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Ecotourism as a paradigm shift in conservation and community livelihoods in the Southern African region
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This paper presents a comparative evaluation of Google Scholar and 11 other bibliographic databases (Academic Search Elite, AgeLine, ArticleFirst, EconLit, GEOBASE, MEDLINE, PAIS International, POPLINE, Social Sciences Abstracts, Social Sciences Citation Index, and SocINDEX), focusing on search performance within the multidisciplinary field of later-life migration. The results of simple keyword searches are evaluated with reference to a set of 155 relevant articles identified in advance. In terms of both recall and precision, Google Scholar performs better than most of the subscription databases. This finding, based on a rigorous evaluation procedure, is contrary to the impressions of many early reviewers. The paper concludes with a discussion of a new approach to document relevance in educational settings—an approach that accounts for the instructors' goals as well as the students' assessments of relevance.
This paper seeks to delve deeper and assess ecotourism and wildlife conservation-related enterprises development by local communities within the Zimbabwean component of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area (GLTFCA). Transfrontier Conservation was embraced by scientists, policy-makers and other stakeholders in Chiredzi and Chipinge Districts in the southeast Lowveld of Zimbabwe, among other reasons for improved wildlife conservation and community-based cross-border ecotourism development. The study sought to understand factors hampering local communities owned ecotourism and wildlife conservation-related enterprise development. To understand the evolution of ecotourism and wildlife conservation-related enterprise development by local communities in Southern Africa especially within the GLTFCA and to also assess the potential of local community Ecotourism and wildlife conservation-related enterprises development. Various documents such as books, journals, web documents, electronic sources, reports, financial statement and policy documents were reviewed. To buttress the study, 30 purposeful sampled key informants were also interviewed in Chipinge and Chiredzi Districts from January to June 2018 in order to solicit for firsthand data that are very useful for triangulation. The study is important for the further development of district, national and international policies. The study findings showed that Transfrontier conservation have not achieved its objectives towards improved cross-border ecotourism and wildlife conservation-related enterprise development. Hopes by the local community especially on the Zimbabwean side for inclusion ecotourism and conservation-related enterprises chains have not been realized. Most local communities’ members within TFCAs are still living under abject poverty. More still needs to be done towards socio-economic development in the area under study. The study has realized that the transfrontier treaty was operationalized at a higher level thus head of state and ministerial forgetting about the local level. Local institutions are not fully empowered and have clear policy guidelines. Findings from this study will help better plan, structure and execute ecotourism and wildlife conservation-related enterprises involving communities. The success of these initiatives will increase the size of benefits trickling to individual households in line among other objectives which led to the establishment of the Transfrontier Conservation Areas.
Human-wildlife conflicts are a concern in southern Zimbabwe which is part of Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area. Study objectives were to assess cost value of crop/livestock loss incurred by farmers as well as to identify drivers of human-wildlife conflicts and explore mitigation measures on agro-based communities of Mutema-Musikavanhu, adjacent to Save Valley Conservancy in southern Zimbabwe. Data collection was done in November 2016, using questionnaires administered to randomly selected 300 households and 20 key informants. Majority of farmers (86%, n = 258) had incurred annual household economic loss ranging from US 998.21 per household, though perceived and actual losses differed by 63.2% for mono-specific stands of crops and livestock herds for the period October 2014 to October 2016. It was concluded the main drivers of human-wildlife conflicts were African elephants (Loxodonta africana) raiding crops like maize (Zea mays), bananas (Musa sapientum) and legumes (Cucurbita sp.), whereas, lions (Panthera leo) kill livestock, mainly cattle (Bos taurus). Ineffective deterrents such as setting fires around fields at night, guarding crops and herding livestock were methods employed to minimize human-wildlife conflicts. Local people suggested erection of an electrified fence to reduce trespassing of wild animals from protected area to human settlement.
Participation in wildlife-based community tourism within and around protected areas is seen as a tool to link biodiversity conservation and community livelihoods improvement. However, there is a deficiency of frameworks currently used to understand complex and dynamic relationships that exist among conservation, tourism and development. The community capitals framework is adopted to assess these linkages from a systems-thinking perspective in which community capitals’ stock and flow, explained by a community's participation in tourism determines the direction of change. Results of the Chobe Enclave Conservation Trust in Botswana indicate that all community capitals are interdependent and play a dynamic role in shaping the spiraling of community livelihoods. Participation in tourism led to both the spiraling up and down of community capitals. The spiraling up of community capitals is explained by increased livelihoods and diversification options facilitated by increased tourism income. The spiraling down is explained by the heightened human–wildlife conflicts and fragile wildlife–livestock co-existence, which led to livestock diseases, loss of beef market and the ecosystems’ fragmentation through the introduction of veterinary fences. Thus, the spiraling of community capitals is explained by the transformation of one stock of community capital to another in a systems-thinking dynamics fashion.
This paper assesses the contribution of ecotourism to local communities and the environment. Livelihoods of local communities are examined to understand the socioeconomic situation of people living in proximity to ecotourism areas and their participation in ecotourism activities. The impact of ecotourism on the environment in Nyanga is also examined. The paper employs both literature review (secondary data) and a field survey (primary data) to achieve these objectives. To gather socioeconomic data of households and tourist traits, questionnaires were administered to 120 households and 30 tourists in the study area. Key informant interviews were held in the survey to gather expert knowledge about ecotourism trends and environmental data in the area. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Descriptive and inferential analyses were used for quantitative data while content and structural–functional analyses were used for qualitative data. The research revealed that ecotourism offers the highest salaries when compared to other sources of formal employment. Ecotourism activities were shown to positively impact the environment through the protection, preservation, and management of natural resources. The study concludes that ecotourism is a useful and sustainable poverty alleviation strategy which has not yet been fully exploited in Zimbabwe.
During the past decades, the tourism sector has become an increasing important issue for governments and regional agencies searching for socio-economic development. Especially in the Global South the increasing tourism demand has been seen highly beneficial as evolving tourism can create direct and indirect income and employment effects to the host regions and previously marginalised communities, with potential to aid with the poverty reduction targets. This research note reviews the existing policy and planning frameworks in relation to tourism and rural development in Namibia. Especially the policy aims towards rural community development are overviewed with focus on Community-Based Tourism (CBT) initiatives. The research note involves a retrospective review of tourism policies and rural local development initiatives in Namibia where the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) initiated a community-based tourism policy. The policy emphasises structures and processes helping local communities to benefit from the tourism sector, and the active and coordinating involvement of communities, especially, is expected to ensure that the benefits of tourism trickle down to the local level where tourist activities take place. However, it is noted that in addition to public policy-makers also other tourism developers and private business environment in Namibia need to recognize the full potential of rural tourism development in order to meet the created politically driven promises at the policy level. In this respect, a national tourism policy could provide an enabling framework, integrating the tourism sector’s development aims to rural and community development needs in future. In addition, there is a need to coordinate a comprehensive vision of what type of rural tourism development or tourism in rural environments holds the most potential to benefit both local communities and the mainstream sector.
Botswana has a variety of ecosystems, all of which support a multitude of wildlife species. The Kalahari is a vast semidesert that covers over 84% of the country. Grasslands along with scattered trees and drought-resistant undergrowth dominate large tracts of the Kalahari’s landscape. The northeastern Kalahari extends into the wetter environments of Botswana—the Okavango Delta, the Savuti, and the Chobe—within which grassland habitats support abundant wildlife species. Botswana is unique in that most of its biodiversity remains intact, with a higher percentage of its total landmass conserved than any other country. Botswana achieves this level of protection primarily through ecotourism, which operates at several levels in working toward biodiversity conservation. Government policy on tourism aids ecosystem conservation in Botswana by employing a high-income, low-volume tourism policy. This paper examines and gives specific examples of where and how Botswana has used ecotourism as a tool for biodiversity and grassland conservation. It further looks at the other factors that play a role in successfully conserving Botswana’s grassland habitats.
In much of southern Africa, ecotourism has been widely acknowledged as critical for enhancing livelihoods of communities living outside protected areas. Several studies highlight the potential of tourism as a mechanism for driving rural economies in Africa. Using the case of the Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park shared among Zimbabwe, South Africa, and Mozambique, this paper demonstrates how communities are engaging in ecotourism entrepreneurship. A decade after the emergence of transfrontier parks in the region, no studies have explored how new and vibrant assemblages of individuals and community actors tap the potential of ecotourism. This study is based on 57 semi-structured interviews with participants drawn from four wards in southeast Zimbabwe. In addition, a netnography (online ethnography) of a Facebook page administered by a local community trust promoting ecotourism was undertaken. Findings demonstrate that innovative community leaders imagine, embrace, and exploit ecotourism opportunities that arise from their proximity to transfrontier parks. More specifically, this study characterises these entrepreneurs, their local and extra-local connections, how they actively engage in social networking to promote cultural tourism and development of a visible ecotourism product. This paper contributes to the understudied aspect of social entrepreneurship in ecotourism planning within transfrontier conservation areas.
Collaboration is a key principle in community-based tourism approaches in most
developing countries. This paper assesses how community-based ecotourism is
perceived in terms of community participation and empowerment. Data were
collected through semi-structured interviews and secondary sources. Collaborative
partnerships underpinnings are adopted to guide the research. Results suggest that
participation in ecotourism brings mixed results on biodiversity conservation and
community livelihoods due to the involvement of multiple stakeholders in the design,
planning, and implementation of ecotourism projects. Due to the diversity of
stakeholders, the empowerment of communities using ecotourism is complex.
Nonetheless, while the study may be perceived as having attained mixed results, the
case study offers a progressive example of how stakeholders approach to natural
resource management are evolving. Ecotourism development in Botswana still needs
improvement; more considerations have to be given to in situ settings. The Chobe
Enclave Community Trust, a community living adjacent to Chobe National Park in
Botswana, provides the context on which this study’s discussion focuses.
Rural African communities are largely characterised by high levels of unemployment and poverty, low skills levels and a heavy reliance on natural resources. Increasing populations, together with the impacts of climate change, are putting pressure on natural resources and the issue of sustainable land use is becoming critically important. Ecotourism is one possible sustainable land use which can also assist with both local socioeconomic development and biodiversity conservation. This paper looks at the impact of ecotourism employment on rural household incomes and overall social welfare in six southern African countries. Extensive socio-economic interview schedules were conducted in camps run by Wilderness Safaris in Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe. A total of 385 staff interviews were conducted in 16 high-end ecotourism camps, constituting a majority of the staff in these camps. A further 1400 community interviews were conducted in over 30 rural communities associated with these ecotourism camps. Two types of community members are differentiated in this study: those directly employed in a high-end ecotourism operation (staff) and those not employed in the high-end ecotourism operation (non-staff). For every camp, both groups of respondents were from the same community, living either in or around the protected area where the ecotourism operation was situated; allowing for comparisons between the two groups. The results show that rural households are relying heavily on the market economy, largely in the form of ecotourism, for support and highlight ecotourism employment’s important role in local socio-economic development in remote, rural areas. The results also highlight the importance of formal education, livelihood diversification and other formal employment in these areas. Suggestions for increasing the benefits to local communities are put forward.
Legislative changes during the 1960s–1970s granted user rights over wildlife to landowners in southern Africa, resulting in a shift from livestock farming to wildlife-based land uses. Few comprehensive assessments of such land uses on private land in southern Africa have been conducted and the associated benefits are not always acknowledged by politicians. Nonetheless, wildlife-based land uses are growing in prevalence on private land. In Namibia wildlife-based land use occurs over c. 287,000 km2. Employment is positively related to income from ecotourism and negatively related to income from livestock. While 87% of meat from livestock is exported ≥ 95% of venison from wildlife-based land uses remains within the country, contributing to food security. Wildlife populations are increasing with expansion of wildlife-based land uses, and private farms contain 21–33 times more wildlife than in protected areas. Because of the popularity of wildlife-based land uses among younger farmers, increasing tourist arrivals and projected impacts of climate change on livestock production, the economic output of wildlife-based land uses will probably soon exceed that of livestock. However, existing policies favour livestock production and are prejudiced against wildlife-based land uses by prohibiting reintroductions of buffalo Syncerus caffer, a key species for tourism and safari hunting, and through subsidies that artificially inflate the profitability of livestock production. Returns from wildlife-based land uses are also limited by the failure to reintroduce other charismatic species, failure to develop fully-integrated conservancies and to integrate black farmers sufficiently.
High-end ecotourism operations in African protected areas often claim to share the benefits of ecotourism with surrounding rural communities through employment as well as “trickle down” effects of revenues that result from such operations. The receipt of benefits from ecotourism is also claimed to promote an appreciation of biological diversity and conservation in surrounding communities. In practice, these claimed benefits can be challenging to measure and no multi-country study has attempted to assess the efficacy of these claims across a variety of circumstances. This study assessed various impacts of ecotourism employment at study sites in Botswana, Malawi and Namibia. Analysis of household income, social welfare impacts and the number of people indirectly affected by ecotourism employment indicates that rural communities are moving towards an engagement with the market economy as a result of ecotourism operations. Monthly income from ecotourism employment was shown to enable households to invest in assets, education and “luxury” goods, which improved financial security and social welfare in remote, rural areas. A thorough analysis of the various factors impacting attitudes towards conservation and tourism showed that ecotourism employment positively affects attitudes, though level of education showed the largest impact.
Tourism has, in recent years, received increasing attention as a low-impact, non-consumptive development option, in particular for developing countries. This positive view contrasts with the fact that major parts of the tourist industry have remained harmful to the environment and that some aspects, like the use of energy and its global consequences have virtually been excluded from the discussion on sustainable tourism development. In this article, the evolution of tourism paradigms is reviewed with a focus on developing countries. It is shown that tourism has become of prime economic importance for many developing countries, in particular small island states. However, as the cash income generated by tourism is mainly derived from visitors coming from industrialised countries, who have to rely on air travel to arrive at their destination, the issue of energy use is analysed from an ecological perspective. It is shown that the tourism-related use of fossil fuels is significant and has detrimental environmental consequences. Afforestation programmes are discussed as a strategy to overcome the negative effects associated with the emission of greenhouse gases. Overall, it is claimed that energy use is an issue that urgently needs to be integrated into the discourse on sustainable tourism development.
Ecotourism has a potentially vital role to play in conservation by generating economic incentives for nature conservation. However, some authors contend that this potential may be limited by narrow viewing preferences among visitors to protected areas, suggesting that most tourists are primarily interested in seeing charismatic mega-fauna largely confined to government or privately-owned parks. We assessed viewing preferences among tourists at four protected areas in South Africa to test the validity of this contention. Mega-herbivores and large carnivores were the most popular species, particularly among first-time and overseas visitors, but African visitors and experienced wildlife viewers were more interested in bird and plant diversity, scenery, and rarer, less easily-observed and/or less high-profile mammals. Several of these favored species are extinction prone and often absent from wildlife areas due to sensitivity to human encroachment and competition with more abundant species. Hence, ecotourism may provide incentives for the conservation of intact guilds, and management for ecotourism may align more closely with biodiversity conservation objectives than suggested by critics. This potential could be enhanced by diversification of tour operator advertising to feature aspects of biodiversity other than the ‘big five’. Nonetheless, charismatic mega-fauna have a vital flagship role by attracting most overseas and first-time visitors to protected areas.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
This study assesses community participation in a community-based tourism enterprise in Botswana, the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust, founded in 1992. Data were collected using structured and semi-structured questionnaires, interviews with key stakeholders and community focus group discussions. Results indicate that although Community-Based Natural Resource Management is popular in many southern African nations, communities still face challenges and constraints which hinder their participation in community-based enterprises. While some other studies in Botswana indicate the value of community-based tourism, 95% of adult residents in the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust area did not know who owned the Trust, and 98% had never been to the Trust's lands. There was community disappointment about loss of cattle grazing and other land-related benefits, lack of communication with the community, lack of benefits, the low numbers employed and the slow progress of the project which did not record a profit until 2008. But the Trust now has over 25% of the rhinos in Botswana and has seen visitor numbers rise from 1820 in 1996 to over 21,000 in 2008. Suggestions for the future include appointment of a community liaison officer, training for local people in tourism and management and use of single-community rather than multi-community trusts. 1992, KRS, , , , 95%KRS, 98%KRS, , , , 200825%, , 19961820200821000, ,
The Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program in Botswana aims to achieve biodiversity conservation and rural development in rich biodiversity areas like the Okavango Delta. CBNRM assumes that if rural communities derive benefits from natural resources, they will be obliged to use such resources sustainably. Using the sustainable livelihoods framework, this study analyzes the effects of tourism development through CBNRM on rural livelihoods at Khwai, Sankoyo and Mababe in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, using primary and secondary data sources. Results of long-term surveys and in-depth interviews indicate that the three communities have forgone traditional livelihood activities such as hunting and gathering, livestock and crop farming to participate in tourism through CBNRM. Livelihoods in these villages have been improved as a result. Basic needs such as shelter, employment and income and social services like water supply systems, transportation, scholarships and payment of funeral expenses are now provided to community members and funded with income from CBNRM. Social capital has been built up in order to agree, manage and develop the CBNRM process. These results show that tourism development in these villages is achieving its goal of improved livelihoods, contradicting claims that community development projects are failing to achieve rural development.
Nature-based tourism is an important component of the tourism industry and has experienced significant growth during recent years. Nature-based tourism attractions (NBTA) can provide substantial economic gains to both host communities and tourism businesses. To sustain the growth of NBTA and maintain its associated benefits, it is important to ensure that the visitors are satisfied with the experiences provided. Despite the importance of delivering visitor satisfaction for NBTA, there is scant literature available on visitor satisfaction with NBTA. The aims of this study is to identify the factors that influence visitor satisfaction with NBTA. The study also analyzes the relationship between NBTA, overall satisfaction and visitor loyalty. Visitor satisfaction was measured using a questionnaire which adopted the perceive-performance theory. The study area for this study was seven NBTA where convenience sampling was used for the selection of the attractions. Data was collected from the on-site survey method with a sample size of 600 NBTA visitors. Statistical analyses were used and hypotheses were tested. Based upon the results of this study, recommendations were made.
Purpose
– To identify the pros and the cons of Google Scholar.
Design/methodology/approach
– Chronicles the recent history of the Google Scholar search engine from its inception in November 2004 and critiques it with regard to its merits and demerits.
Findings
– Feels that there are massive content omissions presently but that, with future changes in its structure, Google Scholar will become an excellent free tool for scholarly information discovery and retrieval.
Originality/value
– Presents a useful analysis for potential users of the Google Scholar site.
Namibia’s community-based natural resource management program (CBRNM) and communal conservancies have gained international acclaim for rural poverty alleviation and wildlife conservation on the commons. Community-based ecotourism enterprise development has played a central role in the generation of community revenues, employment and additional benefits.
The place of community-based ecotourism enterprises in the evolution of Namibia’s conservancies is examined. A participatory rural appraisal (PRA) approach was conducted in Namibia as part of recent doctoral research in 2006 and 2007, featuring participant observation, semi-structured key informant interviews and structured communal villager interviews. Findings demonstrate some tangible successes of community-based ecotourism enterprise development, as well as emerging issues in related benefits distribution and power brokering. The case of the Torra Conservancy is profiled as a leading model for success in partnerships between conservancies, as community-based conservation institutions, and tourism enterprises. The experience of Ehi-rovipuka Conservancy is also detailed, to illuminate challenges and prospects for replicating the Torra model. Power relationships between and among private enterprise, community, and the state are elucidated.
Ecotourism enterprise development can contribute successfully to community-based conservation. But, issues of power sharing, governance and competition necessitate the further evolution of commons institutions to capture future, sustainable benefits from community-based conservation premised on wildlife and related ecotourism development.
The purpose of this study is to explore the corporate sustainability practices undertaken in the tourism sector, drawing on evidence from Tanzania. The study extracted corporate sustainability-related information reported on the websites of tour operators and accommodation firms operating in Tanzania and conducted thematic analysis on the extracted information. The findings revealed that social services, economic prosperity, nature conservation and eco-efficiency are the main corporate sustainability practices. The tour operators generally put great emphasis on social service initiatives, which were operationalized through philanthropic contributions to community projects. Accommodation firms specifically emphasized eco-efficiency, nature conservation and economic prosperity. Although the conception of corporate sustainability of all the tourism firms seems to be the same, their practices were differentiated by differences in their nature of operations and resource capabilities. The findings imply that corporate sustainability practices are socially constructed and provide grounds to inform destination planning, development and management.
Ecotourism is thought to carry the promise to generate funds for conservation and provide alternative livelihood opportunities that are consistent with conservation of nature. However, lack of careful ecotourism planning and appropriate management in protected areas may result in environmental deterioration and inequitable development among the local communities. This paper analyzes the ecotourism potential and challenges in contributing to local sustainable management and conservation of Lake Natron Ramsar Site. Data were gathered through questionnaire surveys to area’s residents and foreign tourists, interviews with key informants, and field site observation. Findings show that Lake Natron has immense tourist attraction potentials that are important for ecotourism development. However, lack of a general management plan, inadequate funding at the operational level, lack of mechanisms to secure a fair distribution of ecotourism benefits, and poorly developed tourism infrastructural facilities to support diverse segments of tourists were identified as the main challenges associated with the management of ecotourism in the area. The paper suggests a design of an effective management structure that can effectively address the obstacles and ensure that ecotourism achieves its long-term economic and conservation goals.
This paper provides a review of literature and synthesis of community-based tourism in Botswana by examining the issues associated with its conception, design and implementation. The paper is principally guided by the concept of sustainable tourism development. Results indicate that the concept of community-based tourism in Botswana can be traced to the commencement of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), which has its successes and challenges. The paper’s findings show the following challenges: community definition problems; multi-stakeholder participation, diversity and heterogeneity; deficiency in business acumen; lack of income distribution plans and reinvestment priorities and passive community participation. In view of the above, the future might be more challenging for the realisation of sustainable community-based tourism (CBT). The paper concludes with recommendations that may assist in improving the organisation, structure and implementation of community-based tourism in Botswana to ensure sustainability in community-based tourism development.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine how local agricultural communities are integrated into the tourism value chains and provide insights into how this can contribute to poverty reduction.
Design/methodology/approach
The study employed the value chain approach to gain an understanding of the linkages between tourism and agriculture. Interviews involving local suppliers of agricultural products and tourism businesses (n=195) were conducted in Lushoto, Tanzania. The livelihood portfolios (range of activities – farming, employment, tourism, etc.) were analyzed in terms of the resources (economic, natural, human, physical and social assets) available to individuals and households and how these are optimally used to achieve inclusive growth.
Findings
The findings show that the form of tourism business ownership and the presence of specific social networks between tourism businesses and local suppliers dictate the mode of buying and the strength of supply chains. Community-based tourism is dominant in the area, allowing tourists to interact with agrarian rural communities. However, the optimal local linkages have been hampered by the quantitative and qualitative mismatch between locally supplied products and the tourism sector’s requirements. The failure of many initiatives aimed at addressing the mismatch creates a need for empowering local communities to enable them to take the opportunities that tourism provides.
Practical implications
Least developed countries need to build on the lessons learned from the development of tourism in their local settings, and pursue strategies which bring hope, confidence and real benefits to the majority of the struggling population. This study gives an insight on how inter-sectoral linkages could be embraced among the strategies or means of reducing rampant poverty.
Originality/value
Linking local agricultural production to tourism has long been seen as a promising way to make tourism more economically inclusive. However, the use of value chain approach in studying the tourism-agriculture linkages for inclusive development, especially in the developing economies is not common. While employing Porter’s value chains analysis, this study provides insights into how local farmers can be incorporated in tourism food supply chains in an ethical and beneficial way.
An individual’s decision to support conservation efforts can be affected by personal attitudes. We interviewed 100 indigenous livestock farmers on Ehirovipuka and ≠Khoadi //Hôas communal conservancies in Namibia. As conservancy support groups work with farmers, there is a need to understand what influences farmer decisions to engage in ecotourism activities for livelihood. We evaluated cognitive characteristics of farmers and their attitudes toward 10 species of wildlife. Farmers had negative attitudes toward predators, more positive attitudes toward meat-producing species and a hornbill (Tockus sp.), and moderate attitudes toward African elephant (Loxodonta africana) and black rhino (Diceros bicornis), which can cause damage but also attract tourists. We show support for a partial mediation model in which cognitive characteristics of farmers predicted attitudes toward predators and damage animals. The attitudes toward these species, in turn, predicted participation in the ecotourism industry.
This study aimed to develop an ecotourism culture framework for Zimbabwe, which, when implemented by stakeholders, will resuscitate the country’s ecotourism industry. The authors propose that an ecotourism culture will assist Zimbabwean tourism managers to achieve the desired levels of ecotourism performance. Zimbabwe (a developing country situated in Southern Africa) has the potential to become a sought-after ecotourism destination, which will aid socio-economic development. An exploratory and interpretive research design with a qualitative approach was followed. The literature reviewed established the basic defining elements of an ecotourism culture, which were confirmed and expanded by conducting semi-structured and in-depth interviews with a sample group of ten ecotourism experts from Zimbabwe, who represented three managerial levels. Grounded theory was used as method to analyse the interview transcripts. The findings indicated that managers are aware of what an ecotourism culture should comprise, but acknowledged non-compliance, mainly due to a lack of leadership and uncertainty of guiding principles on all levels of implementation. An integrated managerial framework, using a tree as a metaphor for ecotourism, was developed. Five key strategies and supportive guiding principles to enable the implementation of an ecotourism culture on strategic and operational levels are discussed using the tree metaphor.
Ecotourism is frequently put forward as a potential solution for local development and biodiversity conservation in developing countries. Numerous researchers have looked at the various impacts of ecotourism on development and on conservation. There are, however, few studies looking at the role of stakeholders and the impact they are having on local development. We look specifically at the role of private sector stakeholders in local ecotourism development in southern Africa. We focus on one ecotourism operator, Wilderness Safaris, and our results are based on a desktop analysis of various reports, field work and data from a Ph.D. study looking at the socio-economic impact of private sector ecotourism on local communities. The results show that the private sector has an important role to play in local socio-economic development in terms of employment creation, skills training and development, the payment of lease fees as well as through philanthropic development projects. Recommendations are put forward as to how the private sector can further effect positive change in the areas where it is operating and ensure long-term sustainability.
In the recent past, the concept of ecotourism has been promoted in Tanzania as an alternative, low-impact form of tourism that supports conservation of natural resources, preserves local culture, and provides economic benefits to the communities. Existing evidence shows that Tanzania has not utilised most of its ecotourism potential. The actual amount of ecotourism activity in the country is highly localised and relatively minimal due to the following factors: accessibility problems in some protected areas, inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient marketing and promotion. There is a need for regulatory authorities to articulate clear policies, regulations, and guidelines that delineate strategies on how to implement ecotourism activities in most parts of Tanzania. Such strategies should describe how to increase accessibility of ecotourism benefits to local communities, increase local community participation, and elucidate better mechanisms of sharing revenues generated from ecotourism. Given the abundance and diversity of natural and cultural resources in Tanzania, there is still room for growth, particularly in the southern, eastern, and western tourism circuits.
Environmental degradation in Latin America has become one of the most pressing issues on the international agenda. The volume began to crescendo when space shuttle astronauts photographed five thousand fires on a single night in the Brazilian Amazon state of Rondonia in 1985, and grew shrill when rubbertapper Chico Mendes was shot in 1988 trying to stop ranchers from clearing rainforests near his home in Acre. Since the early 80s, we've heard pleas from rock star, environmental groups, and scientists, asking us to focus our attention on environmental destruction in Latin America-oil spills, lax NAFTA driven ecological standards, endangered indigenous cultures, and the destruction of the rainforests. This volume presents an overview of the pressing nature of these issues and the scope of the problems and seeks to focus our attention on environmental destruction in Latin America by examining several types of environmental crises in Latin American countries. With discussions of the World Bank, urban pollution, NAFTA, toxic pollution in maquiladoras, headline grabbing environmental disasters, drug trafficking, and the 1992 Rio Earth Conference, this book will be a must read for anyone interested in the future of Latin America or world ecology.
Thirty years ago, conservationists, host communities, academics, and tourism practitioners perceived ecotourism as a panacea to conservation and poverty problems in tourism destination areas, especially in developing countries. This paper, therefore, analyses the performance of ecotourism as a tool designed to achieve improved livelihoods and conservation in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. The concept of ecotourism is debated and the context used in this paper is explained. Secondary data from published and unpublished sources on ecotourism in Botswana and the Okavango Delta are used. Primary data were collected through informal interviews with key stakeholders to update secondary data. Results indicate that in its 30 years of existence in the Okavango Delta, ecotourism had mixed results. That is, it succeeded in some areas and failed in others. Where ecotourism succeeded, it generated economic benefits such as income and employment opportunities, leading to positive attitudes of residents towards ecotourism and conservation. Where ecotourism failed, the lack of entrepreneurship, and managerial and marketing skills of local communities are cited as some of the key factors contributing to the failure of projects. Despite the failure of particular projects, this paper argues that ecotourism has proved to be a tool that can be used to achieve improved livelihoods and conservation. However, this depends on the socio-economic and political dynamics of host communities in a specific ecotourism destination area.
This article assesses the role of good governance strategies in sustaining ecotourism. Using a qualitative method through exploratory research design, 18 good governance strategies that promote sustainable ecotourism were identified. Thereafter, a specific stakeholder survey (n = 250) was conducted in the eastern and northern tourist circuits in Tanzania. Through the discrete choice binary logit model, relationships between the identified strategies and specified ecotourism sustainability indicators were analysed by looking for the strategies that are more associated with each indicator. The findings show that sustainability of ecotourism in the country is mainly jeopardised by inadequate transparency, poor accountability practices and weak integration mechanisms between ecotourism operations and the country's development plans. As a result, poor governance has led to unproductive planning, inefficiencies and mismanagement of ecotourism resources. The study concluded by recommending accountability, transparency and integration between economic activities in order to ensure that ecotourism meets the needs of both current and future generations.
This study aims at assessing indicators of sustainable ecotourism in Tanzania. Using a survey approach, 250 ecotourism stakeholders from the eastern and northern tourist circuits were interviewed. Qualitative research design was applied due to unsubstantial prior knowledge of the subject matter. Eighteen indicators of sustainable ecotourism were assessed, including consumption rate of natural resources; refurbishment of damaged cultural sites; preservation and human settlement; community's awareness, reliable public services, skilled community; and products’ quality. The findings categorize the indicators of sustainable ecotourism into four dimensions of conservation of natural and cultural diversity, participation of stakeholders, and reliable infrastructure. A number of useful indicators and parameters which can be used during planning, monitoring, and decision-making of ecotourism activities have been suggested.
The objective of this article is to investigate the impact of cultural tourism on welfare as perceived by communities in rural Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. The survey, which involved 85 randomly selected households in five villages during 2013, was qualitatively analysed through quasi-statistics, domain analysis and narratology. The research findings confirmed that cultural tourism contributes significantly to improving the livelihoods of people. Its impact differed from one village to another but what they all had in common was their ability to get a reliable source of income, unlike in the past when they solely depended on selling their livestock or seasonal crops. After the introduction of cultural tourism in the area 10 years ago, local people noticed significant social progress, ranging from a rise in household income to gaining access to education and health facilities. However, a good number of residents have limited skills and professional knowledge coupled with a negative attitude to the industry. Therefore, this study underlines the importance of instituting training programmes at community level that will ultimately provide opportunities for local people to be employed in various tourist businesses.
The recent development in biodiversity conservation policy and the creation of protected areas in many developing countries have often brought about a conflict between local populations, their domestic government and development institutions. These policies have very often ignored the dependence of local communities on natural resources for their day-to-day lives and have contributed to their marginalization. The conservation of natural resources is closely linked to the sustainable development of rural communities. As a result, ecosystem conservation is not only important from an ecological point of view but also includes a dimension of equality and social justice. This article aims to explore the conditions that can enable the integration of conservation objectives with those of rural development. The Sariska Reserve presents an example of a successful community based on conservation initiative. The study of these local communities, their integration with forest ecosystem and their management and conservation system of natural resources, represents a case-in-point for the conception of new conservation approaches.
Purpose
The objective of this study is to estimate leakages in tourism systems. More precisely, the study aims to investigate the sources of the annual requirements in the resorts and to identify the triggers for leakages in tourism systems in Zanzibar. It then seeks to explore the challenges that operators face when sourcing the inputs locally. Likewise the study seeks to trace the distribution channel of the tourists arriving in Zanzibar from generating markets.
Design/methodology/approach
Interviews involving 150 resorts were conducted during 2010 in the island of Unguja, where almost 97 percent of Zanzibar's resorts are found. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis were employed.
Findings
The findings reveal massive internal (import‐coefficient leakages) and external leakages that only 16 percent of the resort requirements are sourced within Zanzibar. Unreliable capacity in terms of quantity and quality of the local supplies are among the leading factors that trigger high leakages. Most resorts in Zanzibar are owned, managed and operated by non‐locals. Tourism in this archipelago is revolving around the beach product; whereby the direct charter inclusive tourists, mainly from Europe, dictate the tourism channels. Nevertheless, a number of tourists buy pre‐arranged tours to Zanzibar as an “add‐on” to their mainland Tanzania safaris.
Practical implications
This study lays out the case for the need for more local linkages in the supply chain by revealing the extent to which the accommodation sector depends upon imported as opposed to local goods and services. Practical strategies to minimize leakages are proposed.
Originality/value
An abundance of literature has been written on linkages and leakages in tourism in several destinations. The same amount of work has yet to be done in sub‐Saharan Africa. The choice of Zanzibar is therefore justified.
The Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program in Botswana aims at achieving conservation and rural development. In the Okavango Delta, some communities are involved in tourism through CBNRM to improve their livelihoods. However, research has not adequately analyzed changes caused by CBNRM on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. This study, therefore, uses modernization theory to analyze changes on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles caused by CBNRM at Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai villages in the Okavango Delta. Using primary and secondary data sources, results indicate that CBNRM is causing a decline in traditional livelihood activities like subsistence hunting, gathering, crop and livestock farming. As a result, a modern cash economy has emerged. New livelihood activities done by communities include: employment in CBNRM projects, the sale of crafts to tourists and thatching grass to tourism lodges. Income derived from CBNRM affords households to build modern houses, buy foreign foods and household equipment like: four-burner gas stoves, kitchen utensils, and satellite televisions. Conversely, this causes a decline in the consumption of traditional foods and the use of huts and household utensils. CBNRM is thus a modernization tool since it is causing a transformation of traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. However, even though changes in livelihood activities and lifestyles may be an indication of the dynamism of culture in study villages, sudden change and modernization may increase livelihood insecurity. As such, tourism planning should ensure that modernization is sensitive to traditional economic systems and the need for rural livelihood sustainability.
For over four decades, the Balearic Archipelago has experienced excessive pressure from tourism activities on its resource. Using a case approach, this article focuses on three networks that promote ecotourism in the Balearics. Alcúdia Network is recognised for its actions on environmental education and training programmes, management of wastes, and traffic and noise control. Similarly, the Network of Sustainable Hotels of the Balearic promotes green environments in the hotel establishments and serves as an engine of sustainable development. Network of Calvià focuses on indigenous development through ensuring active participation of hosts, control of tourism quality, and sustainable use of resources. The study also identifies the measures used to promote ecotourism in the Balearics including special laws for Natural Areas of Special Interest and Rural Areas of Landscape Interest, taxes, green cards, and sustainable discounts. Yet, ecotourism as a primary product in these Islands has not been in high demand. Ecotourism operations could spread throughout if the networks could be formed all over the Islands. However, developing networks costs time and material resources, but makes the destination more attractive; therefore, stakeholders should look at the resources incurred as investment. Finally, ecotourism can be practical if stakeholders avoid politicising the ecological policies.
Many ecotourism proponents advocate certification as a means to distinguish legitimate ecotourism from counterfeit ‘greenwashed’ products. This paper discusses efforts by certification advocates operating in global arenas to generate standards for measuring compliance with one dimension of widely accepted definitions of ecotourism, the stipulation that it should provide benefits to local communities. The paper then presents an ethnographic case study from Belize that reveals disagreements among ecotourism stakeholders in Belize and between them and international experts about the meaning of several key terms: who should count as ‘local’, what should count as ‘participation’ by locals, and what constitutes a ‘benefit’ to local communities. The author argues that divergent perspectives on these issues must be recognised and accommodated in the process of harmonising or standardising certification criteria for ecotourism; failure to do that could imperil both the principled and pragmatic rationales behind the requirement that ecotourism provide benefits to local communities.
One of the fastest growing sectors of the tourism business is nature-oriented tourism. The travel industry has enlisted the support of environmental organizations and park agencies and is promoting nature travel as the hottest "environmentally correct" activity available. But is ecotourism the panacea these promoters claim? The author argues that ecotourism really means environmentally sound tourism. The definition must be sufficiently rigorous to create a goal that challenges tour operators, park officials, and the traveling public. The definitions in popular use are too lax and may foster the false idea that a trip or tour is environmentally benign when in fact it is destructive of the local, regional, and global environments. The solution is to establish a 0-5 scale to classify the stages of ecotourism, much like the difficulty scales used to classify whitewater rafting or technical climbing. The author proposes preliminary criteria for defining the Ecotourism Level (EL) of different stages in the greening of the travel system.
The land management practices of pastoralist Maasai communities have a major bearing on landscapes and wildlife habitats in northern Tanzania and play a key role in maintaining habitat for one of the world's most spectacular assemblages of terrestrial large mammals. Pastoralists manage lands according to locally devised rules designed to manage and conserve key resources such as pastures and water sources. Dry season grazing reserves are an important part of traditional land management systems in many pastoralist communities, providing a ‘grass bank’ for livestock to consume during the long dry season when forage invariably becomes scarce and domestic animals are stressed for water and nutrients. Because of the scale and importance of northern Tanzania's wildlife-based tourism industry, and its indirect dependence on communal lands under the authority of pastoralists, these land use practices have an important economic dimension. By conserving large proportions of northern Tanzania's wildlife ecosystems, local pastoralist communities collectively make an important contribution to the national and regional economy. Using data regarding the degree to which wildlife depends on pastoralist lands in different ecosystems, and the relative importance of different areas in terms of generating revenue for the northern safari circuit, the annual value of pastoralist land uses to the wildlife-based tourism industry in northern Tanzania is estimated at approximately US $83.5 million. The economic value of pastoralists' contribution to wildlife conservation highlights the importance of Tanzanian policies in land, livestock, tourism, and wildlife sectors prioritizing measures that promote communal rangeland management and support traditional land use practices.
The fences-and-fines approach (the American National Park model) to wildlife protection is now perceived by many conservationists to have failed in Africa. An alternative approach whereby rural communities are given ownership rights or custodianship and management responsibilities for the resource has been introduced under the name Community-based Wildlife Management (CWM) (also known as Community-Based Conservation or CBC). This new approach is currently under experimentation in many parts of Africa. It is based on a number of assumptions, one being that the communities are interested and willing to conserve wildlife on their lands. Using the Selous Conservation Programme (SCP) in Tanzania and seven other African cases, this paper examines the plausibility of this assumption.
The impact of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) is seen by many as a ‘win-win’ situation with reference to natural resources conservation and the improvement of local communities' livelihoods. However, community engagements in CBNRM and tourism have elicited many views as far as natural resources utilization is concerned. Some affirm the importance of CBNRM; others question it, while others call for its improvement. The premise of this study is to investigate the benefits and challenges of community-based tourism in one community of Botswana. Results show that although some benefits have been identified, there remain many challenges for the Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust (KRST). It is evident that for community-based tourism to bring more benefits for locals, more interaction is needed between them and the Trust management. Increased local involvement and participation will help to ensure that people are empowered and the conservation of natural resources takes place. This paper asserts that community-based ventures, if properly run and managed, can promote the conservation of natural resources and increase local benefits through participation in tourism activities.
Linkages at tourism destinations: Challenges in Zanzibar
- W Anderson
- S Juma
Anderson, W., & Juma, S. (2011). Linkages at tourism destinations: Challenges in
Zanzibar, ARA Journal of Tourism Research, 3 (1), 27-41.
Challenges of ecotourism and poverty alleviation in South Africa
- P Mnini
- T Ramoroka
Mnini, P., & Ramoroka, T. (2020). Challenges of ecotourism and poverty alleviation in
South Africa. International Journal of Economics and Finance Studies, 12 (2), 184-197.
People and parks: Linking protected area management with local communities
- M Wells
- K Bradon
Wells, M., & Bradon, K. (1992). People and parks: Linking protected area management with
local communities. Washington, DC: World Bank.