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Environmental Messages Promote Plant-Based Food Choices: An Online Restaurant Menu Study
Abstract
Food production accounts for a quarter of all greenhouse gases, making shifting people’s diets toward lower carbon foods a critical strategy for reducing emissions. This study finds that displaying thoughtfully framed environmental messages on restaurant menus can significantly increase customers' uptake of lower carbon, plant-rich dishes. WRI finds that the two most effective descriptive messages doubled the chance that a consumer would order a vegetarian menu item. These themes are “small changes can make a big difference” and “join a movement of people choosing foods with less impact on the climate.” Restaurants and food businesses should use these findings to increase sales of lower carbon menu items while helping consumers choose foods that fit a climate-friendly lifestyle. While the WRI study was done online with more than 6,000 participants, the findings can be adapted and tailored to a wide variety of retail and food service contexts. More research and real-world learnings will further our base of knowledge. This study, however, shows that adding environmental messaging can be an easy, cost-effective and promising way for companies to see impact and shift consumer choices toward more climate-friendly options.
... Among the most prominent trends shaping food markets are the increase in online sales and the growing concerns about the food system's sustainability (Blondin et al., 2022;Mitzner, 2022). Online retailers have broadly adopted personalization and persuasive practices to influence their customers' purchases. ...
... However, the effect of providing emissions information on sustainable consumption is contested. Although several reviews indicate that providing environmental information about food consumption can have statistically significant effects, there is a lack of experimental evidence, and most of the literature relies on self-reporting (Blondin et al., 2022;Grundy et al., 2021;Hoek et al., 2021). Some reviews on the effects of sustainability information on actual consumer behavior have reported significant, albeit small effects on the consumption of sustainable food (Blondin et al., 2022;Harguess et al., 2020;Potter et al., 2021), while others fail to find significant effects (Nisa et al., 2019). ...
... Although several reviews indicate that providing environmental information about food consumption can have statistically significant effects, there is a lack of experimental evidence, and most of the literature relies on self-reporting (Blondin et al., 2022;Grundy et al., 2021;Hoek et al., 2021). Some reviews on the effects of sustainability information on actual consumer behavior have reported significant, albeit small effects on the consumption of sustainable food (Blondin et al., 2022;Harguess et al., 2020;Potter et al., 2021), while others fail to find significant effects (Nisa et al., 2019). On the other hand, a lack of knowledge about the environmental effects of food seems to be a particularly large problem for making climate-friendly food choices. ...
... These studies range from simply providing information to customers about the impacts of their food choices, manipulating the presentation of options on a menu, and removing meat options on an occasional or permanent basis. However, much of this research has only occurred either as online or lab-based studies (Blondin et al. 2022;Osman and Thornton 2019; Attwood, Chesworth, and Parkin 2020;Vaan, Steen, and Müller 2019; Krpan and Houtsma 2020;Bacon and Krpan 2018) or has been implemented in university dining hall settings Turnwald, Boles, and Crum 2017;Garnett et al. 2019;Friis et al. 2017;Brunner et al. 2018;Spencer et al. 2018). ...
... Nudge Force intervention provides information intervention removes options intervention manipulates options Descriptive Environmental Messaging (Blondin et al. 2022;Sparkman et al. 2020) Symbolic Environmental Messaging (Carbon Labeling) Filimonau et al. 2017;Osman and Thornton 2019) Appealing Menu Language (Vennard, Park, and Attwood 2018;Turnwald, Boles, and Crum 2017) Choice Architecture (Bacon and Krpan 2018) Increase Plant-Rich Menu Options Reduce the Amount of Meat in a Dish (Reinders et al. 2020) Default Plant-Rich Menu w/ Option to Add Meat (Campbell-Arvai, Arvai, and Kalof 2014;Hansen, Schilling, and Malthesen 2019) Eliminate Meat from the Menu (Anderson and Gross 2021) One "Plant-Rich Day" per Week (Atwood et al. 2020) 26 27 edit food choices for the customer, whether through taxes, bans, and raising prices (Wellesley, Happer, and Froggatt 2015). ...
... Descriptive environmental messaging uses simple language to inform consumers about the environmental impact of a given product, in this case, meat consumption's impact on climate change (Blondin et al. 2022). This messaging provides information that customers can consider when ordering, but it can also indirectly influence customers by activating positive associations they have with environmentally friendly attributes (Blondin et al. 2022). ...
Widespread adoption of plant-rich diets is a key climate change mitigation strategy. Restaurants are one of many environments where diets must shift toward more sustainable directions. Researchers have studied behavior change strategies in these contexts, including information provision and choice architecture. However, few have been tested in the field, and the literature has under-addressed the barriers restaurants face in implementation. Additionally, the designs of these interventions have rarely been informed by the restaurant stakeholders who will be enacting the intervention, nor by the customers affected by the intervention, which may lower the probability of its acceptance and success. Integrative designers are uniquely positioned to address these shortcomings. They examine broader systems at play, identify opportunities to change the system, skillfully create artifacts to support those opportunities, and deeply collaborate with stakeholders throughout research and implementation. This work implemented a series of design interventions in collaboration with El Harissa, an independent restaurant in Ann Arbor, Michigan, to increase the selection of low-carbon, plant-rich dishes as a climate change mitigation measure. The design practitioner engaged with the restaurant’s owners, staff, and customers in a five-phase design process integrating Design for Sustainable Behavior and Co-Design. Three behavior change strategies were integrated into custom menu materials: descriptive environmental messaging, carbon labeling, and taste-forward menu descriptions. Preliminary results from the two-week piloting of these materials indicate that the average emissions per sold dish declined by two percent compared to the control period. In-field observations by the design practitioner and restaurant manager found that the carbon labels prompted positive conversations between customers and staff, highlighting the synergies between quantitative and interpersonal approaches to shift customer behavior. Potential future applications of this design process include additional iterations of carbon labeling visual systems and exploring additional behavior change strategies to support sustainable food choices in restaurant contexts.
... Consumers choosing to adopt the proposed substitutions would see substantial reductions in their personal dietary carbon footprint, ranging from 8% reductions from milk and dairy or beverage substitutions to >50% reductions from protein or mixed-dish substitutions. Previous research suggests the promise of messaging interventions emphasizing that small dietary changes can have meaningful environmental impacts 41,42 . These messaging interventions could leverage our results, for example, by including quantitative information about how much individuals could reduce their personal carbon footprint by adopting these dietary substitutions. ...
... Article https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-023-00864-0 (for example, when selecting a restaurant meal or checking out at the grocery store) could persuade them to adopt the targeted dietary substitutions 41,[47][48][49][50][51] . Another approach that would rely less on individual consumer interest in these substitutions would be to change the physical environment, for example, by making the lower-carbon-impact substitute the default option in restaurants or cafeterias 52,53 , increasing the availability of lower-carbon-impact foods and beverages relative to the high-carbon-impact foods [54][55][56][57][58] , and implementing changes to institutional procurement policies 59,60 . ...
Changing what foods we eat could reduce environmental harms and improve human health, but sweeping dietary change is challenging. We used dietary intake data from a nationally representative sample of 7,753 US children and adults to identify simple, actionable dietary substitutions from higher- to lower-carbon foods (for example, substituting chicken for beef in mixed dishes such as burritos, but making no other changes to the diet). We simulated the potential impact of these substitutions on dietary carbon emissions and dietary quality. If all consumers who ate the high-carbon foods instead consumed a lower-carbon substitute, the total dietary carbon footprint in the United States would be reduced by more than 35%. Moreover, if adopted, these substitutions would improve consumers’ overall dietary quality by 4–10%, with benefits projected for all age, gender, and racial and ethnic groups. These results suggest that a ‘small changes’ approach could be a valuable starting point for addressing diet’s impact on climate and health.
... For the future development of a profitable plant-based diet market, there must be active public-and private-sector investment into the research and development of new technologies (63); removal of legal barriers (86); a shift in professional mindsets, practices, and business models (37); and the application of policies that will change macroenvironmental factors (61). For example, retailers, restaurants, and food service providers can combine choice-architecture and marketing-mix strategies synergistically to nudge people to select plant-rich, sustainable diets or planetary health diets as the default and desirable choice (15,107). Choice-architecture and nudge strategies may change food environments to be healthy and environmentally and socially sustainable, but also must align with business strategies and economic incentives to be economically sustainable. ...
The future of plant-based diets is a complex public health issue inextricably linked to planetary health. Shifting the world's population to consume nutrient-rich, plant-based diets is among the most impactful strategies to transition to sustainable food systems to feed 10 billion people by 2050. This review summarizes how international expert bodies define sustainable diets and food systems and describes types of sustainable dietary patterns. It also explores how the type and proportion of plant-versus animal-source foods and alternative proteins relate to sustainable diets to reduce diet-related morbidity and mortality. Thereafter, we synthesize evidence for current challenges and actions needed to achieve plant-based sustainable dietary patterns using a conceptual framework with principles to promote human health, ecological health, social equity, and economic prosperity. We recommend strategies for governments, businesses, and civil society to encourage marketplace choices that lead to plant-rich sustainable diets within healthy, equitable, and resilient agroecological food systems. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-060722-032021
... 37 Others see that messaging needs to combine factors of environmental, health, marketing, and psychology into promoting alternatives that satisfy the dominant omnivore's expectations. [38][39][40] There is a complex change facing our society in shifting food behavior; however, understanding these challenging and multifaceted influences can perhaps create improved health and environmental outcomes. By understanding the prior research and current market trends, we can begin to examine and explore the elements driving more plant-based consumption and how these elements are connected. ...
As the current literature and media continue to focus on the role of the production and consumption of animals within the food system, awareness of the devastating health, animal welfare, and environmental outcomes increases. With the omnivore majority present in the US, there is a compelling narrative forming in shifting away from a predominant animal product-focused consumption to more plant-based eating. While ample research has focused on individual psychology and public health elements of diet change, this research provides a novel lens into the social, cultural, and financial factors to unpack the mechanisms of change across the food system. This analysis offers a comprehensive examination of the challenges of an animal-centric food system and the benefits of a plant-based food system. From this understanding, we provide insight into several concepts for why change is occurring. To gain a better understanding of potential drivers, catalysts, and barriers of this plant-based shift, 33 leaders, innovators, and educators connected to the plant-based industry were interviewed. The analysis concludes that the drivers are multifaceted and interconnected and provide the potential for positive societal transformation. This research can be utilized to better aid businesses, organizations, policies, healthcare practitioners, and educational efforts around this transition.
... Reports in the literature note that the uneven distribution of trade losses associated with BCAs could induce competitiveness losses in specific geographical regions (Zhong and Pei, 2022 [134]). Developing countries may be most affected by this, considering their high exposure to trade and potential higher emission intensities (Blandford and Hassapoyannes, 2018 [136]; Eicke et al., 2021 [125]). To take account of the development priorities of these countries and in line with the principle of common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC), governments implementing BCAs may adopt exemptions for least developed and/or other developing countries (Carbon Market Watch, 2021 [137]; OECD, 2020 [50]). ...
Governments in many countries are pursuing higher environmental goals for agriculture. However, in an interconnected world, the unilateral adoption of environmental policies for agriculture can reduce the producers’ competitiveness and induce pollution leakage. This report analyses these challenges and discusses policy solutions, focusing on two examples: climate change mitigation policies and policies limiting the environmental impacts of pesticides. The extent of competitiveness and leakage effects is found to depend on market conditions, differences in pollution intensity, and the type of environmental policy adopted. Two policy routes are identified to improve agriculture’s environmental performance while maintaining the benefits of global markets. The first route relies on “direct” environmental policies, such as market-based instruments or regulations, which are rapidly effective in limiting environmental impacts but may require additional complementary policies to limit their potential competitiveness and leakage impacts. The second route involves alternative policies acting on agricultural supply, demand, or through private sector engagement, which limit competitiveness and leakage impacts but may require time to be environmentally effective.
... Examples of RPM reduction and replacement policies include: i) updating national FBDGs to align with RPM targets; ii) reducing RPM products served in public institutions that align with revised school meal standards for children; iii) taxing RPM products and redirecting red meat subsidies to increase the production of fruits and vegetables, legumes, nuts and healthy alternative protein products; and iv) implementing media campaigns that promote healthy and sustainable diets (Wilde et al., 2019; WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2021a). Many current strategies used in different settings include reducing portions to standard serving sizes of sustainably produced meats, redesigning menus and recipes with plant-rich, alternative proteins, menu labelling and point-of-sale prompting to communicate the benefits of plant-rich products (Bianchi et al., 2018;Blondin et al., 2022;Stiles, Collins and Beck, 2022). ...
The G20 is an intergovernmental and multilateral platform comprised of 19 countries and the European Union, which connects prosperous high-income and emerging middle-income countries worldwide. The G20 process could prioritize food systems to address climate change challenges. For this paper, the research team reviewed the G20 countries' recommendations in national food-based dietary guidelines (FBDGs) for red and processed meat (RPM) compared with available per capita consumption data and expert-recommended targets to promote healthy and sustainable food systems. The results reveal that Indonesia, India and Saudi Arabia have the least red meat available for consumption (less than 10 kilograms (kg) per person per year). Other G20 countries exceed the recommended red meat target of less than or equal to 26 kg per person per year. Sixteen G20 countries have translated their national guidelines into FBDG food graphics for the public. Twelve G20 countries recommend that people limit their RPM daily or weekly to reduce cancer and heart disease risks. Australia, France, Italy, Mexico and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland align RPM targets with recommendations to limit cooked red meat intake to three or fewer servings (350-500 grams) a week. Six G20 countries (Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Italy and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland) recommend minimally processed, plant-rich food choices or environmentally sustainable dietary patterns. The G20 meetings in Indonesia (2022), India (2023) and Brazil (2024) should prioritize and harmonize healthy and sustainable food system policies with international trade policies to mitigate climate change effects and manage sustainability trade-offs. "The G20 are some of the biggest economies on the planet-what they do will make or break the world's ability to tackle the climate crisis. They must listen to the voices of their people, especially their future generations, who will inherit the consequences of actions-or inactions-of G20 leaders." UNDP and Oxford University (2021b)
... In fact, in 2022, the World Resources Institute conducted a multi-stage online experiment which tested sustainability-themed messaging on menus. These results suggested that displaying thoughtfully framed environmental messages on restaurant menus could help to nudge diners to order more vegetarian meals (Blondin et al., 2022). ...
This randomised online experiment aimed to investigate how eco-labelling and social nudging influenced sustainable food choice, as well as consider the effect of motivation to act sustainably. Participants were UK adults ≥18 years ( n = 1399). Participants were asked to choose a hypothetical meal (beef, chicken or vegetarian burrito) and were randomly allocated to one of three conditions varying in labelling: eco-labelling; social nudge or control (no label). Co-primary outcomes were the frequency that the vegetarian and chicken burritos were chosen (i.e., the more sustainable food choices). There was evidence that more vegetarian (OR = 3.3 [95% CI 2.0, 5.3]) and chicken (OR = 2.5 [95% CI 1.8, 3.4]) burrito choices were made in the eco-label condition, over the beef burrito, compared to the control condition. In the social nudge condition, there was evidence that participants chose a vegetarian burrito over a beef burrito (OR = 1.7 [95% CI 1.1, 2.7]), but not a vegetarian burrito over a chicken burrito (OR = 1.4 [95% CI 0.9, 2.2]). Although both labels were effective at promoting participants to make more sustainable food choices, the eco-label was the most effective. Choice of burrito was modified by motivation to act sustainably across all conditions. This study suggests that future policy could include eco-labelling and/or a social nudge to reduce meat consumption and meet global climate change targets.
Diners increasingly say they want to eat healthier, more sustainable diets. But it can be hard to change old habits. WRI’s "Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices" gives food service operators the latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes.
This handbook presents a must-read, comprehensive and state of the art overview of sustainable diets, an issue critical to the environment and the health and well-being of society.
Sustainable diets seek to minimise and mitigate the significant negative impact food production has on the environment. Simultaneously they aim to address worrying health trends in food consumption through the promotion of healthy diets that reduce premature disability, disease and death. Within the Routledge Handbook of Sustainable Diets, creative, compassionate, critical, and collaborative solutions are called for across nations, across disciplines and sectors. In order to address these wide-ranging issues the volume is split into sections dealing with environmental strategies, health and well-being, education and public engagement, social policies and food environments, transformations and food movements, economics and trade, design and measurement mechanisms and food sovereignty. Comprising of contributions from up and coming and established academics, the handbook provides a global, multi-disciplinary assessment of sustainable diets, drawing on case studies from regions across the world. The handbook concludes with a call to action, which provides readers with a comprehensive map of strategies that could dramatically increase sustainability and help to reverse global warming, diet related non-communicable diseases, and oppression and racism.
This decisive collection is essential reading for students, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers concerned with promoting sustainable diets and thus establishing a sustainable food system to ensure access to healthy and nutritious food for all.
Inspiring sustainable diets and cultivating diets that are inspiring are the ambitious endeavours of this collection. This introductory chapter lays out a framework for sustainable diets and the complex issues, diversity of stakeholders, and diversity of levels of privilege (or the obvious, and not so obvious, ways injustices intersect with food systems) that are involved. This chapter offers a definition of sustainable diets and touches on strategies for increasing healthy food for all while preserving and rebuilding local, regional, and international food systems inspired by principles of rejuvenation, justice, vitality, and optimising resources for the betterment of all life forms, in current and future generations.
У цій статті розглянуто важливу тему впливу культури споживання на навколишнє середовище та можливості скорочення проявів негативних ефектів виробництва їжі на клімат та ресурси. Досліджено статистичні дані, що підтверджують зростання обсягів викидів парникових газів у результаті виробництва продуктів тваринного походження. Здійснено обґрунтування важливості кардинальних змін у технологіях тваринництва та моделях харчування, які сприятимуть зменшенню викидів та здійснення негативного впливу на довкілля. Зокрема, у статті розглянуто можливості поведінкової економіки у формуванні звичок споживання «еко-продуктів» та наголошено на важливості змін у поведінці домогосподарств. Спеціальна увага приділена впливу інформаційних повідомлень на вибір споживача у ресторанних меню, які спрямовані на стимулювання споживачів ухвалювати «еко-рішення» та вибирати страви рослинного походження. Дослідження вказує на потенціал зміни споживчих звичок через інформаційні повідомлення та підштовхування до певних дій. Наприклад, описується, що учасники, які переглядали меню з такими «підштовхуючими» повідомленнями, частіше обирали вегетаріанські страви, порівняно з тими, хто переглядав меню без них. Деякі з повідомлень, такі як «маленькі зміни, великий вплив» та «приєднання до руху», майже подвоїли кількість вегетаріанських страв, які були замовлені, і стимулювали більше їх вживати навіть у майбутньому. Дослідження підтверджує, наскільки суттєво можна стимулювати зміну споживчих звичок та прийняття раціональних рішень, використовуючи просте та акцентоване інформування. Поведінкові підштовхування (наджинг) може допомогти формувати нові звички та спонукати людей до зміни поведінки в контексті споживання, що має важливе значення для збереження навколишнього середовища для майбутніх поколінь і сталого розвитку.
The article analyzes the impact of modern livestock farming and established humanfood preferences on human health and the environment. The prerequisites for the manufacturing of plant-based products and its development prospects in Russia, including the formation of an industry regulatory framework, are outlined. he issue is considered in the context of achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals, primarily Goal 2 (Zero hunger, ensure food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture) and Goal 12 (Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns).
Agriculture and land use are major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions but previous estimates were either highly aggregate or provided spatial details for subsectors obtained via different methodologies. Using a model–data integration approach that ensures full consistency between subsectors, we provide spatially explicit estimates of production- and consumption-based GHG emissions worldwide from plant- and animal-based human food in circa 2010. Global GHG emissions from the production of food were found to be 17,318 ± 1,675 TgCO2eq yr−1, of which 57% corresponds to the production of animal-based food (including livestock feed), 29% to plant-based foods and 14% to other utilizations. Farmland management and land-use change represented major shares of total emissions (38% and 29%, respectively), whereas rice and beef were the largest contributing plant- and animal-based commodities (12% and 25%, respectively), and South and Southeast Asia and South America were the largest emitters of production-based GHGs. The quantification of greenhouse gas emissions related to food production and consumption is still largely hindered by the availability of spatial data consistent across sectors. This study provides a detailed account of emissions from land-use change, farmland, livestock and activities beyond the farm gate associated with plant- and animal-based foods/diets—culminating in local-, country- and global-level emissions from each major agricultural commodity.
Recent research in the US shows the potential of providing information about minority norms that are increasing on positively influencing interest and engagement in desired behaviours. Although these are promising findings, there is little published research replicating or testing this effect outside the US. The study reported here is a direct replication of Sparkman and Walton’s (2017) research. We explored the effects of different kinds of normative information, particularly information about increasing (referred to as ‘dynamic’ or ‘trending’) minority norms, on interest in reducing meat consumption, attitudes toward reducing meat consumption, intentions to reduce meat consumption, and expectations to do so. Following pilot work (n = 197), we used a double-blind online study with three conditions: dynamic norm (n = 276), static norm (n = 284), and no norm (n = 286). The sample consisted of British people, with ages ranging from 18 to 79 (Mage = 37.21, SDage = 13.58; 56.38% female). There was no effect of dynamic norm information on any outcomes, including predictions about future meat consumption norms. Exploratory analyses suggest that political position and gender were associated with meat consumption outcomes. The findings are discussed in relation to conditions under which dynamic normative information may be successful in influencing motivation to engage in desired behaviours, and to possible improvements in research design.
Quantified global scenarios and projections are used to assess long-term future global food security under a range of socio-economic and climate change scenarios. Here, we conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis to assess the range of future global food security projections to 2050. We reviewed 57 global food security projection and quantitative scenario studies that have been published in the past two decades and discussed the methods, underlying drivers, indicators and projections. Across five representative scenarios that span divergent but plausible socio-economic futures, the total global food demand is expected to increase by 35% to 56% between 2010 and 2050, while population at risk of hunger is expected to change by −91% to +8% over the same period. If climate change is taken into account, the ranges change slightly (+30% to +62% for total food demand and −91% to +30% for population at risk of hunger) but with no statistical differences overall. The results of our review can be used to benchmark new global food security projections and quantitative scenario studies and inform policy analysis and the public debate on the future of food.
This study examines the relative importance of social norms among other motives in driving sustainable food choice. It distinguishes between injunctive and descriptive social norms, as well as between reported actual choice and intended future choice. The study uses binary logistic regression models and survey data (N=348) from five workplace restaurants in Helsinki, Finland where a novel, local and environmentally friendly dish, roach fish patties, was being launched. Workplace restaurants account for a significant share of food consumption in Finland and are a relevant context for investigating the impact of social norms as the food choice is highly observable. The study reveals that perceived descriptive norms are significantly associated with both actual and intended food choice while perceived injunctive social norms are not related to either. It also finds that in the case of actual choice, the impact of perceived descriptive norms is weaker compared to that of other motives, such as habit, visual appeal, value for money, and ability to satiate hunger. In the case of intended choice, only taste has a stronger impact than the descriptive norm. Further, the analysis situates the motives for food choice in the larger theoretical discussion of System 1 and 2 decision processes and of the impact of visceral factors on food choice, and finds that visceral-factor-related motives have a stronger impact on actual choice than on intended choice. The study shows how the role of social norms in sustainable food choice is more nuanced than presented in previous literature. It concludes that there can be scope for steering food choice towards greater sustainability through a skilled mobilization of descriptive norms.
This review assessed the effects of environmental labels on consumers’ demand for more sustainable food products. Six electronic databases were searched for experimental studies of ecolabels and food choices. We followed standard Cochrane methods and results were synthesized using vote counting. Fifty-six studies ( N = 42,768 participants, 76 interventions) were included. Outcomes comprised selection ( n = 14), purchase ( n = 40) and consumption ( n = 2). The ecolabel was presented as text ( n = 36), logo ( n = 13) or combination ( n = 27). Message types included: organic ( n = 25), environmentally sustainable ( n = 27), greenhouse gas emissions ( n = 17), and assorted “other” message types ( n = 7). Ecolabels were tested in actual ( n = 15) and hypothetical ( n = 41) environments. Thirty-nine studies received an unclear or high RoB rating. Sixty comparisons favored the intervention and 16 favored control. Ecolabeling with a variety of messages and formats was associated with the selection and purchase of more sustainable food products.
Food choices are difficult to change. People’s individual motivations (such as taste, cost, and food preferences) can be at odds with the negative environmental outcomes of their food choices (such as deforestation, water pollution, and climate change). How then can people be encouraged to adopt more sustainable food choices? This rapid review uses a dual-processing framework of decision-making to structure an investigation of the effectiveness of interventions to encourage sustainable food choices (e.g., local and organic food consumption, reducing meat and dairy intake, reducing food waste) via voluntary behavior change. The review includes interventions that rely on fast, automatic decision-making processes (e.g., nudging) and interventions that rely on more deliberate decision-making (e.g., information provision). These interventions have varying degrees of success in terms of encouraging sustainable food choices. This mini-review outlines some of the ways in which our understanding of sustainable food choices could be enhanced. This includes a call for the inclusion of possible moderators and mediators (past behavior, attitudes, beliefs, values) as part of effect measurements, because these elucidate the mechanisms by which behavior change occurs. In light of the climate change challenge, studies that include long-term effect measurements are essential as these can provide insight on how to foster sustained and durable changes.
There is a growing consensus that reducing excess meat consumption will be necessary to meet climate change targets, whilst also benefitting people’s health. Strategies aimed at encouraging reduced meat consumption also have the potential to promote additional pro-environmental behaviors through behavioral spillover, which can be catalyzed through an increased pro-environmental identity. Based on this, the current study tested the effectiveness of a randomized two-week messaging intervention on reducing red and processed meat consumption and encouraging pro-environmental behavioral spillover. Participants were undergraduate students in the United Kingdom (n = 320 at baseline) randomly allocated to four conditions in which they received information about the health, environmental, or combined (health and environmental) impacts of meat consumption, and a no-message control. The results showed that receiving information on the health and/or environmental impacts of meat was effective in reducing red and processed meat consumption compared to the control group during the intervention period, with some effects remaining one-month later. However, the intervention did not have any effect on pro-environmental identity and there was little evidence of behavioral spillover. Implications for future research and interventions aimed at reducing meat consumption are discussed.
Extensive land uses to meet dietary preferences incur a ‘carbon opportunity cost’ given the potential for carbon sequestration through ecosystem restoration. Here we map the magnitude of this opportunity, finding that shifts in global food production to plant-based diets by 2050 could lead to sequestration of 332–547 GtCO2, equivalent to 99–163% of the CO2 emissions budget consistent with a 66% chance of limiting warming to 1.5 °C. Shifting global food production to plant-based diets by 2050 can sequester 99–163% of the CO2 emissions budget towards limiting climate warming to 1.5 °C.
Demand-side policies for mitigating climate change based on behavioral insights are gaining increased attention in research and practice. Here we describe a systematic map that catalogues existing research on behaviorally informed interventions targeting changes in consumer food consumption and food waste behavior. The purpose is to gain an overview of research foci and gaps, providing an evidence base for deeper analysis. In terms of food consumption, we focus on animal protein (meat, fish, dairy, and eggs) and its substitutes. The map follows the standards for evidence synthesis from the Collaboration for Environmental Evidence (CEE) as well as the RepOrting Standards for Systematic Evidence Syntheses (ROSES). We identified 49 articles including 56 separate studies, as well as 18 literature reviews. We find a variety of study designs with a focus on canteen and restaurant studies as well as a steep increase of publications since 2016. We create an interactive evidence atlas that plots these studies across geographical space. Here, we find a concentration of research in the Anglo-Saxon world. Most studies follow multi-intervention designs and focus on actual food consumption behavior, fewer on food waste behavior. We identify knowledge clusters amenable for a systematic review focusing on the effectiveness of these interventions, namely: priming, disclosure, defaults, social norms, micro-environment changes, and ease of use. The systematic map highlights knowledge gaps, where more primary research is needed and evidence cannot support policy; it identifies knowledge clusters, where sufficient studies exist but there is a lack of clarity over effectiveness, and so full synthesis can be conducted rapidly; finally, it reveals patterns in research methods that can highlight best practices and issues with methodology that can support the improvement of primary evidence production and mitigation of research waste. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic study mapping this specific area.
How can we curb the current norm of unsustainable levels of meat consumption? Research on dynamic norms finds that learning that others are starting to eat less meat can inspire people to follow suit. Across four field experiments, we test efforts to scale dynamic-norm messages by incorporating them into restaurant and web-based menus. Studies 1–3 find increases in vegetarian orders when dynamic norms are included in menus (1–2.5 percentage points), although this effect does not always reach statistical significance and varies across populations and analytic models. In Study 4, dynamic norms significantly reduced vegetarian orders. These results raise two critical questions. First, where and with whom should a dynamic norm message reduce meat consumption? Our field data and past theory point to non-high socioeconomic contexts, and contexts where the reference group of people who have changed is meaningful to consumers. Second, how can the treatment be strengthened? Over five online experiments, we find that the visibility of the messages can be greatly improved, and more relatable norm referents can be selected. Although impacts on food orders appear modest, the minimal costs of scaling menu-based dynamic norm messages and the possibility of improving effect sizes make this a promising approach.
Background:
Multi-arm designs provide an effective means of evaluating several treatments within the same clinical trial. Given the large number of treatments now available for testing in many disease areas, it has been argued that their utilisation should increase. However, for any given clinical trial there are numerous possible multi-arm designs that could be used, and choosing between them can be a difficult task. This task is complicated further by a lack of available easy-to-use software for designing multi-arm trials.
Results:
To aid the wider implementation of multi-arm clinical trial designs, we have developed a web application for sample size calculation when using a variety of popular multiple comparison corrections. Furthermore, the application supports sample size calculation to control several varieties of power, as well as the determination of optimised arm-wise allocation ratios. It is built using the Shiny package in the R programming language, is free to access on any device with an internet browser, and requires no programming knowledge to use. It incorporates a variety of features to make it easier to use, including help boxes and warning messages. Using design parameters motivated by a recently completed phase II oncology trial, we demonstrate that the application can effectively determine and evaluate complex multi-arm trial designs.
Conclusions:
The application provides the core information required by statisticians and clinicians to review the operating characteristics of a chosen multi-arm clinical trial design. The range of designs supported by the application is broader than other currently available software solutions. Its primary limitation, particularly from a regulatory agency point of view, is its lack of validation. However, we present an approach to efficiently confirming its results via simulation.
Global food systems are currently challenged by unsustainable and unhealthy consumption and production practices. Food labelling provides information on key characteristics of food items, thereby potentially driving more sustainable food choices or demands. This review explores how consumers value three different elements of sustainable diets: Comparing consumer response to nutrition information on food labels against environmental and/or social responsibility information. Six databases were systematically searched for studies examining consumer choice/preference/evaluation of nutrition against environmental and/or social responsibility attributes on food labels. Studies were quality assessed against domain-based criteria and reported using PRISMA guidelines. Thirty articles with 19,040 participants met inclusion criteria. Study quality was mixed, with samples biased towards highly-educated females. Environmental and social responsibility attributes were preferred to nutrition attributes in 17 studies (11 environmental and six social), compared to nine where nutrition attributes were valued more highly. Three studies found a combination of attributes were valued more highly than either attribute in isolation. One study found no significant preference. The most preferred attribute was organic labelling, with a health inference likely. Consumers generally have a positive view of environmental and social responsibility food labelling schemes. Combination labelling has potential, with a mix of sustainable diet attributes appearing well-received.
Behavioral change interventions based on social norms have proven to be a popular and cost-effective way in which both researchers and practitioners attempt to transform behavior in order to increase environmental and social sustainability in real-world contexts. In this paper, we present a systematic review of over 90 empirical studies that have applied behavioral change interventions based on social norms in field settings. Building on previous research about the sources of information that people use to understand social norms and other local determinants of behavior, we propose a framework organized along two axes that describe intervention context (situated interventions applied in the same context where the target behavior happens versus remote interventions that are applied away from that context) and type of normative information leveraged (interventions that provide summary information about a group versus interventions that expose participants to the opinions and behaviors of others). We also illustrate successful applications for each dimension, as well as the social, psychological and physical determinants of behavior that were leveraged to support change. Finally, based on our results, we discuss some of the elements and practical mechanisms that can be used by both researchers and practitioners to design more integral, effective and sustainable social norm intervention in the real world.
Objective
To evaluate the association of changes in red meat consumption with total and cause specific mortality in women and men.
Design
Two prospective cohort studies with repeated measures of diet and lifestyle factors.
Setting
Nurses’ Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow-up Study, United States.
Participants
53 553 women and 27 916 men without cardiovascular disease or cancer at baseline.
Main outcome measure
Death confirmed by state vital statistics records, the national death index, or reported by families and the postal system.
Results
14 019 deaths occurred during 1.2 million person years of follow-up. Increases in red meat consumption over eight years were associated with a higher mortality risk in the subsequent eight years among women and men (both P for trend<0.05, P for heterogeneity=0.97). An increase in total red meat consumption of at least half a serving per day was associated with a 10% higher mortality risk (pooled hazard ratio 1.10, 95% confidence interval 1.04 to 1.17). For processed and unprocessed red meat consumption, an increase of at least half a serving per day was associated with a 13% higher mortality risk (1.13, 1.04 to 1.23) and a 9% higher mortality risk (1.09, 1.02 to 1.17), respectively. A decrease in consumption of processed or unprocessed red meat of at least half a serving per day was not associated with mortality risk. The association between increased red meat consumption and mortality risk was consistent across subgroups defined by age, physical activity, dietary quality, smoking status, or alcohol consumption.
Conclusion
Increases in red meat consumption, especially processed meat, were associated with higher overall mortality rates.
This meta-analysis summarizes the evidence of a prospective association between the intake of foods [whole grains, refined grains, vegetables, fruit, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs)] and risk of general overweight/obesity, abdominal obesity, and weight gain. PubMed and Web of Science were searched for prospective observational studies until August 2018. Summary RRs and 95% CIs were estimated from 43 reports for the highest compared with the lowest intake categories, as well as for linear and nonlinear relations focusing on each outcome separately: overweight/obesity, abdominal obesity, and weight gain. The quality of evidence was evaluated with use of the NutriGrade tool. In the dose-response meta-analysis, inverse associations were found for whole-grain (RRoverweight/obesity: 0.93; 95% CI: 0.89, 0.96), fruit (RRoverweight/obesity: 0.93; 95% CI: 0.86, 1.00; RRweight gain: 0.91; 95% CI: 0.86, 0.97), nut (RRabdominal obesity: 0.42; 95% CI: 0.31, 0.57), legume (RRoverweight/obesity: 0.88; 95% CI: 0.84, 0.93), and fish (RRabdominal obesity: 0.83; 95% CI: 0.71, 0.97) consumption and positive associations were found for refined grains (RRoverweight/obesity: 1.05; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.10), red meat (RRabdominal obesity: 1.10; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.16; RRweight gain: 1.14; 95% CI: 1.03, 1.26), and SSBs (RRoverweight/obesity: 1.05; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.11; RRabdominal obesity: 1.12; 95% CI: 1.04, 1.20). The dose-response meta-analytical findings provided very low to low quality of evidence that certain food groups have an impact on different measurements of adiposity risk. To improve the quality of evidence, better-designed observational studies, inclusion of intervention trials, and use of novel statistical methods (e.g., substitution analyses or network meta-analyses) are needed.
Background:
Reducing meat consumption could help to protect the natural environment and promote population health. Interventions restructuring physical micro-environments might help to change habitual behaviour. We synthesised the scientific evidence pertaining to whether, and which, interventions restructuring physical micro-environments effectively reduce the demand for meat.
Methods:
We did a systematic review of quantitative studies evaluating the effectiveness of interventions restructuring physical micro-environments to reduce the demand for meat. We identified relevant records by searching six electronic databases (CAB Abstracts, Embase, PsycINFO, Science Citation Index, MEDLINE, and Dissertations & Theses) on Aug 31, 2017, contacting experts, screening publicly accessible online resources, and searching references. We included studies that evaluated the effectiveness of interventions restructuring physical micro-environments to reduce the demand for meat, defined as the actual or intended consumption, purchase, or selection of meat in real or virtual environments. We extracted data pertaining to the study samples, the interventions, and meat demand at the follow-up closest to intervention completion and at the longest follow-up, with the former representing our primary outcome. We synthesised data narratively and did a qualitative comparative analysis to identify configurations of intervention characteristics associated with, and those not found to be associated with, significant reductions in meat demand. Our Systematic Review is registered with PROSPERO, number CRD42017081532.
Results:
Of 10 733 titles and abstracts screened for eligibility, we assessed 60 full papers and included 14 papers reporting on 18 studies with 22 intervention conditions. Three interventions reducing the portion size of meat servings reduced meat consumption in randomised trials. Three interventions providing meat alternatives with supporting educational material were associated with reduced meat demand in pre-post design studies. Three of four interventions altering the sensory properties (eg, visual presentation) of meat or meat alternatives at point of purchase reduced meat demand in randomised trials. Four interventions repositioning meat products to be less prominent at point of purchase were associated with lower meat demand, but only two such interventions reached statistical significance in a randomised trial and a multiple treatment reversal design. Only one of five interventions manipulating the description of meat or meat alternatives at point of purchase was associated with lower meat demand in a multiple treatment reversal design. Evidence from randomised trials evaluating a pricing intervention or interventions restructuring several aspects of micro-environments was too scarce or inconsistent to be conclusive. The results from our qualitative comparative analysis supported the findings of this narrative synthesis.
Interpretation:
Some interventions restructuring physical micro-environments could help to promote lower demand for meat. Interventions reducing portion sizes of meat servings, providing meat alternatives, or changing the sensory properties of meat and meat alternatives at point of purchase offered the most promise in the context of experimental studies.
Funding:
None.
The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to synthesize the knowledge about the relation between intake of 12 major food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D). We conducted a systematic search in PubMed, Embase, Medline (Ovid), Cochrane Central, and Google Scholar for prospective studies investigating the association between whole grains, refined grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs, dairy, fish, red meat, processed meat, and sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) on risk of T2D. Summary relative risks were estimated using a random effects model by contrasting categories, and for linear and non-linear dose–response relationships. Six out of the 12 food-groups showed a significant relation with risk of T2D, three of them a decrease of risk with increasing consumption (whole grains, fruits, and dairy), and three an increase of risk with increasing consumption (red meat, processed meat, and SSB) in the linear dose–response meta-analysis. There was evidence of a non-linear relationship between fruits, vegetables, processed meat, whole grains, and SSB and T2D risk. Optimal consumption of risk-decreasing foods resulted in a 42% reduction, and consumption of risk-increasing foods was associated with a threefold T2D risk, compared to non-consumption. The meta-evidence was graded “low” for legumes and nuts; “moderate” for refined grains, vegetables, fruit, eggs, dairy, and fish; and “high” for processed meat, red meat, whole grains, and SSB. Among the investigated food groups, selecting specific optimal intakes can lead to a considerable change in risk of T2D.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
We review the latest research investigating how people explain their own actions when they have been activated nonconsciously. We will discuss evidence that when nonconsciously activated behavior is unexpected (e.g., norm- violating, against self -standards), negative affect arises and triggers confabulations aimed to explain the behavior. Nonconsciously activated behaviors may provide a window into everyday confabulation of (erroneous) explanations for behavior, which may also affect self-knowledge. Implications for self-concept formation and intentionality are discussed.
Numeric calorie content labels show limited efficacy in reducing the number of calories ordered from fast food meals. Physical activity calorie equivalent (PACE) labels are an alternative that may reduce the number of calories ordered in fast food meals while encouraging patrons to exercise.
A total of 1000 adults from 47 US states were randomly assigned via internet survey to one of four generic fast food menus: no label, calories only, calories + minutes, or calories + miles necessary to walk to burn off the calories. After completing hypothetical orders participants were asked to rate the likelihood of calorie-only and PACE labels to influence (1) food choice and (2) physical activity.
Respondents (n = 823) ordered a median of 1580 calories from the no-label menu, 1200 from the calories-only menu, 1140 from the calories + minutes menu, and 1210 from the calories + miles menu (p = 0.0001). 40% of respondents reported that PACE labels were "very likely" to influence food item choice vs. 28% for calorie-only labels (p<0.0001). 64% of participants reported that PACE labels were "somewhat likely" or "very likely" to influence their level of physical activity vs. 49% for calorie-only labels (p<0.0001).
PACE labels may be helpful in reducing the number of calories ordered in fast food meals and may have the added benefit of encouraging exercise.
Consumers believe that “eco-labeled” products taste better, which, at least in part, may be an effect of the label. The purpose of the current series of experiments was to examine some mechanisms and limits of this eco-label effect. In Experiment 1, an eco-label effect of similar magnitude was found for taste ratings of both conventional and organic bananas. Experiment 2 showed eco-label effects for a wider range of judgmental dimensions (i.e., health, calories, vitamins/minerals, mental performance, and willingness to pay) and the effect was about the same in magnitude for judgments of grapes and raisins. Experiment 3, with water as the tasted product, found no eco-label effect on judgments of taste, calories and vitamins/minerals, but an effect on willingness to pay, judgments of health and mental performance benefits. Experiments 2 and 3 also included questionnaires on social desirability traits, schizotypal traits and pro-environmental consumer traits. The last was the strongest predictor of the eco-label effect amongst the three. In all, the eco-label effect is a robust phenomenon, but depends on interactions between product type and judgmental dimension. Implications for several accounts of the effect are discussed.
In Nudge (2008) Richard Thaler and Cass Sunstein suggested that public policy-makers arrange decision-making contexts in ways to promote behaviour change in the interest of individual citizens as well as that of society. However, in the public sphere and Academia alike widespread discussions have appeared concerning the public acceptability of nudge-based behavioural policy. Thaler and Sunstein's own position is that the anti-nudge posi-tion is a literal non-starter, because citizens are always influenced by the decision making context anyway, and nudging is liberty preserving and acceptable if guided by Libertarian Paternalism and Rawls' publicity principle. A persistent and central tenet in the criticism disputing the acceptability of the approach is that nudging works by manipulating citizens' choices. In this paper, we argue that both lines of argumentation are seriously flawed. We show how the anti-nudge position is not a literal non-starter due to the responsibilities that accrue on policy-makers by the intentional intervention in citizens' life, how nudging is not essentially liberty preserving and why the approach is not necessarily acceptable even if satisfying Rawls' publicity principle. We then use the psychological dual process theory underlying the approach as well as an epistemic transparency criterion identified by Thaler and Sunstein themselves to show that nudging is not necessarily about "manipulation", nor necessarily about influencing "choice". The result is a framework identifying four types of nudges that may be used to provide a central component for more nuanced normative con-siderations as well as a basis for policy recommendations.
This empirical article contributes to the sustainable development debate by examining consumer responses to carbon labels within a real world context. Given the limitations of methodologies that use self-reported or intended measures of purchasing behaviour, we use the loyalty card data of the largest supermarket retailer in the UK to measure the impact of carbon labels on sales by different consumer segments. The data show that the trial of carbon labels on supermarket own brand products has had no discernible impact on shifting demand to lower carbon products. In order to explore possible reasons for lack of impact, nine focus groups were held using purposive sampling by retailer consumer segments to allow an exploration of awareness, understanding and use of carbon labels. The findings from the focus groups identified possible reasons for this lack of impact: lack of awareness and understanding of carbon labelling; constraining or facilitating social and cultural influences; and the heterogeneous nature of consumers. As a result, a number of implications for stakeholders are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.
a b s t r a c t This study investigates the relationship between consumer motivation, understanding and use of sustain-ability labels on food products (both environmental and ethical labels), which are increasingly appearing on food products. Data was collected by means of an online survey implemented in the UK, France, Ger-many, Spain, Sweden, and Poland, with a total sample size of 4408 respondents. Respondents expressed medium high to high levels of concern with sustainability issues at the general level, but lower levels of concern in the context of concrete food product choices. Understanding of the concept of sustainability was limited, but understanding of four selected labels (Fair Trade, Rainforest Alliance, Carbon Footprint, and Animal Welfare) was better, as some of them seem to be self-explanatory. The results indicated a low level of use, no matter whether use was measured as self-reported use of different types of information available on food labels or as use inferred from the results of a choice-based conjoint analysis. Hierarchi-cal regression indicated that use is related to both motivation and understanding, and that both motiva-tion, understanding and use are affected by demographic characteristics, human values as measured by the Schwartz value domains, and country differences. The results imply that sustainability labels cur-rently do not play a major role in consumers' food choices, and future use of these labels will depend on the extent to which consumers' general concern about sustainability can be turned into actual behaviour.
Every day, we make decisions on topics ranging from personal investments to schools for our children to the meals we eat to the causes we champion. Unfortunately, we often choose poorly. The reason, the authors explain, is that, being human, we all are susceptible to various biases that can lead us to blunder. Our mistakes make us poorer and less healthy; we often make bad decisions involving education, personal finance, health care, mortgages and credit cards, the family, and even the planet itself. Thaler and Sunstein invite us to enter an alternative world, one that takes our humanness as a given. They show that by knowing how people think, we can design choice environments that make it easier for people to choose what is best for themselves, their families, and their society. Using colorful examples from the most important aspects of life, Thaler and Sunstein demonstrate how thoughtful "choice architecture" can be established to nudge us in beneficial directions without restricting freedom of choice. Nudge offers a unique new take-from neither the left nor the right-on many hot-button issues, for individuals and governments alike. This is one of the most engaging and provocative books to come along in many years. © 2008 by Richard H. Thaler and Cass R. Sunstein. All rights reserved.
The present research investigated the persuasive impact and detectability of normative social influence. The first study surveyed 810 Californians about energy conservation and found that descriptive normative beliefs were more predictive of behavior than were other relevant beliefs, even though respondents rated such norms as least important in their conservation decisions. Study 2, a field experiment, showed that normative social influence produced the greatest change in behavior compared to information highlighting other reasons to conserve, even though respondents rated the normative information as least motivating. Results show that normative messages can be a powerful lever of persuasion but that their influence is underdetected.
Carbon footprint labels allow manufactures to show information about the impact that their food production has on the environment, as well as to help consumers make more sustainable choices. Thus, investigating consumers’ reaction towards carbon footprint labels is vital to understand their effectiveness. The aim of this manuscript is to identify the state of the art and research gaps on this topic, by conducting a literature review of published scientific article between 2011 and 2020. In total, 38 papers emerged. Findings show that females, adults, with higher income and educational level have a more positive attitude towards carbon footprint labels. Furthermore, people expressing higher environmental concern and those who are used to buy eco-friendly labelled foods are willing to pay more for carbon footprint labelled foods. However, it also emerges that consumers still have poor knowledge of carbon measurements and the existing carbon footprint label system is still unclear. When carbon footprint labels are re-designed using consumers friendly symbols (e.g., traffic light colours), consumers’ understanding significantly increases. Consumers from countries like Egypt and China also show a positive attitude towards carbon footprint information, meaning that a carbon footprint label system should be developed also in the emerging countries. Nonetheless, when carbon footprint is presented with other labels (e.g., organic, Fair Trade etc.) consumers show the lowest willingness to pay for carbon footprint information. It was also found that using a carbon footprint label on environmentally sustainable produced foods (e.g., using upcycled ingredients) increases willingness to pay. Food manufacturers should better inform consumers on carbon footprint labels and policy makers are advised to develop a consumers friendlier carbon footprint label system to incentivize more sustainable choices. This paper is the first to summarize existing literature on consumers’ behaviour for carbon footprint labelled foods, providing a discussion of the implications for food manufacturers and policy makers, as well as future research avenues.
Social norm represents one of the most interdisciplinary and
important concepts in the behavioral sciences. We reviewed
recent research examining the effects of social norms on
climate change-related behaviors, identifying relevant
evidence in five behavioral domains: eco-friendly consumer
choices, energy conservation, reduction/re-use/recycling,
sustainable food choices, and water conservation. We discuss
this research as it pertains to a set of theoretically important
questions that emerged as themes across these studies and
discuss various future research directions as they relate to each
theme. Overall, the recent evidence is quite robust in
demonstrating influential effects of social norms on an array of
behaviors relevant to climate change.
The term “sustainability” is based on three main pillars: environment, society and economy. To achieve sustainable development, agriculture is one of the main fields to be considered and it is key to address economic, environmental and ethical problems. Besides, consumers are increasingly demanding foods produced under sustainable practices and aiming to get involved in the process of enhancing food sustainability. Under such premises, a study was carried out with more than 3600 consumers in 6 countries (Brazil, China, India, Mexico, Spain and USA). Participants were asked questions organized in two main topics: general sustainability and willingness to pay on different food categories. In general, results showed that consumers thought that a sustainable product is “environmentally friendly”, “healthier”, has been grown using “few chemicals” and “have better quality”. More than 30% of consumers in the US and Spain were not willing to pay more for sustainable products. This percentage decreased to 20% in China, Mexico and Brazil and reached the lowest value in India (~14%). The main conclusion is that consumers are not fully aware of the importance of sustainability; in general, consumers tend to associate sustainable production with just organic farming and higher quality.
Research suggests that consuming vegetarian foods is one of the key lifestyle changes that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, transforming dietary habits to counter climate change has received little attention to date compared to other green behaviors. In three large pre-registered online studies conducted on 11,066 US participants, the present research tested whether reframing the name of the vegetarian food category impacts the choice of dishes from this category in the context of restaurant menus. We showed that a pro-environmental frame (i.e. “Environmentally Friendly Main Courses for a Happy Planet”), a social frame (i.e. “Refreshing Main Courses for Relaxing Conversations”), and a neutral frame (i.e. vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes mixed in the same section “Main Courses”) all increased the likelihood of vegetarian choice compared to a vegetarian frame (i.e. “Vegetarian Main Courses”). Given that either of the three framing conditions (vs. the vegetarian frame) increased vegetarian food choice but no consistent differences emerged among them, the main message of the present research is that the absence of vegetarian framing, regardless of the alternative intervention, may make vegetarian choices more likely. In addition to testing the main effects of menus on vegetarian choice, we comprehensively examined the mechanism behind these effects by probing multiple mediators. Overall, our research offers new insights into how techniques stemming from psychology can enhance vegetarian food choice.
Menu-based 'nudges' hold promise as effective ways to encourage a shift away from ruminant meat and towards more environmentally friendly plant-based options when dining out. One example of a menu-based nudge is including an inferior 'decoy' option to existing items on menus. Decoys have been shown to influence decision-making in other domains (e.g. Lichters, Bengart, Sarstedt, & Vogt, 2017), but have yet to be used to promote sustainable food choices. Two online randomized controlled trials tested whether the addition of higher priced 'decoy' vegetarian options to menus influenced the number of diners choosing a 'target' vegetarian option. Adjusted Generalized Estimating Equations on data from four menu conditions showed no main effect of intervention group in study 1 (decoy absent vs. decoy present; odds ratio (OR) 1.08 (95% Confidence Interval (CI) 0.45 to 2.57). Replicating the trial in study 2 across seven menu conditions and testing a more expensive decoy also showed no main effect of the intervention (decoy absent vs. decoy present; OR 0.68 (95% CI 0.41 to 1.12). Further analyses revealed that our price-based decoy strategy (a £30% price increase) did not significantly influence the numbers who chose the inferior decoy dish, potentially due to the fact that dish choices were purely hypothetical. Further research is now needed to clarify which attributes of a dish (e.g. taste, portion size, signature ingredients etc.) are optimal candidates for use as decoys and testing these in real world choice contexts.
Background
There is limited evidence that nutritional labelling on food/drinks is changing eating behaviours. Physical activity calorie equivalent (PACE) food labelling aims to provide the public with information about the amount of physical activity required to expend the number of kilocalories in food/drinks (eg, calories in this pizza requires 45 min of running to burn), to encourage healthier food choices and reduce disease.
Objective
We aimed to systematically search for randomised controlled trials and experimental studies of the effects of PACE food labelling on the selection, purchase or consumption of food/drinks.
Methods
PACE food labelling was compared with any other type of food labelling or no labelling (comparator). Reports were identified by searching electronic databases, websites and social media platforms. Inverse variance meta-analysis was used to summarise evidence. Weighted mean differences (WMD) and 95% CIs were used to describe between-group differences using a random effects model.
Results
15 studies were eligible for inclusion. When PACE labelling was displayed on food/drinks and menus, significantly fewer calories were selected, relative to comparator labelling (WMD=−64.9 kcal, 95% CI −103.2 to −26.6, p=0.009, n=4606). Presenting participants with PACE food labelling results in the consumption of significantly fewer calories (WMD=−80.4 kcal, 95% CI−136.7 to −24.2, p=0.005, n=486) relative to comparator food labelling.
Conclusion
Based on current evidence PACE food labelling may reduce the number of kilocalories selected from menus and decrease the number of kilocalories/grams of food consumed by the public, compared with other types of food labelling/no labelling.
Trial registration number
CRD42018088567.
Recent reports from the EAT-Lancet Commission and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change have highlighted the environmental impacts of food systems and the means of mitigating these impacts in the future. Here, we reflect upon the reports’ findings on the effects of agricultural production on biodiversity and water resources and present essential areas for future research.
Background:
Few randomized trials have evaluated the effect of reducing red meat intake on clinically important outcomes.
Purpose:
To summarize the effect of lower versus higher red meat intake on the incidence of cardiometabolic and cancer outcomes in adults.
Data Sources:
EMBASE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, Web of Science, and ProQuest from inception to July 2018 and MEDLINE from inception to April 2019, without language restrictions.
Study Selection:
Randomized trials (published in any language) comparing diets lower in red meat with diets higher in red meat that differed by a gradient of at least 1 serving per week for 6 months or more.
Data Extraction:
Teams of 2 reviewers independently extracted data and assessed the risk of bias and the certainty of the evidence.
Data Synthesis:
Of 12 eligible trials, a single trial enrolling 48 835 women provided the most credible, though still low-certainty, evidence that diets lower in red meat may have little or no effect on all-cause mortality (hazard ratio [HR], 0.99 [95% CI, 0.95 to 1.03], cardiovascular mortality (HR, 0.98 [CI, 0.91 to 1.06]), and cardiovascular disease (HR, 0.99 [CI, 0.94 to 1.05]). That trial also provided low- to very-low-certainty evidence that diets lower in red meat may have little or no effect on total cancer mortality (HR, 0.95 [CI, 0.89 to 1.01]) and the incidence of cancer, including colorectal cancer (HR, 1.04 [CI, 0.90 to 1.20]) and breast cancer (HR, 0.97 [0.90 to 1.04]).
Limitations:
There were few trials, most addressing only surrogate outcomes, with heterogeneous comparators and small gradients in red meat consumption between lower versus higher intake groups.
Conclusion:
Low- to very-low-certainty evidence suggests that diets restricted in red meat may have little or no effect on major cardiometabolic outcomes and cancer mortality and incidence.
Introduction
Meat consumption has been linked to some negative health and environmental outcomes. Studies have assessed motivations among those who have reduced or eliminated meat consumption; less work identifies strategies to reduce meat consumption among those who consume meat. This paper describes factors associated with lower meat consumption and reviews experimental studies that targeted those factors to either change behavior or intention/willingness to reduce meat.
Methods
A systematic review of the literature was conducted among four databases. Inclusion criteria were experimental and quasi-experimental designs and studies that measured variables indirectly or directly related to meat consumption.
Results
Twenty-two articles were identified. These studies targeted factors such as knowledge and skills with informational provisions about health and the environment; values and attitudes concerning the relationship between social dominance and meat; evocation of emotion such as empathy and disgust; social norms both dynamic and growing; changes to the food environment with default vegan menu options, perceived behavioral control, and intentions. The majority of studies (n = 15) investigated the effects of providing information such as personal health effects of meat consumption. In general, increasing knowledge alone or when combined with other methods was shown to successfully reduce meat consumption behavior or intentions/willingness to eat meat. Evoking emotions with animal images and making changes to the environment proved effective.
Discussion
Factors identified in correlational studies were generally found to be useful agents of behavior change in experimental studies. However, several factors have not been tested experimentally. More experimental studies are required to confirm the results of this review; for example, experiments focused on modifications of the food environment such as increasing the number of meatless meals on restaurant menus.
Background:
Findings among randomized controlled trials evaluating the effect of red meat on cardiovascular disease risk factors are inconsistent. We provide an updated meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on red meat and cardiovascular risk factors and determine whether the relationship depends on the composition of the comparison diet, hypothesizing that plant sources would be relatively beneficial.
Methods:
We conducted a systematic PubMed search of randomized controlled trials published up until July 2017 comparing diets with red meat with diets that replaced red meat with a variety of foods. We stratified comparison diets into high-quality plant protein sources (legumes, soy, nuts); chicken/poultry/fish; fish only; poultry only; mixed animal protein sources (including dairy); carbohydrates (low-quality refined grains and simple sugars, such as white bread, pasta, rice, cookies/biscuits); or usual diet. We performed random-effects meta-analyses comparing differences in changes of blood lipids, apolipoproteins, and blood pressure for all studies combined and stratified by specific comparison diets.
Results:
Thirty-six studies totaling 1803 participants were included. There were no significant differences between red meat and all comparison diets combined for changes in blood concentrations of total, low-density lipoprotein, or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoproteins A1 and B, or blood pressure. Relative to the comparison diets combined, red meat resulted in lesser decreases in triglycerides (weighted mean difference [WMD], 0.065 mmol/L; 95% CI, 0.000-0.129; P for heterogeneity <0.01). When analyzed by specific comparison diets, relative to high-quality plant protein sources, red meat yielded lesser decreases in total cholesterol (WMD, 0.264 mmol/L; 95% CI, 0.144-0.383; P<0.001) and low-density lipoprotein (WMD, 0.198 mmol/L; 95% CI, 0.065-0.330; P=0.003). In comparison with fish, red meat yielded greater decreases in low-density lipoprotein (WMD, -0.173 mmol/L; 95% CI, -0.260 to -0.086; P<0.001) and high-density lipoprotein (WMD, -0.065 mmol/L; 95% CI, -0.109 to -0.020; P=0.004). In comparison with carbohydrates, red meat yielded greater decreases in triglycerides (WMD, -0.181 mmol/L; 95% CI, -0.349 to -0.013).
Conclusions:
Inconsistencies regarding the effects of red meat on cardiovascular disease risk factors are attributable, in part, to the composition of the comparison diet. Substituting red meat with high-quality plant protein sources, but not with fish or low-quality carbohydrates, leads to more favorable changes in blood lipids and lipoproteins.
Considering that high population and income growths will lead the coming decades, an increase in global food demand is expected. Livestock products, such as meat, are closely related to this trend, but also associated with impacts on the environment and public health, from land and water depletion, to greenhouse gases emissions and higher risks of non-communicable diseases. This trend raises doubts about the sustainability of the food industry and thus a solution is needed for the problem. How to feed the world population without compromising present and future generations. The literature suggests that meat consumption should be reduced for the sake of the environment and global population, however without considering the effects that such reduction would have on the economy. Inspired by these facts, this paper empirically analyses the interactions between food consumption, economic growth and sustainable development (measured by the Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare). More specifically the paper assesses the effect that food consumption has on the economy. The econometric analysis applies the Autoregressive Distributed Lag model for 77 countries, further distinguished by their income group, from 1995 to 2013. The findings support that meat consumption has different impacts on economic growth and sustainable development considering different income groups. However, there is an evident dilemma between economic growth and sustainable development since meat consumption has contradictory effects on each. Thus, it is crucial to understand how to promote sustainability, i.e., reducing the environmental externalities and chronic health diseases, without compromising economic growth.
Changes in human diets hold significant greenhouse gas emissions mitigation potential. In this paper, we use a field experiment to analyze the effects of implementing a label with greenhouse gas emission information for each dish at a restaurant. The traffic-light colored label was implemented in a student catering facility with 300–600 servings every day, and covered all seven dishes on offer. Individual level sales data including an anonymous identification number, gender, and age was collected both during the label phase and during a five-week control phase prior to the introduction of the label. We found that sales of green labeled (low emission) meat dishes increased by 11.5% compared to the control phase, whereas sales of red labeled meat dishes were reduced by 4.8%. Although the label had an effect on consumer behavior, emissions decreased modestly by 3.6%. We did not find evidence for different reactions to the label based on gender or age.
It is well known that people conform to normative information about other people’s current attitudes and behaviors. Do they also conform to dynamic norms—information about how other people’s behavior is changing over time? We investigated this question in three online and two field experiments. Experiments 1 through 4 examined high levels of meat consumption, a normative and salient behavior that is decreasing in the United States. Dynamic norms motivated change despite prevailing static norms, increasing interest in eating less meat (Experiments 1–3) and doubling meatless orders at a café (Experiment 4). Mediators included the anticipation of less meat eating in the future (preconformity) and the inference that reducing meat consumption mattered to other people (Experiments 2 and 3). In Experiment 5, we took advantage of a natural comparison to provide evidence that dynamic norms can also strengthen social-norm interventions when the static norm is positive; a positive dynamic norm resulted in reduced laundry loads and water use over 3 weeks during a drought.
It is important to understand better how people evaluate the environmental impacts of different food aspects. A longitudinal panel study design (. N=. 2600) was used to examine whether the perceptions of various environment-related, food consumption patterns changed between 2010 and 2014 and what factors influenced such changes. The results indicated that participants evaluated the eating less meat (maximum of once or twice per week) behavior as substantially more beneficial for the environment in 2014 compared with 2010. The study design allowed us to examine which factors influenced the changes in the perception of the environmental benefits of eating less meat. Participants who perceived the arguments that reducing meat consumption is better for the environment, better for the health, and prevents animal suffering as more convincing in 2014 compared with 2010 also perceived eating less meat as more beneficial for the environment in the 2014 survey compared with the 2010 survey. An increase in participants' health consciousness and the change scores in their convictions that seasonal fruits and vegetables taste better and are cheaper strengthened their belief that such behaviors would be beneficial for the environment. Therefore, the results suggest that the halo effect may have influenced participants' evaluations. Consumers lack general factual knowledge about product-specific environmental footprints. Highlighting the direct benefits for consumers will likely increase their willingness to reduce environment-unfriendly consumption patterns.
Using an incentive-compatible framed field experiment, we investigate whether consumers' food consumption is more eco-friendly when the information about a product's environmental impact is more easily accessible. Through an online survey, we identify a food label that is perceived to be the most easily accessible for assessing a product's eco-friendliness among six alternatives. These alternatives vary on multiple dimensions, including whether a standardized score of the overall environmental impact is added. This new food label is subsequently tested in an experimental food market embedded in a Belgian supermarket. We find that the presence of the new label that was preselected in the online survey leads to more eco-friendly food consumption relative to either the label currently used in the supermarket, or the label that contains the raw information of the environmental impact. In our experimental food market, the use of an easy-to-interpret but comprehensive environmental information label increases the overall eco-friendliness of our subjects' food consumption by about 5.3% relative to the default label used in current markets.
In this study we examined the effect of physical activity based labels on the calorie content of meals selected from a sample fast food menu. Using a web-based survey, participants were randomly assigned to one of four menus which differed only in their labeling schemes (n=802): (1) a menu with no nutritional information, (2) a menu with calorie information, (3) a menu with calorie information and minutes to walk to burn those calories, or (4) a menu with calorie information and miles to walk to burn those calories. There was a significant difference in the mean number of calories ordered based on menu type (p=0.02), with an average of 1020 calories ordered from a menu with no nutritional information, 927 calories, ordered from a menu with only calorie information, 916 calories, ordered from a menu with both calorie information and minutes to walk to burn those calories, and 826 calories, ordered from the menu with calorie information and the number of miles to walk to burn those calories. The menu with calories and the number of miles to walk to burn those calories appeared the most effective in influencing the selection of lower calorie meals (p=0.0007) when compared to the menu with no nutritional information provided). The majority of participants (82%) reported a preference for physical activity based menu labels over labels with calorie information alone and no nutritional information. Whether these labels are effective in real-life scenarios remains to be tested.
This article discusses a method by Erikson et al. (2005) for decomposing a total effect in a logit model into direct and indirect effects. Moreover, this article extends this method in three ways. First, in the original method the variable through which the indirect effect occurs is assumed to be normally distributed. In this article the method is generalized by allowing this variable to have any distribution. Second, the original method did not provide standard errors for the estimates. In this article the bootstrap is proposed as a method of providing those. Third, I show how to include control variables in this decomposition, which was not allowed in the original method. The original method and these extensions are implemented in the ldecomp package.
Per Capita Availability of Red Meat, Poultry, and Seafood on the Rise
- J Bentley
Survey Reveals Consumers Becoming More Eco-focused When Shopping
- J Minchin
Meat and Dairy Production
- H Ritchie
- M Roser