Guilt and Shame Proneness in Relations to Covert Narcissism among Emerging Adults

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Guilt and Shame Proneness in Relations to Covert Narcissism among
Emerging Adults
Mahak Mathur, Priyanshi Khandelwal*, Sakshi
Jain, Vedika Jain
Department of Psychology, Mahatma Gandhi Medical College &
Hospital, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
Key words: Vulnerable Narcissism
Study Area: Jaipur, India
Coordinates: 11°1'6?N; 76°58'21?E
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Published by: National Cave Research and Protection Organization, India Vol. 09(1): 31-37
Year 2022
ambient
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Ambient Science, 2022: Vol. 09(1); 31-37
DOI:10.21276/ambi.2022.09.1.ta03
Abstract
Introduction:
Narcissism is the conviction that one is fundamentally
superior to and commendable of more than others; a belief
that, practically, relies on others for validation. (Krizan &
Herlache, 2017). Narcissism is a personality disorder
characterised by a focus on and covet for self-enhancing
interactions in social settings in order to fulfil a need or
desire for respect and acceptance, as well as a lack of affinity
for others (Pincus & Roche, 2011). Narcissism can manifest
itself in a variety of ways, including unstable behaviour and
interpersonal relationships (Lukowitsky & Pincus, 2013).
The most severe type of unstable narcissism, in which
people display narcissistic behaviours through several
domains is Narcissistic Personality Disorder (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). The essential feature of NPD
is a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration,
and lack of empathy that begins by early adulthood and is
present in a variety of contexts. Narcissistic traits may be
particularly common in adolescents and do not necessarily
indicate that the individual will go on to have a narcissistic
personality disorder.
Overt narcissism (i.e., Grandiosity-Exhibitionism) and
covert narcissism (i.e., Vulnerability-Sensitivity) are the
two types of dysfunctional characteristics or maladaptive
forms of narcissism (Wink, 1991). The existing information
on narcissistic personality disorder focuses on various
aspects of grandiose narcissism but very little has been
explored on covert narcissism although both kinds share
similar features such as conceit, disinterest in others,
impulsiveness, risk-taking, and self-indulgence.
Some of the dissimilarities between both the forms of
narcissism are as follows:
It was hypothesized that there would be a significant
relationship between Covert Narcissism and Shame and
Guilt Proneness. Also, Guilt and Shame proneness would
predict Covert Narcissism. This study comprised 180
emerging adults, in the age group of 18 to 23 years. The
measure of the study included the Maladaptive Covert
Narcissism and Guilt and Shame Proneness Scale. The
study also investigated gender differences in covert
narcissism. The results of the study indicated that there was
a positive correlation between covert narcissism and the
two dimensions of shame proneness namely negative self-
evaluation and shame withdrawal. Additionally, no
significant relationship was found between guilt-
proneness and covert narcissism. The results further
revealed that Shame Withdrawal, a single variable
regression test was used. The findings suggested that
Shame Withdrawal contribute 9% variance in Covert
Narcissism which is statistical significance and negative
self-evaluation also signif icantly predicted covert
narcissism accounting. Furthermore, the average score of
men on covert narcissism was significantly more than that
of females which means males have significantly higher
tendencies to develop covert narcissism.
*Corresponding Author:
ISSN- 2348 5191 (Print) & 2348 8980 (Electronic)
Grandiose/Overt Narcissism
Pincus and R o c h e (2011)
described grandiose narcissism
as “deeply felt desires for
recognition and appreciation
giving rise to urgent reasons to
seek out self-enhancement
experiences”.
They are confident, outgoing,
and charming, but are also vain,
Vulnerable/Covert Narcissism
Pincus and Roche ( 2 0 1 1 )
described a socially avoidant
styl e o f sel f-regulation as
“increased sensitivity to ego-
threat and subsequent self-,
emotion-, and behavioural-
dysregulation.
They are socially inhibited,
ins e c ur e , de f e ns i v e , a n d

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Vulnerable/covert narcissism is defined by social
psychology as “a defensive and insecure grandiosity that
obscures feelings of inadequacy, incompetence, and
negative affect” (Miller et al., 2012). Over the years, this
second subtype of narcissism has gone by many names,
including covert, closet, shy, or vulnerable narcissism.
Vulnerable narcissists are unclear about their internal
experiences, such as their self-evaluations, attitudes, and
beliefs leading them to extensively rely on feedback from
others (Kealy & Rasmussen, 2012). The paradox of
vulnerable narcissism is this: They believe "I deserve more!"
because of their sense of entitlement, yet they are sceptical.
Their lofty ambitions aren't matched by a belief in their own
power. Because of this avoidance incentive, susceptible
narcissists presented modestly and avoid numerous
situations where their self-beliefs might be challenged
(Foster & Trimm, 2008). As a result of skill limitations in
attaining the outcomes they believe they deserve, as well as
the discrepancy between internal emotions of entitlement
and external modesty and shyness, identifying a
susceptible narcissist can be challenging (Miller et al., 2011;
Wink, 1991). Even though identifying a vulnerable
narcissist and the problems he is feeling may be difficult for
an outsider, the psychological stress vulnerable narcissists
face is real. hypersensitive, apprehensive, timid, and
insecure; yet, close interaction reveals their grandiose
fantasies, which contradict those initial perceptions
(Wink, 1991). Grandiose imagination, self-sacrificing self-
improvement, contingent self-esteem, and uniqueness are
all signs of intrapersonal covert narcissism. Devaluing
others, entitled fury, and hiding the ego are all signs of
interpersonal covert narcissism. Interpersonally impaired
narcissism is the phenotype of covert narcissism. These
individuals have low self-esteem (Rose, 2002), high shame
(Cain et al., 2008), and internalising symptoms (Krizan &
Johar, 2012). Shame also intermediates the relationship
between vulnerable narcissism and a more negative model
of others (Schie et al., 2021). A positive correlation was
reported between covert narcissism and shame (Ghim et
al., 2015). Participants with NPD had a higher level of shame
than non-clinical controls, according to the literature. They
also identified a link between covert narcissism and shame
(Ritter, 2014).
Shame is another emergent consequence of the innate
human desire to be perceived as attractive (Gilbert,1997)
Internalized Shame as ‘shame bound personality’ or
‘shame-based identity’ (Kaufman, 1989). High-shame
individuals have been categorized in three ways: i) more
shame-prone than others in regularly shame-eliciting
situations; ii) frequently or constantly experiencing
generalized or global shame, also known as internalized
shame, or; iii) particularly ashamed of some aspect of their
behaviour or personal qualities (Andrews,1998). Shame-
prone people feel angrier, are more likely to interpret the
actions of others negatively, and express anger in more
destructive ways than primarily guilty people. Shame-
proneness was found to be substantially linked to
psychological maladjustment. Gramzow & Tanqney (1992)
revealed that proneness to shame was negatively correlated
with narcissism, a positive association between shame and
narcissism emerged when maladaptive factors were
isolated and shame proneness was also positively correlated
with splitting, a pathological narcissistic defence. Toxic
shame is a feeling that you’re worthless. It happens when
other people treat you poorly and you turn that treatment
into a belief about yourself. Schurman (2000) found that
people suffering from social anxiety and social phobia
exhibit both high levels of shame and behaviour
characteristic of the hypersensitive type of narcissism and
there is a positive relationship between social phobia and
shame. Shame is an emotion that is understudied because it
is so clearly absorbed by guilt in our society (Levin, 1967).
Shame is an emotion that is understudied because it is so
clearly absorbed by guilt in our society (Levin, 1967). There
are a variety of causes for shame's neglect, but Sigmund
Freud's emphasis on guilt in his structural theory
(https://blogs.uoregon.edu/autismhistoryproject/archive
/sigmund-freud-on-narcissism-1914) had a key impact.
Piers & Singer (1953) were the first to establish a clear
concept of shame within the psychoanalytic approach.
According to Adler (1918) shame has both an isolating and
an interfacing effect, emphasizing its immense importance
in human civilization. Shame is a byproduct of human
connectedness, and as such, it is impossible to exclude it
from the human soul's life. Without this effect, human
society would be unthinkable. Another factor that the
present study investigates is guilt-proneness. Guilt is a
cognitive or an emotional experience that occurs when an
individual comprehends or believes that one has comprised
one's own standards of conduct or has violated a moral
standard and bears significant responsibility for that
violation. It is closely related to the notion of shame,
Ambient Science (2022) Vol.-09(1):p. 32
manipulative, and aggressive (
Wink, 1991).
They have an inf lated sense of
self, viewing themselves as
superior to others (Krizan &
Bushman, 2011), overestimating
their intelligence and cognitive
ability and preferring th e
company of power ful and
popular people (Campbell &
Foster, 2002).
They are people who grant
themselves both status and self-
love.
They display substantial and
consistent correlations with
extraversion (Wink, 1991).
vindictive (Hendin & Cheek,
1997; Wink, 1991).
They experience heightened
negative emotional reactivity,
including envy, shame, anxiety,
depression, and low self-esteem
(Besser & Priel, 2010; Wink,
1991).
They are the ones who grant
themselves status but not love.
T he y a r e c o n s i s t e n tl y
associated with introversion
(Wink, 1991).
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remorse, and regret. Guilt proneness is the unreasonable
guilt that an individual experiences for matters which are
past one's control. It is normally the legacy of a demanding
childhood because of which psychologists name it self-
referencing. People who have unresolved guilt may be
unpleasant or strained all the time and could be clingy or
apologetic to an unhealthy degree. The feelings of guilt are
frequently manifested as bodily symptoms such as
insomnia or trouble sleeping, an upset stomach, nausea,
muscle tension, head pain and tearfulness. Research
connecting psychology and guilt do not agree always as
some say that guilt may help protect people from emotional
distress whereas other suggests that guilt, especially
excessive guilt, adds to mental and emotional distress.
According to Cohen (2012), Guilt proneness is a personality
attribute indicative of a susceptibility to experiencing
negative feelings about personal wrongdoing, even when
the wrongdoing is private. It is identified by the
ap preh ension of feelin g bad abou t commi tting
transgressions rather than by guilty feelings in a particular
moment or generalized guilty feelings that occur without an
eliciting event. A guilt-prone person would strive to deal
with a problem that they’ve caused and undo the harm to
others or avoid committing another transgression.
Some researchers also observed that there were
negative relations between narcissism and guilt and also
talked about the role played by these factors in males and
females. One of the researches revealed that shame plays an
important aspect in both narcissism as well as depression
and that its role in depression is stronger than that of guilt.
It also observed that men are more prone to narcissism and
women to depression, and sex differences associated with
shame and guilt are linked to self-image and specific
situations (Wright et al., 1989). High Guilt Proneness trait
guides the behaviour of people with high consciousness
and makes them think twice before any action. According
to a study done by Harder & Greenwald (1999) revealed that
shame was expected to show stronger relationships than
guilt with openness, sensation seeking and extraversion. So
far only a few research have been published that explore the
relationship between covert narcissism and its expression
in guilt and shame proneness and none has been published
examining the gender differences in the expression of
covert narcissism experienced by young adults in India.
Thus, on this basis we propose the following hypotheses:
H1 There will be a significant relationship between Shame
Proneness and covert narcissism
H2 There will be a significant relationship between Guilt
Proneness and covert narcissism
H3 Shame Proneness will predict Covert Narcissism
H4 Guilt Proneness will predict Covert Narcissism
H5 There will be a significant difference in Covert Narcissism
between males and females
Researchers agree that there are two narcissism expressions
Methodology:
Overt/grandiose and Covert/ vulnerable narcissism. The
existing information on narcissistic personality disorder
focuses on various aspects of grandiose narcissism but very
little has been explored on covert narcissism. The present
research examines the experience of negative emotions
such as guilt-proneness and shame proneness that impact
covert narcissists’ entitled perceptions of their own
performance that has been overlooked. The main purpose
behind conducting this study was the exploration of covert
narcissism and its expression in the guilt and shame
proneness experienced by young adults in India. The study
aims to analyse more about the relationship between young
adults’ shame proneness, guilt-proneness with covert
narcissism. Research also lacks to highlight gender
differences in the expression of covert narcissism. As the
literature suggests not many studies have focused on the
gender difference and expression of negative emotions such
as guilt and shame proneness and their relationship with
covert narcissism in context to the Indian population in
young adults.
The sample of the study consisted of 180 emerging
adults. These emerging adults were selected with the
following criteria of inclusion and exclusion:
Criteria of Inclusion:
1. University Students within the age group of 18 to 23 years.
2. Both Male and Female students.
3. Students residing in India
4. Students with Proficiency in the English language
Criteria of Exclusion:
1. College Dropouts or students repeating a year of the degree
course.
2. Students with a physical disability or with a history of
psychological illness.
In the present study, a purposive sampling technique
was used to select the sample.
Research Design
A causal research design was used for the present study to
investigate the relationship between the above-mentioned
variables.
1. Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale, an updated version of
the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale, was developed by
Cheek et al. (2013). It has 23 items measuring covert
narcissism. Maladaptive Covert Narcissism Scale (MCNS)
had an alpha reliability of .89 compared to .75 for the original
HSNS; it correlated .65 with the MMPI measure of covert
narcissism compared to .30 with the maladaptive overt
narcissism factor of the NPI and -.16 with the Adaptive Overt
Narcissism Scale.
2. The Guilt and Shame Proneness Scale (GASP) was developed
by Taya et al. (2010). It has 16 items measuring individual
differences in the propensity to experience guilt and shame
across a range of personal transgressions. The GASP contains
2 guilt subscales that assess negative behaviour-evaluations
(NBEs) and repair action tendencies following private
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Ambient Science (2022) Vol.-09(1):p. 34
transgressions and 2 shame subscales that assess negative
self-evaluations (NSEs) and withdrawal action tendencies
following publically-exposed tran sgression s. Alpha
coefficients of .60 or higher would ensure that the reliability
of the GASP is similar to the reliability of other guilt- and
shame-proneness scales. It provides evidence for construct
validity.
The study was conducted in two phases. In the first
phase, based on the criteria of inclusion and exclusion, the
study population of university students was contacted and
a sample of 180 students was drawn. In the second phase,
students selected in the sample were administered the tests
of the study through Google Forms. Thereafter, results were
compiled and trends were analyzed.
Statistical analysis was done using an IBM SPSS,
including Descriptive Statistics using Mean, Standard
Deviation, coefficient of correlation, Regression analysis
and Independent sample T-test.
Covert Narcissism 62.5+13.0662 Shame Proneness 8.31+2.1469
Guilt Proneness 10.28+2.4487
Covert Narcissism (A) 1 -.040 -.006 .236** .312**
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
A significant positive correlation between Negative Self
Evaluation and Shame Withdrawal with Covert Narcissism among
the emerging adults (p<0.01). Hence, H1 was accepted. Further, a
an insignificant negative correlation between Negative Behavior
Evaluation and Guilt repair with Covert Narcissism was revealed,
hence, H2 was rejected.
a
1 .312 .097 .092 12.871
a. Predictors: (Constant), SW
1 (Constant) 48.414 3.611 13.406 .000
SW 4.387 1.004 .312 4.369 .000
a. Dependent Variable:
Covert Narcissim
Table suggested that Shame Withdrawal contribute 9%
variance in predicting Covert Narcissism which is statistical
significance (p<0.01 & F=19.084,ß=.312). Hence, H3 was accepted.
Result & Discussion
Table 1: Means and Standard Deviations (N=180)
Table-2: Coefficients of Correlations of Covert Narcissism (A)
with Negative Behaviour Evaluation (B), Guilt Repair (C),
Negative Self Evaluation (D) and Shame Withdrawal (E).
A B C D E
Table- 3: Regression analysis showing prediction of Covert
Narcissism by Shame Withdrawal
Table-3.1: Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjust R square Std. Error (estimate)
Table- 3.2 Coefficient
Model Unstandard. Coeff. Standard. Coeff.
B Std. Error Beta T Sig.
Table-4: Regression analysis showing prediction on covert
narcissism by shame Negative Self Evaluation.
Table-4.1: Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjust R square Std. Error (estimate)
Table- 3.2 Coefficient
Model Unstandard. Coeff. Standard. Coeff.
B Std. Error Beta T Sig.
Table-5: The table shows the Independent sample t test
between males and females respondents on the variable
Covert Narcissism
Male (n=56)Female (n=123)T df P
a
1.236 .055 .050 13.166
a. Predictors: Constant), NSE
1 Constant 50.670 4.135 12.254 .000
NSE 2.554 .792 .236 3.225 .002
a. Dependent Variable: Covert Narcissim
The findings suggested that Negative Self Evaluation
contribute a 5% variance in predicting Covert Narcissism which
is the statistical significanc (p<0.01 & F=10. 398,β=.236). Hence,
H3 was accepted.
67.77+12.904 61.73+13.405 2.826 177 P<0.05
The above table shows significant differences between
males and females on Covert Narcissism. (P<0.05) hence, H5
was accepted.
The current study's findings show that distinct
subtypes of shame and guilt-proneness have diverse
reactions among both aspects of narcissism. The findings
of the study revealed that covert narcissism and shame NSE
(negative self-evaluation) have a substantial positive
association. According to the findings, there is a link
between vulnerable narcissism and shame withdrawal.
According to the study's findings, there is a link between
shame proneness (negative self-evaluation and shame
withdrawal) and covert narcissism. This relationship is
found to be significant at 0.01 level. This means that the
higher shame indicates a higher degree of development of
covert narcissistic traits. The results of the study can be
supported by a study conducted by (Ghim et al., 2015)
showing a positive correlation between covert narcissism
and shame. Another study by Poless et al. (2018) also found
that the vulnerable feature of narcissism is positively
connected with shame.
The results also showed that shame withdrawal and
negative self-evaluation predict and lead to covert
narcissism tendencies. Feelings of shame are essential to
understand i n g vulne rab l e narcissis m and a lso
interventions for at-risk young adults. Shame served as a
bridge between vulnerable narcissism and a more negative
self-and another model (Bilevicius et al., 2019). Another
study supporting the hypothesis by Hibbard (1992) stated
shame was found to be positively correlated with vulnerable
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style. Covert narcissism has been identified as “a pattern
where shame feelings are more conscious and narcissistic
feelings are dissociated” (Wright et al., 1989). Gramzow &
Tanqney (1992) from their study showed a positive
association between shame and narcissism emerged when
maladaptive factors were isolated. (Schie et al., 2021)
concluded that more shame was reported in those young
people who tended to have traits of vulnerable narcissism
and struggled to be close to others. Also, a more insecure
attachment style may develop when there is a discrepancy
between the ideal and actual self-produced by shame
experiences.
The goal of this study was to examine the relationship
between covert narcissism and guilt-proneness. According
to the findings, covert narcissism and guilt repair have a
negative correlation. Covert narcissism and negative
behaviour evaluation also have a negative relationship. This
relationship was not found to be meaningful. According to
similar studies, the negative association between
narcissism and guilt-proneness could be explained by
narcissism's lack of empathy and an excessive sense of
entitlement (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Another study in which they differentiated the two types of
narcissism (overt and covert) through the disposition of
shame and guilt-proneness confirmed that both the
dimensions of narcissism were negatively correlated with
guilt (Kingston, 2005). Another study found that
narcissistic people have a strong sense of entitlement,
which manifests itself as an unjustified expectation of
favourable treatment. They expect to be catered to, and if
this does not happen, they may become violent (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). As a result, it could be one of
the reasons why they are unable to consider the wants and
desires of their people. Individuals with high guilt NBE
(negative behaviour evaluation) ratings are more
empathetic, modest, loyal, agreeable, and generous than
those with low guilt NBE scores in terms of personality.
Furthermore, those with a high level of guilt NBE are more
likely to want to change their behaviour and prevent future
harmful behaviour (Cohen et al., 2012).
Freud (1914) originally felt that women were more
narcissistic than men, based on the premise that women are
more concerned with their physical appearance and are
more likely to engage in self-centred behaviour “make
object choices in reference to qualities desired for the self”
(Wink & Gough.,1990). However, empirical evidence
suggests the opposite pattern of findings, with men having
higher levels of narcissism than women (Tschanz et al.,
1998). Other research, on the other hand, has revealed that
the difference in narcissism between men and women is
almost non-existent (Bizumic & Duckitt., 2008). The
findings from the study indicate that the average score of
men on covert narcissism was significantly more than that
of females. This is because males have scored higher on the
covert narcissism variables than females. Further study by
Wright et al. (1989) also revealed men to be more prone to
narcissism and women to depression. Sex differences
related to shame and guilt are linked to specific situations
and self-images. Males have higher levels of narcissism and
competitiveness as compared to females (Chan & Cheung.,
2020).
Sex differences have also been found in the
re lationship s between hy p ersensitiv i ty a nd the
Exploitativeness/Entitlement factor of narcissism (Ryan et
al., 2008) the study showed that hypersensitivity was
positively correlated with the frequency of physical assault,
such that more hypersensitive men actually reported
greater physical assault toward their partners than their
partners actually reported. In males, vulnerable narcissism
was a significant positive predictor of physical/sexual abuse
perpetration and in females; vulnerable narcissism
em e rged as a sign i f ic a n t po s i t ive predi c tor of
physical/sexual and psychological abuse perpetration
(Valashjardi et al., 2020). The gender difference in
narcissism is crucial to highlight since it implies actual
disparities in the latent characteristic, driven by men's
heightened sense of entitlement and authority. The
etiology of covert narcissism must be studied further, as
well as the effect of gender stereotypes on the emergence of
covert narcissistic features.
Finally, this study aimed at exploring the relationship
of guilt-proneness and shame proneness with covert
narcissism and its expression in young adults in India. The
sample consisted of 180 young adults from the age range of
18-23 years. Findings from the current study indicate that
shame proneness significantly positively relates to covert
narcissism and predicts covert narcissism. It further
concludes that males have significantly higher tendencies
of the development of covert narcissism as compared to
females.
• The present study will serve as useful literature both for the
academic and students for insight in the understanding of
covert narcissism.
• It'll help in throwing more light on the covert and vulnerable
types of narcissism.
• It will also help in devising early intervention programmes to
eliminate shame and guilt to lessen its impact on the
development of maladaptive personality patterns.
Limitations of the study
• In the following study Questionnaire as the tool is used for
data collection and it is prone to have a socially desirable
response.
• Non responded Questions affect the results of the study.
• There was a low participation rate
• Lesser literature was available in context to Covert Narcissism.
• Different perceptions of the items in the study could have led
to subjectivity in the results.
• Quantitative measures of data collection were used.
Implication:
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Qualitative measures like an interview, case study method was
not used for data collection.
• The study was conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic
which affected the availability of the responses.
Future directions
• It can be explored in other age groups, specifically adolescents
in their developmental age.
It can be conducted on a larger sample to generalize the results.
• Other types of narcissism and their relationship with guilt and
shame proneness can be studied.
• Other variables in context to clinical psychology can be
explored with covert narcissism to get deeper insights.
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