Q×QEXOXQGXùX*XDWHPDOD·Q×Q\HUOLQIXVXQHQ
\RùXQEXOXQGXùXE|OJHOHUGHQELULROPDV×VHEHEL\OH6|PUJH'|QHPL·QGHYH
VRQUDV×QGD\HUOLOHUH YH PXKDOLI KDUHNHWOHUH EDVN×ODU×Q YH DVLPLODV\RQ SROLWL-
NDODU×Q×QX\JXODQ×ü×QDWDQ×NO×NHGLOPLüWLU$PQHVW\,QWHUQDWLRQDO
\×O×QGDLP]DODQDQ EDU×ü DQODüPDV×LOH VLODKODU E×UDN×OP×üROVD GD ONHEXJQ
KkOHQE\NLoVDYDüVRQUDV×ROXüDQ \DUDODU×Q×VDUPDNLoLQoDEDJ|VWHUPHNWH
YH\RùXQoHWHOHüPHVHEHEL\OHROXüDQX\XüWXUXFXWUDILùLYHDVD\LüVRUXQODU×Q×
o|]PH\HoDO×üPDNWDG×U'HXWVFKH:HOOH /DFH\ /XPPDFN
'ROD\×V×\ODONHKkOHQWDPRODUDNSROLWLNYHWRSOXPVDOLVWLNUDUDNDYXüDELOPLü
GHùLOGLU
%X oDO×üPDQ×Q DPDF× *XDWHPDOD·Q×Q FRùUDIL NOWUHO VL\DVL YHHNR-
QRPLN |]HOOLNOHUL ]HULQGHQ JHQHO ELU ONH DQDOL]L VXQPDNW×U %XJQQ
*XDWHPDOD·V× X]XQ \]\×OODU KNP VUPü HVNL ELU X\JDUO×ù×Q V|PU-
JHFLOLùLQ NUDOO×NODU×Q EDVN×F× LNWLGDUODU×Q WRSOXPVDO D\DNODQPDODU×Q Lo
VDYDüODU×QYHEDU×üVUHoOHULQLQELU\DQV×PDV×G×UYHEXDQODPGDJHUHNVRV-
\RORMLJHUHNVHGHVL\DVHWELOLPLNRQXODU×QGD ELUDQDOL]DODQ×G×U0HWLQE-
WQOùDo×V×QGDQYHULOHULLoHUHQJUDILNOHUoDO×üPDVRQXQGDHNOHUN×VP×QGD
NR\XOPXüWXUdDO×üPDGD ELULQFLOND\QDN RODUDN E|OJH\H\|QHOLN UDSRUODU
LVWDWLVWLNYHULOHULYHKDEHUND\QDNODU×HOHDO×QP×üLNLQFLOND\QDNRODUDN\LQH
E|OJH\H\|QHOLNoDO×üPDODU\DSDQWDULKoLOHULQVL\DVHWELOLPFLOHULQYHVRV\R-
ORJODU×QDUDüW×UPDODU×QDEDüYXUXOPXüWXU
1. Coğrafi Özellikler
2UWD$PHULND*QH\$PHULNDYH/DWLQ$PHULNDLVLPOHULROGXNoDNXOOD-
Q×ODQoIDUNO×NDSVDPGDNLFRùUDILE|OJH\HLüDUHW HWPHNWHGLU/DWLQ$PHULND
ED]×GXUXPODUGDDQDGLOIDUNO×O×ù×Q×ED]×GXUXPODUGDLVHFRùUDILELUV×Q×UODPD\×
LIDGHHGL\RUROVDGDDVO×QGDLNLGXUXPXGDEHOLUWHQYHEXIDUNO×NDSVDPGDNLWD-
Q×PODPDODUGDQHQJHQLüRODQ×G×U%|OJH.X]H\$PHULND·GDQ%LUOHüLN0HNVLND
'HYOHWOHUL·QL0HNVLNDLoHUGLùLJLEL2UWD$PHULND.DUD\LS$GDODU×YH*QH\
$PHULND·\×GDNDSVDUYH EXNDSVDPDDODQ×Q×Q EDüDW|]HOOLùL/DWLQ GLOOHULQLQ
NRQXüXOPDV×G×U.LWWOHVRQYG
*QH\$PHULND·GD EXOXQDQ .RORPEL\D&XPKXUL\HWL .RORPEL\D LOH
0HNVLNDDUDV×QGDNDODQE|OJH\H2UWD$PHULND2UWD$PHULND·Q×QJQH\LQ-
GHNDODQGLùHUWP E|OJH\HGH*QH\ $PHULNDGHQPHNWHGLU+DULWD ·GH

4 Dünya Siyasetinde Latin Amerika 4
J|UOHFHùL]HUHoDO×üPDGDLQFHOHQHFHNRODQ*XDWHPDOD&XPKXUL\HWL*X-
DWHPDOD.X]H\$PHULND·GD\HUDODQ 0HNVLND2UWD$PHULND·GDEXOXQDQ
%HOL]H (O 6DOYDGRU &XPKXUL\HWL (O 6DOYDGRU YH +RQGXUDV &XPKXUL\H-
WL+RQGXUDV LOHV×Q×U NRPüXVX RODQELU ONHROXS ONHQLQ D\U×FD3DVLILN
2N\DQXVXYH+RQGXUDV.|UIH]LYDV×WDV×\OD.DUD\LS'HQL]L·QHN×\×V×YDUG×U
+RUVWYG
*XDWHPDODDG×Q×QHWLPRORMLNRODUDN\HUHOGLOGH´DùDoODUGL\DU×µDQODP×-
QD JHOGLùL EHOLUWLOPHNWHGLU &DPSEHOO   'ROD\×V×\OD ONH LVPLQLQ
FRùUDIL|]HOOLNOHUEDN×P×QGDQGDILNLUYHUGLùLV|\OHQHELOLU%\NELU\]|O-
oPQHVDKLSROPDVDGD*XDWHPDOD·Q×QFRùUDIL|]HOOLNOHULROGXNoDoHüLWOLGLU
KDWWDE|OJHGHPLNURLNOLPOHUJ|]OHPOHQGLùLQGHQJHQHOOHPH\DSPDN]RUODü-
PDNWDG×U%XVHEHSOHE|OJHQLQIL]LNL|]HOOLNOHULUDN×PVHYL\HOHULQHJ|UHWDULI
HGLOPHNWHGLU 2UWD $PHULND·GD ´WLHUUD FDOLHQWHµ ´WLHUUD WHPSODGDµ ´WLHUUD
IULDµYH´WLHUUDKHODGRµDGODU×QGDUDN×PODU×QDJ|UHEHOLUOHQHQG|UWJHQHODUD]L
WLSLEXOXQPDNWDG×U7LHUUDFDOLHQWH\DQLV×FDNDUD]LGHQL]VHYL\HVLQGHQEDü-
OD\DUDNPHWUH\HNDGDUX]DQDQoRùXQOXNODWDU×P\DS×ODQDUD]LOHUGLUYH
*XDWHPDOD·GDNLPX] YHüHNHU NDP×ü×HNLPL EXUDODUGDJHUoHNOHüWLULOLU 0X]
UHWLPLQLQ\RùXQODüW×ù× \]\×OODUD NDGDUE|OJH JHQHORODUDN VH\UHNQ-
IXVOX ROPXüWXU 7LHUUD WHPSODGD RODUDN DGODQG×U×ODQ ×O×PDQ DUD]L 
PHWUHUDN×P×QGDEXOXQDQE|OJHOHUGLUYHD]PLNWDUGDEXùGD\YHP×V×U\HWLü-
WLULOPHVLQLQ\DQ×V×UDHVDVRODUDNNDKYHUHWLPLQHPVDLWWLUhONHQLQNDKYH
UHWLPLQLQoRùX6LHUUD0DGUH'Dù×·Q×Q\DPDoODU×QGD\DS×OPDNWDG×U7LHUUD
IULDVRùXNDUD]LDQODP×QDJHOPHNWHGLU]LUDPHWUH\HNDGDU RODQUDN×P
E|OJHVLGLUYHDùDooL]JLVLQHNDGDUX]DQ×U%XQRNWDGDQVRQUDDùDoODU\HWLüH-
FHN\HUEXODPD]ODUWDU×PKHPHQKHPHQLPNkQV×]G×U\HUOHüLPoRNVH\UHNWLU
YHVDGHFHPHWUHUDN×PODUDUDV×QGD\HUOHüLPLPNkQ×EXOXQXU$ùDo
oL]JLVLQLQ|WHVLQGHLVHJHQHOGH\×O×QKHUG|QHPLNDUO×YHEX]WXWDQWLHUUDKHOD-
GR\DQLGRQPXüDUD]L\HUDO×U'HQGLQJHU
hONHQLQYRONDQLNGDùODU×EDW×GDQGRùX\DGRùUXVH\UHWPHNWHGLU(O6DOYD-
GRUV×Q×U×QDGRùUXLVH\NVHOWLD]DOPDNWDG×U%|OJHQLQGHSUHPNXüDù×YHDNWLI
\DQDUGDùODU×G|QHPG|QHPüHKLUOHULQ\×N×OPDV×QDYHELQOHUFHLQVDQ×QKD\DW×Q×
ND\EHWPHVLQHVHEHSROPDNWDG×UgUQHùLQ\×O×QGDROXüDQGHSUHPGHUH\D-
WDù×Q×ER]PXüYHWRQODUFDVXVHUEHVWNDO×S*XDWHPDOD·Q×QRG|QHPNLEDüNHQW
E|OJHVL6DQWLDJRGH*XDWHPDOD·\×\×NP×üW×U$UDGDQJHoHQ\DNODü×NLNLDV×UVRQ-
UD\×O×QGD\DüDQDQELUGHSUHPGDKD 6DQWLDJRGH*XDWHPDOD·\×\HUOHELU
HWWLùLLoLQEDüNHQWüHKULLOHULGHEDüND\×N×P\DüDQPDPDV×LoLQ\HWNLOLOHUWDUDI×Q-
GDQNLORPHWUHX]DùDWDü×QP×üW×U+HP2UWD$PHULNDKHPGH*XDWHPDOD·GD-

i"ćBÎMBSO%JZBSw(VBUFNBMBOOÃMLF"OBMJ[J 5
NLGRùDODIHWOHU \]\×OGDGD\DüDQDUDNEXJQH NDGDUXODüP×üW×U3HDUF\
\×O×Q×QRUWDODU×QGDONHLoHULVLQGH\HUDODQ)XHJR<DQDUGDù×
SDWODP×üYHFDQND\×SODU×QDVHEHSROPXüWXU%%&6RQRODUDNGD3DFD\D
<DQDUGDù×\×O×Q×QûXEDWD\×QGDSDWODP×üROXSE|OJHGHNLWHKOLNHKkOHQGH-
YDPHWPHNWHGLU7KH*XDUGLDQ
hONHQLQ +RQGXUDV V×Q×U×QD GRùUX NDNWVOHUOH NDSO× \DU× NXUDN G]
DUD]LOHUEXOXQVDGD.DUD\LSVDKLOLQHGRùUXDUD]LEHUHNHWOLKkOHJHOLUYHEX
DODQODUGDGDPX]\HWLüWLULOLUgQFHOHULWURSLNRUPDQODUODNDSO×RODQEHUHNHWOL
3DVLILNVDKLOLQGHLVH\RùXQPLNWDUGDüHNHUNDP×ü×YHNDKYH\HWLüWLULOPHNWH-
GLU$UJXHWDW\+HUQHNDGDUONHGHNLNDGLPELUoRNWURSLNRUPDQE|OJHVL
KHPWRSUDù×QVHUWOHüPHVLYHRUPDQ×Q\HQLOHQHPHPHVLJLELGRùDOVHEHSOHU-
GHQKHPGH\HUOLOHUGHQEHULX\JXODQDQHVNLELU\|QWHPRODQ´ELoYH\DNµ
\|QWHPLQLQGHHWNLVL\OHRUPDQV×]ODüW×U×OP×üROVDGD&KDVWHHQ
'HQGLQJHU*XDWHPDOD·GDKkOHQ\RùXQELUWURSLNRUPDQDODQ×
EXOXQPDNWDG×U
hONHQLQ3DVLILN2N\DQXVX·QDN×\×V×ROPDV× VHEHEL\OHGHQL]FLOLNEDN×P×Q-
GDQ GD DYDQWDMODU× YDUG×U +DWWD 6DQ -RVH /LPDQ× ]HQJLQ EDO×N oHüLWOLOLùL YH
\RùXQOXùXVHEHEL\OH´\HONHQEDO×ù×EDüNHQWLµRODUDNDGODQG×U×OPDNWDG×U 9H-
ODVFR%XQODU×Q\DQ×V×UDJHQHORODUDNN×WDQ×Q]HQJLQ\HUDOW×PDGHQ-
OHUL*XDWHPDOD·GDGD NHQGLQLJ|VWHUPHNWHGLU hONH|]HOOLNOH XUDQ\XPNXP
YHoDN×OQLNHONLUHoWDü×SHWURON|PUDOW×QJPüEDN×UGHPLUYHNXUüXQ
FHYKHULNREDOWPDGHQOHULDo×V×QGDQYHULPOLGLUYHYHULOHULQHJ|UHNXUüXQ
FHYKHULQLNHOFHYKHULKDPSHWURODOW×QYHJPüHQoRNUHWLOHQLONEHüPD-
GHQGLU'DYH\
2. Demografik Yapı
 PLO\RQD \DNODüDQ QIXVX\OD /DWLQ $PHULND·Q×Q VHNL]LQFL 2UWD
$PHULND·Q×QLVHHQNDODEDO×NONHVLRODQ*XDWHPDOD:RUOGRPHWHULGDUL
RODUDNE|OPGHSDUWPDQYHEHOHGL\HGHQROXüPDNWDG×U+HUGHSDUW-
PDQ×QNHQGLLoLQGHEDüNHQWLYHEHOHGL\HOHULEXOXQPDNWDG×U(QNDODEDO×NQ-
IXVDVDKLSRODQ*XDWHPDOD'HSDUWPDQ×·Q×QEDüNHQWL´*XDWHPDOD&LW\µD\U×FD
XOXVDOEDüNHQWWLUYHELQLDüDQQIXVX\ODONHQLQHQNDODEDO×NüHKULGLU2QD
HQ\DN×QüHKLULVH\LQH*XDWHPDOD'HSDUWPDQ×·QGD\HUDODQYHELQLJHoHQ
QIXVX\OD0L[FR·GXU&(/$'(&HUH]R,1(6RQYHUL-
OHUHJ|UHROGXNoDJHQoELU\DüRUWDODPDV×QDVDKLSRODQONHQIXVXPLO\RQX