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The ‘science of reading’ is incomplete without the ‘science of teaching reading’
Abstract
We now know a huge amount about early reading development, about the various skills that learners have to master and integrate to be not only effective word readers but also good comprehenders. The body of work referred to with the term ‘science of reading’ has helped illuminate these processes, and offers important guidance for the learning opportunities that educators should be making available to students in kindergarten through third grade. We argue, though, that the great advances of the last 50 years in the ‘science of reading’ need to be complemented with equivalent attention to the ‘science of teaching reading.’ We maintain that science of teaching reading is insufficient, and that learning how literacy is actually taught in the classroom and how pre-service and in-service teachers learn about how to teach reading is an important research agenda on its own, if researchers are to collaborate with practitioners effectively to improve reading outcomes.
... A phonics approach to teaching reading, promoted by models such as the 'simple view of reading' (Gough and Tunmer 1986) requires teacher knowledge of how phonemes are represented in alphabetic languages by their graphemic counterparts, consisting of individual letters or, as is often the case in isiZulu, several letter strings, representing a single phoneme. It also requires teachers to have a firm grip on the type of instruction (Kim and Snow 2021) that promotes learners' recognition of the relationship between graphemes and their phonemic counterparts. It was with this issue in mind that the present study was conceptualised, posing the questions: What do foundation phase teachers of reading in isiZulu do in daily classroom practice, and how do they reflect on their work?; and: What is the pedagogical significance of the results of the Early Grades Reading Assessment (EGRA) (Dubeck and Gove 2015) of a cross-sectional, randomly selected sample of foundation phase learners? ...
... It was with this issue in mind that the present study was conceptualised, posing the questions: What do foundation phase teachers of reading in isiZulu do in daily classroom practice, and how do they reflect on their work?; and: What is the pedagogical significance of the results of the Early Grades Reading Assessment (EGRA) (Dubeck and Gove 2015) of a cross-sectional, randomly selected sample of foundation phase learners? The aim of the study was to identify teacher practices and to measure learner performance from the perspective of the 'science of reading' (SoR) as described by literacy specialists in behavioural research (Snow et al. 2005;Ehri 2014;Snow 2017;Kim and Snow 2021) as well as neuroimaging studies (Dehaene and Cohen 2007;Dehaene 2009). ...
... For researchers to invest in the type of collaboration that Kim and Snow (2021) refer to, they need to investigate the work of the teachers of reading in the early grades by close observation in classrooms and in discussion with the practitioners. Several recent studies by South African researchers have investigated what happens in early grade classrooms. ...
... There may be many reasons why classroom teachers do not have sufficient content and pedagogical content knowledge regarding reading and related components. The reasons can be listed: teachers' insufficient undergraduate education in the context of these skills (Buckingham, 2020;Clark et al., 2017;Reid-Lyon and Weiser, 2009); the inservice training and trainers are not qualified (Kim and Snow, 2021;Sims and Fletcher-Wood, 2021); a biased perspective towards in-service training (Kucan et al., 2011); as teachers' insufficient resources such as time and money to devote to in-service training and the training being compulsory (Smith and Gillespie, 2007). On the other hand, teachers may not have expressed the need to acquire these skills. ...
... Sınıf öğretmenlerinin okuma ve ilişkili bileşenlere yönelik alan ve pedagojik alan bilgilerinin yeterli olmamasının birçok nedeni olabilir. Bunlar, bu beceriler bağlamında öğretmenlerin yetersiz lisans eğitimi almış olması (Buckingham, 2020;Clark vd., 2017;Reid Lyon ve Weiser, 2009); alınan hizmet içi eğitimlerin ve/veya eğitimcilerinin nitelikli olmaması (Kim ve Snow, 2021;Sims ve Fletcher-Wood, 2021); hizmet içi eğitime yönelik önyargılı bir bakış açısı (Kucan vd., 2011); öğretmenlerin hizmet içi eğitimlere ayıracak zaman ve para gibi kaynaklarının yetersiz olması ve eğitimlerin zorunlu olması (Smith ve Gillespie, 2007) şeklinde sıralanabilir. Başka bir açıdan öğretmenler bu becerilerin kazandırılmasına ilişkin ihtiyaç belirtmemiş de olabilir. ...
Çalışmanın amacı sınıf öğretmenlerinin okumayı oluşturan bilişsel becerilere yönelik farkındalıklarını artırmak ve farkındalıklarının sınıf içi öğretme ortamına yansımalarını ortaya koymaktır. Çalışma, karma yöntem eylem araştırması olarak desenlenmiş ve yürütülmüştür. Çalışmanın keşfetme aşamasında öğretmenlerin okumayı oluşturan bilişsel becerilere yönelik farkındalıkları odak grup görüşmeleri yoluyla ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Ardından öğretmenlerin okumaya ilişkin bilgilerinin yetersizliğinden hareketle bir müdahale eğitim programı oluşturulmuştur. Çalışmanın değerlendirme aşamasında uygulanan müdahale eğitiminin etkililiği tespit edilmiştir. Araştırmanın izleme aşamasında ise eğitim programı ve takip çalışmalarının sınıf içi öğretim ortamına yansıması yine odak grup görüşmeleri yoluyla ortaya konulmuştur. Çalışmanın keşfetme aşaması katılımcılarını 14 gönüllü sınıf öğretmeni oluşturmuştur. Değerlendirme aşaması katılımcılarını eğitim programına katılan 30 gönüllü sınıf öğretmeni oluştururken izleme aşaması katılımcılarını eğitim programına katılan öğretmenlerden 12 gönüllü sınıf öğretmeni oluşturmuştur. Çalışmada veri toplama aracı olarak araştırmacılar tarafından geliştirilen bilgi testi ve görüşme formları kullanılmıştır. Çalışmanın keşfetme ve izleme aşamalarından elde edilen veriler içerik analizi yöntemiyle çözümlenmiştir. Değerlendirme aşamasından elde edilen verilerin analizinde betimsel istatistiklerin yanında eşli gruplar t-testinden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırmada, sınıf öğretmenlerinin okumayı oluşturan bilişsel bileşenlere ilişkin bilgi eksiklikleri ortaya konulmuş, gerçekleştirilen müdahale eğitimiyle bu eksiklikler giderilmiş ve müdahale eğitimi yoluyla elde ettikleri bilgileri sınıf içi öğretim ortamına yansıttıkları görülmüştür.
... Although reading and writing merit instructional attention on their own, reading instruction that does not systematically incorporate writing opportunities and practices, and writing instruction that does not systematically embed reading opportunities and practices, likely disserve students and their development of reading and writing skills. The present findings, together with a large body of literature on reading-writing relations (see Kim et al., 2024 for a meta-analysis) and instruction (see Graham et al., 2017 for a meta-analysis), indicate that the Science of Teaching Reading (Kim & Snow, 2021) and the associated efforts in policies and research support should consider reading-writing connections (Graham, 2020;Kim et al., 2024). ...
... This includes investigating how teachers acquire the knowledge and skills necessary to effectively teach reading and writing. In the Science of Teaching Reading (Kim & Snow, 2021), the teacher and their instructional practices are seen as a key mechanism through which students' literacy improvements occur, and therefore teacher development, for example via teacher professional development, is an important aspect. As noted earlier, the present study included PBPD for the teachers. ...
Abstract
Purpose: We conducted a randomized control trial of an instructional program, SRSD Plus, which integrates reading for writing to inform, writing, oral language, spelling and handwriting for students in Grades 1 and 2.
Method: A total of 10 teachers and their 248 students in Grade 1 (n = 121) and Grade 2 (n = 127) in the southwestern part of the US participated. The teachers included 6 White individuals, 2 Asian Americans, 1 Hispanic individual, and 1 person from another racial or ethnic background. Among the students, 46% were Asian American, 33% were Hispanic, 14% were White, and 5% were identified as multiracial. Teachers were randomly assigned to the SRSD Plus or business-as-usual (BAU) condition; students were assessed at pretest and posttest on writing, oral language, transcription, and reading skills.
Results: Multilevel model results showed that students in the SRSD Plus condition outperformed those in the BAU condition in spelling, vocabulary, sentence proficiency, planning from source text, discourse knowledge, and writing productivity and writing quality in source-based informational genre (.14 ≤ Effect Size [ES] ≤ .72), but not in word reading or handwriting fluency. Furthermore, although not the target genre, there was a positive effect on writing outcomes in the opinion genre (.22 ≤ ES ≤ .34).
Conclusion: Integrated reading and writing instruction in SRSD Plus can improve primary grade students’ writing, discourse knowledge, planning, oral language, and spelling skills. Theoretical and practical implications and future directions are discussed in the context of the Science of Teaching Reading.
Keywords: Science of Reading, Science of Teaching Reading, Reading-Writing Connection, SRSD, SRSD Plus, reading and writing to inform
... En los últimos años se ha desarrollado un importante cúmulo de conocimientos teóricos y empíricos a partir de los aportes de múltiples disciplinas que han permitido consolidar una ciencia de la lectura y una ciencia de la escritura (Abusamra et al., 2021;Graham, 2020;Kim y Snow, 2021;Snowling et al., 2022). Desde el ámbito de la investigación se ha sostenido que tanto los aspectos sociales y culturales como los cognitivos son fundamentales no solo para comprender cabalmente la lectura y la escritura (Cassany, 2006;Hayes, 2017;Palincsar, 2017) sino también para abordar las prácticas de lectura y escritura que tienen lugar en la escuela, en las que se imbrican diversas perspectivas (Ivanič, 2004;Marder y Zabaleta, 2014;Sánchez-Abchi y Borzone, 2010). ...
... En línea con lo propuesto por Graham (2020) y Kim y Snow (2021), el desafío consiste en avanzar hacia una ciencia de la enseñanza de la lectura y la escritura que integre ambas habilidades y contribuya a continuar examinando qué sucede en las aulas: cuáles son las estrategias que se pueden desplegar para enseñar a leer y a escribir; cuáles son las concepciones y los conocimientos de las y los docentes acerca de la lectura y la escritura; y de qué modo las prácticas de lectura y la escritura tienen lugar en cada una de las asignaturas, esto es, si operan como tareas periféricas o, por el contrario, como prácticas entramadas centrales para la construcción de conocimiento y el abordaje de los contenidos curriculares (Carlino et al., 2013;Roni, 2019). Al mismo tiempo, un desafío complementario involucra tender puentes entre la investigación y la escuela, generando oportunidades para construir conocimiento conjunto acerca de la enseñanza de la lectura y la escritura, de manera de promover vínculos bidireccionales entre investigaciones que puedan informar las prácticas escolares y experiencias pedagógicas que puedan contribuir a la construcción del conocimiento (Graham, 2020;Kim y Snow, 2021). ...
Leer y escribir constituyen habilidades y prácticas indispensables para vivir en una sociedad letrada y desempeñarse dentro del sistema educativo. En este trabajo, reflexionamos sobre las especificidades que adquiere la investigación empírica que involucra la implementación de propuestas de enseñanza de la lectura y la escritura en la escuela secundaria, sobre la base de dos revisiones sistemáticas en las que relevamos 24 propuestas desarrolladas con estudiantes hispanohablantes, en el contexto iberoamericano a lo largo de la última década. Encontramos que el abordaje de la enseñanza de la lectura, la escritura y los contenidos curriculares de diversas asignaturas puede adscribirse a dos perfiles diferenciados: enseñanza explícita de la comprensión o producción de textos en articulación con la enseñanza de los contenidos curriculares y enseñanza de contenidos mediante el abordaje dialógico de los textos. Las propuestas implementadas específicamente en América Latina abordan, de manera mayoritaria, la enseñanza de la lectura. Discutimos estos resultados en cuanto al desarrollo de habilidades de alfabetización. Conocer los modos en que se enseña a leer y a escribir a adolescentes y jóvenes puede contribuir tanto al diseño de nuevas propuestas de enseñanza como al desarrollo de reflexiones teóricas e iniciativas empíricas que aborden, en el interior de las asignaturas, la enseñanza explícita de la lectura y la escritura desde los contenidos curriculares.
... Faculty in Texas EPPs have reviewed their courses to ensure alignment with the standards (Wetzel et al., 2020). Some researchers contend understanding how both preservice and in-service teachers learn to teach reading is essential in ensuring positive student learning outcomes in literacy (Kim & Snow, 2021). It is hoped this knowledge will foster analysis of not only pathways for success in teaching reading but also provide insight into the future of literacy instruction and research. ...
Faculty in two Educator Preparation Programs examined the models of pedagogy adapted in response to the Science of Teaching Reading(STR) mandates. These are revised traditional literacy courses, the use of service learning projects which include a reading lab, and a stand-alone STR exam preparation course. The programming reveals a convergence of literacy instruction, the new reading wars, education policies, and a commitment to preparing preservice teachers to succeed.
... In our effort to address the SOR in a way that can make a significant impact on both research and practice, we have previously argued that the Science of Teaching Reading deserves dedicated attention and its own research agenda (Kim & Snow, 2021; also see Shanahan, 2020 for a need for "a Science of Reading Instruction"). This research agenda should include questions related to classroom teaching practices (e.g., content, intensity, conditions, context), sources of classroom teaching practices, the learning and development of preservice and in-service teachers, and systemic factors such as policies (e.g., language of instruction, teacher education). ...
... From a practice point of view, our integrated conceptual framework suggests that effective reading instruction should not only focus on building students' components and cognitive processes (Kim & Snow, 2021) but also on providing them with rich and varied reading experiences that expose them to new ideas and perspectives (Terry, 2021). By engaging with a diverse range of texts and participating in collaborative knowledge-building activities, readers can expand their knowledge base and develop a more comprehensive understanding of the world around them (Muhammad et al., 2021). ...
... Diversos referentes de la investigación en lectura y escritura a nivel internacional (Graham, 2020;Kim y Snow, 2021) han señalado que, ante el cuerpo de conocimientos que articulan una ciencia de la lectura y de la escritura, el desafío hoy consiste en avanzar hacia una ciencia de la enseñanza de la lectura y la escritura que contribuya a indagar qué ocurre en las aulas, cuáles son las concepciones y los conocimientos que las y los docentes tienen acerca de la lectura y la escritura, cuáles son las estrategias más adecuadas que se pueden poner en práctica para enseñar a leer y a escribir, entre otras cuestiones. El libro reseñado tiene justamente ese mérito: tender un puente entre el ámbito de la investigación y el de la educación, que en el caso de Beatriz Diuk confluyen en un perfil y una trayectoria personales que no siempre resultan frecuentes. ...
Esta reseña presenta el libro Enseñar a leer y escribir. Guía práctica (y equilibrada) para orientarse en el barullo de la alfabetización inicial. En él, Beatriz Diuk aborda la alfabetización en los primeros años de la escolaridad primaria poniendo en diálogo su propia experiencia en las aulas con los aportes teóricos y empíricos que la investigación ha proporcionado para el desarrollo de prácticas educativas basadas en evidencia. En esta reseña se realiza un recorrido por los distintos capítulos del libro y se ponderan sus contribuciones a la configuración de una ciencia de la enseñanza de la lectura y la escritura.
... In relation to the how, the analyses showed little impact of the programme's pedagogical principles in classroom practices observed. Kim and Snow (2021) and Shanahan (2020) point out the difficulty in translating the basic research of the science of reading into instructional proposals and programmes. It is particularly difficult to predict how research evidence will translate in instructional contexts very different from those where the research has been produced. ...
... While the debate continues on whether to teach wholelanguage, phonics, or balanced literacy, effective teaching and instruction should not be overlooked (Kim & Snow, 2021). Programs that effectively prevent reading failure contain quality instruction with the right intensity and duration delivered to children at the right time (Torgesen, 1998). ...
Response to Intervention (RTI) was created to support student’ growth in reading while reducing the number of students requiring testing for disabilities. The aim of this study was to examine teacher perceptions of Tier 2 RTI reading interventions. Specifically, this study examined perceptions of professional development, data and progress monitoring, resources and support surrounding reading interventions. A quantitative, descriptive research design was utilized in this study. A total of thirty-six participants completed the survey. Results of the study help to support teachers as they continue the self-less act of shaping our future leaders. Keywords: MTSS, RTI, reading interventions, teacher perceptions
Embark on a journey through the rich tapestry of developmental psychology with 'Pillars of Developmental Psychology.' This collection reveals personal histories of influential scholars, the living 'pillars,' whose decades-long contributions have shaped the discipline. The book deepens the argument that a complete understanding of the field requires the human narratives that have woven its fabric, complementing and going beyond analytical views. These 'pillars' not only recount the achievements and challenges of their journeys, but also highlight how their work can inspire future generations. This reflective anthology resonates across disciplines, offering invaluable insights for scholars and students alike. A framing preface, tantalizing abstracts, illuminating chapters, and a closing commentary amplify the significance of these scholars' contributions, revealing overarching themes in personal, inter-personal, institutional, socio-political, and intellectual dimensions. "Pillars of Developmental Psychology" is a testament to the enduring impact of these luminaries and a roadmap for the dynamic future of developmental inquiry.
Laws, practices, and research about reading difficulties have been gradually and rapidly changing since the passage of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act in 1974. It is difficult for schools to keep up, especially when it takes approximately 16 years for research to reach widespread public knowledge. In this article, I frame the latest research about reading difficulties within the daily discussions occurring in schools. I address misconceptions and best practices about dyslexia, learning disabilities, screening, instruction, and a common, but unknown cause of reading difficulties—developmental language disorder. Research cited in this article come from studies funded by the National Institutes of Child Health and Development and the Institute of Education Sciences.
Research-based instruction is necessary to support students’ reading development, and professional development (PD) is a critical avenue to ensuring high-quality instructional practices. To date, there has been no comprehensive review focused on the effects of teacher PD on student reading achievement. As such, the purpose of the present meta-analysis was to examine the impact of teacher PD on reading outcomes for students in kindergarten through 8th grade. A secondary aim was to determine whether study, program, or participant characteristics were potential moderators of these effects. A comprehensive search of published and unpublished research between 1975 and 2017 resulted in 28 studies that met prescribed criteria. Results indicate that teacher PD has a moderate and significant, positive average effect on reading achievement. However, moderator analyses did not explain the variance in the effects of PD on student outcomes. Primarily, studies represented typically-developing students in the elementary grades, with only three studies including middle school students and four studies including reading outcomes of students with or at-risk for reading disabilities. Recommendations for improved study designs that allow for more in-depth investigation of the characteristics of effective PD and mechanisms of change in student outcomes are discussed.
We investigated 2 hypotheses of a recently proposed integrative theoretical model of reading, the direct and indirect effects model of reading (DIER; Kim, 2017b, 2019): (a) hierarchical relations and (b) dynamic relations (or differential relations) of skills to reading comprehension. Students were assessed on reading comprehension, word reading, listening comprehension, working memory, attention, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, perspective taking (theory of mind), knowledge-based inference, and comprehension monitoring in Grade 2 and again in Grade 4. Structural equation model results supported the hierarchical relations hypothesis of DIER. When a nonhierarchical, direct relations model was fitted, primarily the upper level skills (i.e., word reading and listening comprehension) were statistically significant. When hierarchical, direct, and indirect relations models were fitted, lower level skills (e.g., working memory, vocabulary) and higher order cognitive skills (e.g., perspective taking) were indirectly related to reading comprehension via multiple pathways, whereas word reading and listening comprehension remained directly related to reading comprehension. Furthermore, the magnitudes of relations varied in Grade 2 versus Grade 4 such that perspective taking (as measured by theory of mind), vocabulary, and working memory had larger effects whereas comprehension monitoring and grammatical knowledge had smaller effects on reading comprehension in Grade 4 than in Grade 2. These results provide some support for the dynamic relations hypothesis of DIER, but also suggest the complex nature of the dynamic relations as a function of development and text characteristics.
There is intense public interest in questions surrounding how children learn to read and how they can best be taught. Research in psychological science has provided answers to many of these questions but, somewhat surprisingly, this research has been slow to make inroads into educational policy and practice. Instead, the field has been plagued by decades of “reading wars.” Even now, there remains a wide gap between the state of research knowledge about learning to read and the state of public understanding. The aim of this article is to fill this gap. We present a comprehensive tutorial review of the science of learning to read, spanning from children’s earliest alphabetic skills through to the fluent word recognition and skilled text comprehension characteristic of expert readers. We explain why phonics instruction is so central to learning in a writing system such as English. But we also move beyond phonics, reviewing research on what else children need to learn to become expert readers and considering how this might be translated into effective classroom practice. We call for an end to the reading wars and recommend an agenda for instruction and research in reading acquisition that is balanced, developmentally informed, and based on a deep understanding of how language and writing systems work.
We examined classrooms as complex systems that affect students' literacy learning through interacting effects of content and amount of time individual students spent in literacy instruction along with the global quality of the classroom-learning environment. We observed 27 third grade classrooms serving 315 target students using two different observation systems. The first assessed instruction at a more micro-level; specifically, the amount of time individual students spent in literacy instruction defined by the type of instruction, role of the teacher, and content. The second assessed the quality of the classroom-learning environment at a more macro level focusing on classroom organization, teacher responsiveness, and support for vocabulary and language. Results revealed that both global quality of the classroom learning environment and time individual students spent in specific types of literacy instruction covering specific content interacted to predict students' comprehension and vocabulary gains whereas neither system alone did. These findings support a dynamic systems model of how individual children learn in the context of classroom literacy instruction and the classroom-learning environment, which can help to improve observations systems, advance research, elevate teacher evaluation and professional development, and enhance student achievement.
In an effort to identify effective instructional practices for teaching writing to elementary grade students, we conducted a meta-analysis of the writing intervention literature, focusing our efforts on true and quasi-experiments. We located 115 documents that included the statistics for computing an effect size (ES). We calculated an average weighted ES for 13 writing interventions. To be included in the analysis, a writing intervention had to be tested in 4 studies. Six writing interventions involved explicitly teaching writing processes, skills, or knowledge. All but 1 of these interventions (grammar instruction) produced a statistically significant effect: strategy instruction (ES 1.02), adding self-regulation to strategy instruction (ES 0.50), text structure instruction (ES 0.59), creativity/imagery instruction (ES 0.70), and teaching transcription skills (ES 0.55). Four writing interventions involved procedures for scaffolding or supporting students’ writing. Each of these interventions produced statistically significant effects: prewriting activities (ES 0.54), peer assistance when writing (ES 0.89), product goals (ES 0.76), and assessing writing (0.42). We also found that word processing (ES 0.47), extra writing (ES 0.30), and comprehensive writing programs (ES 0.42) resulted in a statistically significant improvement in the quality of students’ writing. Moderator analyses revealed that the self-regulated strategy development model (ES 1.17) and process approach to writing instruction (ES 0.40) improved how well students wrote.
The purpose of this study was to determine whether third-grade teachers' instructional actions during reading comprehension lessons contributed to their students' reading comprehension achievement. Our framework focused on teachers' emphasis on three dimensions of instruction (pedagogical structure, teacher-directed instruction, and support for student learning), as observed in comprehension lessons across a year. Third-grade teachers' instruction was analyzed first by measuring their latent propensity to engage in instructional actions in the three dimensions and then by using these latent variables in a multilevel model to examine their students' gains in reading comprehension. Results provided support for the theoretical dimensions, taking into account contextual variables including lesson, student, and teacher characteristics; teachers' engagement in teacher-directed instruction and their support for student learning significantly contributed to their students' reading comprehension. Results suggest that analysis of teachers' instructional actions within and across lessons is a promising approach for the study of effective reading instruction.
Remarkable progress has been made in the last 30 years toward understanding the ba- sic psychological processes that underlie the act of reading. Dissemination of these re- sults has sometimes been hampered because they are associated with strong stances on 5 different dimensions that represent styles of doing science. Research into the psychology of reading has been characterized by an emphasis on correspondence the- ories of truth rather than coherence, an emphasis on analytic reductionism rather than holism, an emphasis on probabilistic prediction (as opposed to a case-based ap- proach), the search for robust-process explanations (rather than actual-sequence ex- planations), and a concern for consilience. These scientific styles have served the field well to this point, but that does not mean that we have calibrated their use in the optimal manner. Critiques by those with differing scientific styles may help the field to adjust its stance on these style dimensions in ways that foster scientific progress. This article ends with some thoughts on the difficulty of defining the scientific method. The honor of delivering the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award address to the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading (SSSR) allowed me to discuss some of the obstacles we face in disseminating the results of scientific investiga- tions on the acquisition and teaching of reading. The work honored was made pos- sible by collaborative research with a host of individuals. I have been unusually blessed in my colleagues. In Richard West and Anne Cunningham I have had two continuous collaborators and friends for more than 2 decades. A host of others (among them Linda Allen, Jim Cipielewski, Ruth Nathan, and Linda Siegel) have
This study draws from the National Center for Early Development and Learning's Multi-State Pre-Kindergarten Study to examine the extent to which program, class- room, and teacher attributes of the program ecology predict observed quality and teacher-child interactions in a sample of 238 classrooms representing 6 states' pre-kindergarten programs. Quality was assessed observationally at the global level and for specific teaching practices. Quality was lower in classrooms with more than 60% of the children from homes below the poverty line, when teachers lacked formal training (or a degree) in early childhood education, and held less child-centered beliefs. Program and teacher attributes were statistically significant, albeit quite modest, predictors of observed quality. Location of the program in a school building, child:staff ratio, and length of day had no relation to quality. State-level factors not attributable to the teacher, program, and classroom factors examined accounted for the majority of explained variance in observed quality. Re- sults suggest that the association between distal features of programs and teachers and quality in pre-kindergarten is more similar to elementary school settings than to child care settings and that quality appears most closely related to proximal teacher and child characteristics.
ABSTRACTS
Reading teacher education in the next millennium: What your Grandmother's teacher didn't know that your granddaughter's teacher should
The preparation of teachers in the area of reading education is a primary concern of those who seek to improve reading achievement in schools. The challenges of the next millennium will make teacher preparation even more of an issue. Changes in the nature of literacy itself, changes in the diversity of our student population, and changes in the occupational characteristics of teaching are part of the near future. Research in the area of teacher preparation has been limited. We summarize the research in teacher preparation and argue that a great deal is known about the training of teachers but much less about the teaching of teachers. It is the latter that must occupy our attention if we are to prepare future teachers for the changing landscape of reading education. We review research in the areas of training and teaching of teachers and point toward promising practices in the area of teaching teachers. These promising practices emphasize such features as inquiry and reflection and we argue that there are political forces that privilege a training model for the preparation of teachers and that the emphasis on teaching teachers will be difficult. We conclude with recommendations for a research agenda in reading teacher education that is based on our analysis of the status quo.
La formación de los docentes de lectura en el próximo milenio: Lo que la maestra de tu abuela no sabía y la maestra de tu nieta debe saber
LA FORMACIÓN docente en el área de enseñanza de la lectura es una preocupación fundamental de aquellos que buscan mejorar el desempeño en lectura en las escuelas. Los desafíos del próximo milenio harán que la formación docente sea un tema muy importante. Cambios en la naturaleza de la alfabetización, cambios en la diversidad de la población de estudiantes y cambios en las características laborales de la docencia son parte del futuro cercano. La investigación en el área de formación docente ha sido limitada. Resumimos la investigación en formación docente y argumentamos que se sabe mucho sobre el entrenamiento docente y poco sobre enseñar a los docentes. Esta última cuestión es la que debe ocupar nuestra atención si el objetivo es preparar futuros docentes para el terreno cambiante de la enseñanza de la lectura. Revisamos investigaciones en las áreas de entrenamiento y enseñanza a los docentes y señalamos prácticas prometedoras en la enseñanza de los docentes. Estas prácticas enfatizan rasgos tales como la investigación y la reflexión. Asimismo argumentamos que hay fuerzas políticas que privilegian un modelo de entrenamiento para la formación docente y que poner el énfasis en la enseñanza será difícil. Concluimos con recomendaciones para una agenda de investigación en la formación de docentes en lectura basada en nuestro análisis del estado de la cuestión.
Lehrerausbildung im Lesen im nächsten Jahrtausend: Was der Lehrer Ihrer Großmutter nicht wußte, das sollte der Lehrer Ihrer Enkelin wissen
DIE VORBEREITUNG von Lehrern auf dem Gebiet der LeseAusbildung ist ein primäres Anliegen von jenen, die sich bemühen, die Leseleistungen in den Schulen zu verbessern. Die Herausforderungen des nächsten Jahrtausends verleihen der Vorbereitung zum Lehrer noch weit mehr an Bedeutung. Veränderungen in der Natur des Lesens und Schreibens selbst, stetiger Wechsel in der Vielfalt der Bevölkerung unserer Schüler, und Veränderungen in den beruflichen Charakteristiken der Unterrichtserteilung sind alle ein Bestandteil der unmittelbaren Zukunft. Die Forschung auf dem Gebiet der Lehrervorbereitung war bisher begrenzt. Wir fassen die Forschung in der Lehrvorbereitung zusammen und argumentieren, daß ein Großteil über das Training von Lehrern bekannt ist, jedoch weit weniger über das Unterrichten der Lehrer selbst. Letztere sind es, denen unsere Aufmerksamkeit gelten muß, wenn wir künftige Lehrer auf die sich än dernde Landschaft in der Leseausbildung vorbereiten. Wir werfen einen Rückblick auf die Forschung auf dem Gebiet der Lehrerausbildung und deren Lehrvermittlung im Ausbildungsunterricht von Lehrern und weisen auf die vielversprechenden Fortschritte in den Bereichen der Lehrerausbildung und Fortbildung hin. Diese vielversprechenden Vorgänge bekräftigen solche Bemühungen durch Untersuchungen und Rückblicke und wir argumentieren, daß es politische Bestrebungen gibt, welche ein Aus‐ und Fortbildungsmodell für Lehrer stark befürworten und daß eine Betonung der Lehrerausbildung schwierig sein wird. Wir schließen mit Empfehlungen für eine Forschungsagenda in der Lehrerausbildung zum Lesen, die auf unsere vom Status quo ausgehende Analyse basiert.
La formation des maîtres en lecture au prochain millénaire: ce que le maître de votre grand mère ne savait pas et que le maître de votre petite fille devrait savoir
LA FORMATION des maîtres dans le domaine de la lecture est la préoccupation principale de ceux qui cherchent à améliorer les résultats en lecture dans les écoles. Les défis du prochain millénaire font de la formation des maîtres un problème de plus en plus préoccupant. Des changements dans la nature même de la littératie, des changements dans la diversité de notre public d'élèves, et des changements dans les caractéristiques professionnelles de l'enseignement font partie intégrante de notre proche avenir. La recherche dans le domaine de la formation des maîtres est limitée. Nous en faisons un résumé et soutenons qu'on sait beaucoup de choses sur l'entraînement des maîtres mais pas sur leur éducation. C'est cette dernière qui devrait retenir notre attention si nous voulons préparer les enseignants de demain au nouveau paysage de l'enseignement de la lecture. Nous faisons une revue de question du domaine de l'enseignement et de l'éducation des maîtres et indiquons des pratiques prometteuses dans le domaine de l'éducation des maîtres. Ces pratiques prometteuses mettent l'accent sur des caractéristiques telles que la recherche et la réflexion et nous soutenons que ce sont les forces politiques qui privilégient tel ou tel modèle de formation des maîtres et qu'il sera difficile de mettre l'accent sur l'éducation des maîtres. Nous concluons par des recommandations pour un agenda de recherche dans l'éducation des maîtres à la lecture qui soit basé sur notre analyse de la situation actuelle.
ABSTRACTS
Looking back, looking forward: A conversation about teaching reading in the 21st century.
Two researchers, frequent collaborators on studies of policy for learners at‐risk of school failure, talk about what they learned about teaching reading—appropriate instructional texts, for example—from studies conducted during the past century. They identify themes that were significant at various points in time that have surfaced again as the century comes to a close, such as the need to evoke and define scientific inquiry in reading by the research community. As these researchers look to the future, they discuss their views on particular policy instruments, namely, school choice, teacher development, and mandated instructional material, as strategies for building school capacity for teaching reading to learners at‐risk in the new millennium.
Una mirada hacia atrás, una morada hacia delante: Diálogo acerca de la enseñanza de la lectura en el siglo XXI.
DOS INVESTIGADORES, colaboradores frecuentes en estudios sobre políticas para niños en riesgo de fracaso escolar, hablan acerca de lo que han aprendido sobre la enseñanza de la lectura‐textos de enseñanza apropiados, por ejemplo‐en estudios conducidos durante el siglo pasado. Se identifican temas que fueron significativos en varios momentos y que han resurgido a medida que finaliza el siglo, tales como la necesidad de que la comunidad científica evoque y defina la investigación en lectura. Al mirar hacia el futuro, estos investigadores discuten sus concepciones sobre instrumentos específicos como la elección de escuela, la formación docente y los materiales de instrucción exigidos, en términos de estrategias para capacitar a las escuelas en la enseñanza de la lectura a niños en riesgo en el contexto del milenio.
Rückblick, vorausschau: Eine Konversation über den leseunterricht im 21ten Jahrhundert
ZWEI FORSCHER, häufige Mitarbeiter beim Studium von Anweisungen an Lernende bei denen die Gefahr des Versagens in der Schule besteht, unterhalten sich darüber, was sie über den Leseunterricht gelernt haben‐geeignete Anweisungstexte, zum Beispiel‐aus Studien, die während des vergangenen Jahrhunderts durchgeführt wurden. Sie identifizieren Themen, die einmal zu bestimmten Zeiten bedeutungsvoll waren, dann erneut am Ende des Jahrhunderts wieder auftauchten, sobald die Notwendigkeit zur Herausforderung und Definition wissenschaftlicher Untersuchungen im Fach Lesen seitens der forschenden Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft bestand. Während diese Forscher in die Zukunft blicken, diskutieren sie ihre Ansichten über bestimmte Verfahrensweisen, nämlich Wahl der Schule, Lehrerentwicklung, und vorgegebene erzieherische Unterrichtsmaterialien, sowie Strategien zum Ausbau der Schulkapazität im Leseunterricht für jene Schüler, die im neuen Millennium Risiken ausgesetzt sind.
Regarder en arrière, regarder en avant: Discussion sur l'enseignement de la lecture au 21°siècle
DEUX CHERCHEURS, qui effectuent souvent ensemble des recherches sur la politique relative aux enfants à risque d'échec scolaire, parlent de ce qu'ils ont appris au sujet de l'enseignement de la lecture—les textes au niveau voulu, par exemple—dans les recherches qui ont été faites au siècle dernier. Ils identifient des thèmes qui ont été significatifs à différents moments et qui ont à nouveau fait surface alors que le siècle tirait à sa fin, comme le besoin de la commu nauté scientifique de mettre à l'ordre du jour et de définir la recherche scientifique en lecture. Quand ces chercheurs se tournent vers l'avenir, ils discutent de leurs conceptions relatives à des instruments politiques particuliers, à savoir le choix de l'école, la formation des maîtres, et le matériel pédagogique prescrit, comme stratégies permettant de construire la capacité de l'école à enseigner la lecture aux enfants à risque du prochain millénaire.
American schools of education get little respect. They are portrayed as intellectual wastelands, as impractical and irrelevant, as the root cause of bad teaching and inadequate learning. In this book a sociologist and historian of education examines the historical developments and contemporary factors that have resulted in the unenviable status of ed schools, offering valuable insights into the problems of these beleaguered institutions. David F. Labaree explains how the poor reputation of the ed school has had important repercussions, shaping the quality of its programs, its recruitment, and the public response to the knowledge it offers. He notes the special problems faced by ed schools as they prepare teachers and produce research and researchers. And he looks at the consequences of the ed school's attachment to educational progressivism. Throughout these discussions, Labaree maintains an ambivalent position about education schools-admiring their dedication and critiquing their mediocrity, their romantic rhetoric, and their compliant attitudes.
Focuses on the staff development process and describes a project in which a group of teachers explored barriers to teachers' use of research-based practices when teaching reading comprehension. Ends with an invitation for other teachers to engage in a similar process and to communicate their stories. (MG)
This study compared effectiveness of "business as usual" to that of 4 professional development (PD) programs that targeted teachers of at-risk preschool children. A 2 × 2 design was used to cross mentoring and progress monitoring conditions among the 4 PD programs. Specifically, some teachers received both in-classroom mentoring and detailed, instructionally linked feedback concerning children's progress in language and literacy. Some teachers received no mentoring but did receive the detailed, instructionally linked feedback concerning children's progress. Some teachers received in-classroom mentoring but only limited feedback on children's progress, which was not linked to curricular activities. Finally, some teachers received no mentoring and only limited feedback concerning children's progress. All 4 PD conditions included the same year-long, facilitated online course that emphasized language and literacy instruction, practice of learned material in one's classroom, and participation in online message boards with fellow teachers. Across 4 states, 158 schools (N = 262 classrooms) were randomly assigned to 1 of the 4 PD conditions or business as usual. The condition that included online coursework combined with mentoring and detailed, instructionally linked feedback yielded the greatest improvements in teaching behavior and children's school readiness.
Recent national reports have stressed the importance of teacher knowledge in teaching reading. However, in the past, teachers' knowledge of language and literacy constructs has typically been assessed with instruments that are not fully tested for validity. In the present study, an instrument was developed; and its reliability, item difficulty, and item discrimination were computed and examined to identify model fit by applying exploratory factor analysis. Such analyses showed that the instrument demonstrated adequate estimates of reliability in assessing teachers' knowledge of language constructs. The implications for professional development of in-service teachers as well as preservice teacher education are also discussed.
There is considerable concern that the majority of adolescents do not develop the competence in writing the), need to be successful in school, the workplace, or their personal lives. A common explanation for why youngsters do not write well is that schools do not do a good job of teaching this complex skill. In an effort to identify effective instructional practices for teaching writing to adolescents, the authors conducted a meta-analysis of the writing intervention literature (Grades 4-12), focusing their efforts on experimental and quasi-experimental studies. They located 123 documents that yielded 154 effect sizes for quality of writing. The authors calculated an average weighted effect size (presented in parentheses) for the following I I interventions: strategy instruction (0.82), summarization (0.82), peer assistance (0.75), setting product goals (0.70), word processing (0.55), sentence combining (0.50), inquiry (0.32), prewriting activities (0.32), process writing approach (0.32), study of models (0.25), grammar instruction (-0.32).
We report the results of a study with 30 teachers designed to examine the effects of teacher knowledge on the achievement
of struggling readers. We worked with teachers of grades three, four, and five during a 10-day intervention focused on literacy
instruction and related linguistic knowledge, and we assessed their students’ learning across the year. Hierarchical models
of student outcomes indicated that lower-performing students in intervention classrooms showed significantly higher levels
of performance at year end on all literacy measures, compared with their peers in control classrooms (n=140). In addition, teacher’s linguistic knowledge was related to improved student performance, regardless of condition.
Additional analyses including all students (n=718) indicated that benefits for the lower performing students in intervention classrooms were shared by their classmates,
but to a more limited extent.
Reading disabilities such as dyslexia, a specific learning disability that affects an individual's ability to process written language, are estimated to affect 15-20% of the general population. Consequently, elementary school teachers encounter students who struggle with inaccurate or slow reading, poor spelling, poor writing, and other language processing difficulties. However, recent evidence may suggest that teacher preparation programs are not providing preservice teachers with information about basic language constructs and other components related to scientifically based reading instruction. As a consequence preservice teachers have not exhibited explicit knowledge of such concepts in previous studies. Few studies have sought to assess preservice teachers' knowledge about dyslexia in conjunction with knowledge of basic language concepts. The purpose of the present study was to examine elementary school preservice teachers' knowledge of basic language constructs and their perceptions and knowledge about dyslexia. Findings from the present study suggest that preservice teachers, on average, are able to display implicit skills related to certain basic language constructs (i.e., syllable counting), but fail to demonstrate explicit knowledge of others (i.e., phonics principles). Also, preservice teachers seem to hold the common misconception that dyslexia is a visual perception deficit rather than a problem with phonological processing. Implications for future research as well as teacher preparation are discussed.
A major challenge to students learning science is the academic language in which science is written. Academic language is
designed to be concise, precise, and authoritative. To achieve these goals, it uses sophisticated words and complex grammatical
constructions that can disrupt reading comprehension and block learning. Students need help in learning academic vocabulary
and how to process academic language if they are to become independent learners of science.
A parallel distributed processing model of visual word recognition and pronunciation is described. The model consists of sets of orthographic and phonological units and an interlevel of hidden units. Weights on connections between units were modified during a training phase using the back-propagation learning algorithm. The model simulates many aspects of human performance, including (a) differences between words in terms of processing difficulty, (b) pronunciation of novel items, (c) differences between readers in terms of word recognition skill, (d) transitions from beginning to skilled reading, and (e) differences in performance on lexical decision and naming tasks. The model's behavior early in the learning phase corresponds to that of children acquiring word recognition skills. Training with a smaller number of hidden units produces output characteristic of many dyslexic readers. Naming is simulated without pronunciation rules, and lexical decisions are simulated without accessing word-level representations. The performance of the model is largely determined by three factors: the nature of the input, a significant fragment of written English; the learning rule, which encodes the implicit structure of the orthography in the weights on connections; and the architecture of the system, which influences the scope of what can be learned.
This monograph discusses research, theory, and practice relevant to how children learn to read English. After an initial overview of writing systems, the discussion summarizes research from developmental psychology on children's language competency when they enter school and on the nature of early reading development. Subsequent sections review theories of learning to read, the characteristics of children who do not learn to read (i.e., who have developmental dyslexia), research from cognitive psychology and cognitive neuroscience on skilled reading, and connectionist models of learning to read. The implications of the research findings for learning to read and teaching reading are discussed. Next, the primary methods used to teach reading (phonics and whole language) are summarized. The final section reviews laboratory and classroom studies on teaching reading. From these different sources of evidence, two inescapable conclusions emerge: (a) Mastering the alphabetic principle (that written symbols are associated with phonemes) is essential to becoming proficient in the skill of reading, and (b) methods that teach this principle directly are more effective than those that do not (especially for children who are at risk in some way for having difficulty learning to read). Using whole-language activities to supplement phonics instruction does help make reading fun and meaningful for children, but ultimately, phonics instruction is critically important because it helps beginning readers understand the alphabetic principle and learn new words. Thus, elementary -school teachers who make the alphabetic principle explicit are most effective in helping their students become skilled, independent readers.
Reading skills are foundational for daily lives, academic achievement, and careers. In this study, we systematically reviewed literacy interventions in low‐ and middle‐income countries, and estimated their effects on children's reading skills using a meta‐analytic approach. A total of 67 studies (N = 213,464) from 32 countries found in various databases (e.g., PsycINFO, ERIC) and sources (e.g., United States Agency for International Development) met our inclusion criteria. The results revealed an overall effect of .30 across various literacy outcomes. Effects varied for different outcomes, such that largest effects were found in emergent literacy skills (e.g., .40) and the smallest effects in reading comprehension (.25) and oral language skills (.20). Effects also varied as a function of other features such as teacher training support.
Many students at risk for or identified with reading disabilities need intensive reading interventions. This meta-analysis provides an update to the Wanzek and Vaughn synthesis on intensive early reading interventions. Effects from 25 reading intervention studies are analyzed to examine the overall effect of intensive early reading interventions as well as relationships between intervention and student characteristics related to outcomes. The weighted mean effect size (ES) estimate (ES = 0.39), with a mean effect size adjusted for publication bias (ES = 0.28), both significantly different from zero, suggested intensive early reading interventions resulted in positive outcomes for early struggling readers in kindergarten through third grades. There was no statistically significant or meaningful heterogeneity in the study-wise effect sizes. Exploratory examination of time in intervention, instructional group size, initial reading achievement, and date of publication are provided.
The purpose of this study is to contribute to efforts to improve methods for gathering and analyzing data from classroom observations in early literacy. The methodological approach addresses current problems of reliability and validity of classroom observations by taking into account differences in teachers’ uses of instructional actions (e.g., modeling) in specific skill areas (e.g., fluency, reading comprehension). The findings from observations of second‐ and third‐grade teachers’ literacy instruction showed that teachers’ instructional actions differed by literacy skill area and were more consistent within than across skill areas. Furthermore, teachers’ uses of instructional actions in a given skill area were more strongly associated with students’ gains in achievement in that skill area than were teachers’ uses of actions across all skill areas. The approach offers significant improvements in methods to identify features of effective literacy instruction.
Federal mandates more than a decade old require the use of evidence-based practices in schools, and an abundance of meta-analytic evidence for reading instruction exists; however, the long lamented research to practice gap in education gives reason to explore whether this evidence has translated to classrooms. This study examined the extent to which a national sample of kindergarten, first- and second-grade teachers (n = 534) reported using evidence-based reading curricula. Results indicated that very few curricula teachers used have been evaluated using research designs that meet federal guidelines. In addition, teachers reported supplanting their core reading curricula with other materials. Results of the survey indicate the need, despite a federal push for evidence-based practices, for new models of developing, testing, and disseminating evidence-based curricula.
Knowledge brokers are people or organizations that move knowledge around and create connections between researchers and their various audiences. This commentary reviews some of the literature on knowledge brokering and lays out some thoughts on how to analyze and theorize this practice. Discussing the invisibility and interstitiality of knowledge brokers, the author argues that social scientists need to analyze more thoroughly their practices, the brokering devices they use, and the benefits and drawbacks of their double peripherality. The author also argues that knowledge brokers do not only move knowledge, but they also produce a new kind of knowledge: brokered knowledge.
The social-linguistic experiences of early readers in interaction with their parents were compared to that of age peers from similar families. Twelve kindergarten children, six precocious readers (ER) and six prereading peers (PR), and their parents were subjects for this study. Children were matched on age, sex, and receptive vocabulary (PPVT). ERs were reading fluently at the third grade level. The PRs presented age-appropriate emergent literacy skills. All parents were middle class, and educated at least two years beyond secondary school. The oral language of all speakers was analyzed for variables considered to be facilitative of the development of decontextualized language. Analyses of the 36 audio-recorded interactions focused on elements that described each speaker's 1) language complexity, 2) conversational devices, and 3) topic, as well as the children's performance on two decontextualized language tasks. ERs' parents created an even more enriched language environment for their children than PRs' parents. All significant and nonsignificant differences relating to decontextualized language favored ER families. ERs did not differ from PRs on the decontextualized task of giving formal definitions, though they did produce more complete and comprehensible procedural descriptions.
Answering the call for a comprehensive textbook on what reading teachers really need to know, this is the book that arms educators with not just the what and the how, but also the why that other texts don't cover. Two prominent literacy experts team with an elementary school specialist to give preservice teachers an easy-to-understand textbook that demystifies the research and incorporates everyday classroom experience. With its meticulous coverage of every aspect of effective reading instruction, this book ensures that general educators across grade levels: (1) learn techniques for teaching all the literacy skills identified by Reading First; (2) get the clearest explanations available of the scientifically based research behind the strategies; (3) fully understand how and when literacy skills are acquired and what factors influence the process; (4) discover the best ways to teach students with learning disabilities, reading disabilities, and dyslexia; (5) get ready to conduct effective assessment of students' reading skills; and (6) find out how to use the latest instructional technology to help advance students' literacy. With its practical, research-based answers to the three most important questions literacy educators face--what to teach, how to teach, and why to teach the recommended way--this upper-level textbook will make sure teachers enter the classroom ready and motivated to implement best practices. Contents of this book include: (1) Introduction to Literacy Skills and Their Acquisition; (2) The Psychology of Reading and the History of Literacy Instruction in the United States; (3) The Psycholinguistics of Spoken Language; (4) The Psycholinguistics of Written Language; (5) Development of Spoken and Written Language Skills; (6) Developing Basic Literacy Skills; (7) Strategies for Developing Decoding, Instant Word Reading, and Spelling Skills; (8) Strategies for Developing Vocabulary Knowledge, Comprehension Skills, and Writing Skills; (9) Reading Disability and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder; and (10) Testing and Assessment of Literacy Skills. References, Appendices, Author Index, and Subject Index are included.
We examined the relations of teacher knowledge (n = 42 first-grade teachers), explicit decoding instruction provided, and students' (n = 437) word-reading gains. Results revealed an interaction between teacher knowledge and observed decoding instruction: For students of more knowledgeable teachers, more time in explicit instruction predicted stronger word-reading gains. For students of less knowledgeable teachers, more time in explicit instruction was associated with weaker skill gains. Findings highlight the importance of teachers' specialized body of knowledge about reading as it informs effective instruction.
ATTEMPTS TO REFUTE THE PREMISE THAT READING IS AN EXACT SCIENCE WHICH INVOLVES PRECISE, DETAILED PERCEPTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF LETTERS AND WORDS. RATHER, READING IS DEFINED AS A "PSYCHOLINGUISTIC GUESSING GAME" IN WHICH THE READER PICKS UP GRAPHIC CUES TO WORDS, FORMS A PERCEPTUAL IMAGE, AND THUS READS BY A SELECTION PROCESS. THROUGHOUT THE READING PROCESS, THERE IS CONSTANT USE OF LONG- AND SHORT-TERM MEMORY. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study examined ways in which children's risk of school failure may be moderated by support from teachers. Participants were 910 children in a national prospective study. Children were identified as at risk at ages 5-6 years on the basis of demographic characteristics and the display of multiple functional (behavioral, attention, academic, social) problems reported by their kindergarten teachers. By the end of first grade, at-risk students placed in first-grade classrooms offering strong instructional and emotional support had achievement scores and student-teacher relationships commensurate with their low-risk peers; at-risk students placed in less supportive classrooms had lower achievement and more conflict with teachers. These findings have implications for understanding the role that classroom experience may play in pathways to positive adaptation.
Observing learning opportunities form PK to Grade 3. A paper presented at the IES PI meeting
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DC.
Educator outcomes associated with implementation of Mississippi's K-3 early literacy professional development initiative
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implementation of Mississippi's K-3 early literacy professional development initiative.
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An old and contested solution to boost reading scores: Phonics. The New York Times
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Hard to read: How American schools fail kids with dyslexia
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Hanford, E. (2017). Hard to read: How American schools fail kids with dyslexia. APM Reports.
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Why are we still teaching reading the wrong way? Teacher preparation programs continue to ignore the sound science behind how people become readers. The New York Times
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At a loss for words: How a flawed idea is teaching millions of kids to be poor readers
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Hanford, E. (2019b). At a loss for words: How a flawed idea is teaching millions of kids to be
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Knowledge and practice standards for teachers of reading
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A risky science communication environment for vaccines
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Learning through language: Towards an educationally informed theory of language learning
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Lieven, E. (2019). Input, interaction and learning in early language development. In V. Grover,
P. Uccelli, M. Rowe, & E. Lieven (Eds.), Learning through language: Towards an
educationally informed theory of language learning. Cambridge University Press.
Data: How reading is really being taught
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Longitudinal impacts of the children's literacy Initiative professional development, coaching, and model classroom intervention on early literacy achievement
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Initiative professional development, coaching, and model classroom intervention on early
literacy achievement. Evanston, IL: Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness.
Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED56235.7