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Health Benefits and Applications of Goji Berries in Functional Food Products Development: A Review

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Goji berries have long been used for their nutritional value and medicinal purposes in Asian countries. In the last two decades, goji berries have become popular around the world and are consumed as a functional food due to wide-range bioactive compounds with health-promoting properties. In addition, they are gaining increased research attention as a source of functional ingredients with potential industrial applications. This review focuses on the antioxidant properties of goji berries, scientific evidence on their health effects based on human interventional studies, safety concerns, goji berry processing technologies, and applications of goji berry-based ingredients in developing functional food products.
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Citation: Vidovi´c, B.B.; Milinˇci´c, D.D.;
Marˇceti´c, M.D.; Djuriš, J.D.; Ili´c, T.D.;
Kosti´c, A.Ž.; Peši´c, M.B. Health
Benefits and Applications of Goji
Berries in Functional Food Products
Development: A Review.
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248. https://
doi.org/10.3390/antiox11020248
Academic Editors: Michał Swieca
and Ireneusz Kapusta
Received: 4 January 2022
Accepted: 25 January 2022
Published: 27 January 2022
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antioxidants
Review
Health Benefits and Applications of Goji Berries in Functional
Food Products Development: A Review
Bojana B. Vidovi´c 1,*, , Danijel D. Milinˇci´c 2,† , Mirjana D. Marˇceti´c 3, Jelena D. Djuriš 4, Tijana D. Ili´c 1,
Aleksandar Ž. Kosti´c 2and Mirjana B. Peši´c 2
1
Department of Bromatology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 450, 11221 Belgrade,
Serbia; tijana.ilic@pharmacy.bg.ac.rs
2Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade, Nemanjina 6,
11080 Belgrade, Serbia; danijel.milincic@agrif.bg.ac.rs (D.D.M.); akostic@agrif.bg.ac.rs (A.Ž.K.);
mpesic@agrif.bg.ac.rs (M.B.P.)
3Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Vojvode Stepe 450,
11221 Belgrade, Serbia; mirjana.marcetic@pharmacy.bg.ac.rs
4Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Cosmetology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade,
Vojvode Stepe 450, 11221 Belgrade, Serbia; jelena.djuris@pharmacy.bg.ac.rs
*Correspondence: bojana.vidovic@pharmacy.bg.ac.rs
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract:
Goji berries have long been used for their nutritional value and medicinal purposes in
Asian countries. In the last two decades, goji berries have become popular around the world and
are consumed as a functional food due to wide-range bioactive compounds with health-promoting
properties. In addition, they are gaining increased research attention as a source of functional
ingredients with potential industrial applications. This review focuses on the antioxidant properties
of goji berries, scientific evidence on their health effects based on human interventional studies, safety
concerns, goji berry processing technologies, and applications of goji berry-based ingredients in
developing functional food products.
Keywords:
goji; bioactive compounds; antioxidant properties; health benefits; processing; food
product development
1. Introduction
Berry fruits are frequently consumed worldwide due to their richness in highly valu-
able bioactive compounds, which potentially positively impact human health [
1
,
2
]. In
addition to dietary fibers, vitamins, and minerals, berries contain phytochemicals, such
as phenolic compounds and carotenoids, which exert antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and
many other health-promoting effects [
3
]. Berries are consumed fresh, frozen, or dried and
used as ingredients in different food products and dietary supplements [
4
]. As a marketing
strategy to promote their extraordinary health benefits, berries are widely advertised as
superfruits [
5
] and functional foods [
6
]. Among exotic berry fruits, goji berries are gaining
more importance in different countries, both from medical and pharmaceutical standpoints,
as well as their further application in the food industry.
The genus Lycium (Solanaceae) comprises about 100 species distributed from temperate
to subtropical regions [
7
]. The fruits known as goji berries, wolfberries, barbary wolfberry,
and Chinese boxthorn (or gouqizi in Chinese) might derive from two closely related species,
Lycium barbarum L. and L. chinense Mill. Lycium barbarum is a perennial deciduous shrub
with ellipsoid orange–red berries and a sweet–tangy flavour. The original area is not
definitively established, but it could be between Southeast Europe and Southwest Asia. The
plant is widely distributed in warm regions, particularly in the Mediterranean, Southwest,
and Central Asia. Lycium chinense is native to China, Taiwan, and Japan, and is widely
cultivated in Asia, but is also naturalized in Europe and the United States. The black
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox11020248 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/antioxidants
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 2 of 29
goji fruits with a specific composition and taste are obtained from Chinese native species
L. ruthenicum Murr. [810].
The first reports about goji berries are associated with their use in traditional Chinese
medicine in the form of mild Yin tonics, tinctures, and powders [
11
]. In addition, since
ancient times, these berries have been highly valued and used in raw, dried, or processed
forms, such as tea, juice, wine, or liqueur [
12
]. Due to effective instrumental techniques,
the complex composition of goji berries has been examined in detail in recent years. It
has been shown that goji berries are a good source of nutrients such as lipids, proteins,
fibres, vitamin C, and minerals [
13
,
14
], and non-nutritive bioactive compounds such as
phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, and carotenoids [
15
,
16
]. On the other hand,
in vitro
antioxidant assays,
in vivo
studies, and clinical trials have contributed to understanding
some of the health benefits of goji berries [
8
,
16
18
]. This knowledge has created a new
concept in diets, aiming to develop and promote goji berries as a functional food, or their
use in formulating innovative food products. For these reasons, at the beginning of the
twenty-first century, goji berry cultivation spread outside China and other Asian countries.
Precisely, there are reports that goji berries are cultivated throughout Europe, including
in Italy [
17
,
19
], Portugal [
20
], Greece [
15
,
21
,
22
], Romania [
16
], Bulgaria [
23
], Serbia [
24
,
25
],
and North Macedonia [
26
], as well as Slovenia [
2
], Switzerland [
27
], Poland [
28
], and
Lithuania [
29
]. Despite observed variations in chemical compositions and bioactivities
among goji berries from different regions, affected by genotypes, environmental conditions,
and many other pre-harvest and post-harvest factors, the specific profile of primary and
secondary metabolites and good antioxidant properties makes goji berries convenient for
further applications in the pharmaceutical and food industries. Today, goji berries are
available as food or food supplements on the global functional food market. In Italy, goji
fruit has been added by the Ministry of Health to the list of foods with physiological
antioxidant properties, and is commonly found in food supplements. Goji berries are also
present in various food products, including in ice-creams, marmalades, sauces, salads, and
beer, as well as bakery and dairy products [
30
]. Although, in general, the goji berry has no
long history of significant consumption in Europe, the goji berry is not regulated under the
EU novel foods legislation, and has no restrictions or specific legislation requirements for
its use and further food applications. Among different identified safety concerns, there is
growing evidence that goji berries may trigger allergic reactions in sensitive individuals,
especially across Mediterranean populations [31,32].
2. Nutritional Value and Bioactive Compounds of Goji Berries
Specific colours, from yellow and red (L. barbarum) to black (L. ruthenicum), as well
as a combined sweet, tangy, and pungent taste, make goji berries very attractive to con-
sumers [
25
]. The balanced content of sugars (fructose, glucose, and sucrose), organic acids,
and specific secondary metabolites is responsible for the acceptable sensory characteristics
of raw and dried goji berries, as well as for the refreshing character of different food prod-
ucts enriched with them [
12
,
13
,
18
] (Figure 1). In the nutritional term, goji berries present a
source of dietary fibres [13,14,25], vitamin C [8,14,24,33,34], and some minerals, including
potassium, copper, manganese, iron, and zinc [
13
,
14
,
25
,
26
,
35
]. In addition, microelements
from L. barbarum fruits have high bioaccessibility [
36
]. The primary fatty acids of goji
berries are linoleic acid, followed by oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids (about 95% of the total
fatty acids) [
20
,
25
,
26
,
33
,
37
]. The most abundant amino acids in goji berries are proline and
serine, while the essential amino acids represent up to 30% of total free amino acids [
34
]. In
addition, goji berries have characterized non-protein amino acids, such as
γ
-aminobutyric
acid, hydroxyproline, and citrulline, with specific metabolic functions [38].
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 3 of 29
Figure 1. Biological activities of goji berry and its products.
Goji berries exert various biological activities and health benefits, such as antioxi-
dant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, immuno-stimulating, anti-diabetic, neuroprotective,
anti-cancer, prebiotic, and anti-obesogenic effects, which have been reviewed by several
authors [
9
,
18
,
39
41
] (Figure 1). These beneficial properties are attributed to the individual
or combined effects of the constituents of goji berries [
18
,
42
]. Water-soluble polysaccharides
(L. barbarum polysaccharides, LBPs) are considered to be the most important bioactive
components of goji berries [
12
,
43
]. In addition to pectic polysaccharides, as major com-
pounds, LBPs are composed of glucan, xylan, and arabinogalactan-proteins [
44
]. The main
chains of the glycan backbones of LBPs are composed of
(13)-β-D-galactopyranosyl,
(16)-β-D-galactopyranosyl,
and (1
4)-
α
-D-galactopyranosyl-uronic acid residues
[45,46]
.
The LBPs account for 5–8% of the dried fruit [
12
]. In fact, the yield of LBPs was proposed
as a parameter to evaluate the quality of L. barbarum and its applicability for medicinal
and functional food use [
47
]. However, structural features including molecular weight,
type, and the ratio of monosaccharides, glycosidic linkage patterns, and chain confor-
mations may strongly affect LBPs bioactivities [
45
,
46
,
48
]. Based on the investigation
of the structure–bioactivity relationship, it is assumed that the immunomodulation ef-
fects of LBPs originate from different partial acid and enzymatically hydrolysed frag-
ments [
45
,
46
,
49
]. Animal model studies have shown that the oral administration of LBPs
(5, 10, and
20 mg/kg/day
) [
50
] or goji berry extract [
51
] improves food conversion rate,
reduces body weight, and diminishes insulin resistance. Moreover,
in vivo
mouse model
studies have shown that LBPs at a dose of 0.1 mL/10 g body weight modulate the immune
response and affect the intestinal microbiota, stimulating the growth of some probiotic gen-
era [
40
]. Goji berries are a good source of phenolic compounds, including phenolic acids,
flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, coumarins, lignans, and their derivatives [
8
,
18
,
20
,
51
], which
selectively contribute to their bioactivities [
51
]. Several studies have shown that the pheno-
lic extracts of goji berries exert good
in vitro
antioxidant activities and antimicrobial effects
against some Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria [
20
,
25
,
52
]. In addition to antioxida-
tive properties, L. ruthenicum anthocyanins have demonstrated anti-inflammatory [
53
,
54
],
antilipidemic [
55
], and antiobesity properties [
56
]. While these water-soluble flavonoids are
responsible for the purplish–blue colour of black goji berry, high carotenoid content, pre-
dominant zeaxanthin, and its esters result in the red–orange colour of red goji berries [
57
].
Moreover, L. barbarum berries contain a higher zeaxanthin content than other zeaxanthin-
rich foods, such as egg yolks [
58
]. Since it accumulates in the retina, the protective effects
of goji berry against age-related macular degeneration and cataracts are attributed to the
presence of zeaxanthin and its antioxidant properties [
12
]. Furthermore, goji berries con-
tain monoterpenes (phellandrene, sabinene, terpinene) and vitamins [
8
]. Moreover, goji
berries contain 2-O-
β
-D-glucopyranosyl-L-ascorbic acid (AA-2
β
G), which hydrolyses via
α-glucosidase in the intestinal tract to active L-ascorbic acid [59].
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 4 of 29
However, the nutritional composition, bioactive compound profiles, and biological
properties of goji berries largely depend on genotypes, affecting their further applications.
For example, while L. barbarum berries had a predominant total carotenoid and AA-2
β
G,
L. barbarum var. auranticarpum (a yellow fruit variety) had high levels of flavonoids and
pronounced antimicrobial properties; then, L. ruthenicum berries extract had the highest
total phenolic content, and the best antioxidant activity [
25
]. In addition to genotypic
differences [
16
,
25
,
60
], bioactive compounds in goji berries are affected by geographic
origin [
17
,
38
], harvesting time [
26
,
61
], and post-harvesting factors [
62
]. Table 1summarises
recently reported data on the total phenolics, flavonoids, carotenoid and polysaccharides
content in red and black goji berries.
Table 1. The total content of phenolics, flavonoids, carotenoids, and polysaccharides in goji berries.
TPC (mg/g) TFC (mg/g) TCC (mg/g) LBP (mg/g) Reference
L. barbarum
2.56–2.82 - 5.7 - [8]
11.6–15.7 - - - [16]
4.0–13.0 - 4.0–9.5 - [21]
7.17 2.37 0.43 - [24]
1.62 2.14 0.42 - [25]
3.89–8.20 - 2.9 - [26]
0.71–2.94 - - - [27]
0.25–1.93 - 0.66–4.13 - [28]
7.6 - - - [33]
6.9–8.25 3.18–6.14 12.93–25.35 23.62–42.45 [38]
16–48 [47]
30.3–73.4 38.5–54.7 3.64–11.33 55.9–62.7 [60]
6.9–10.9 - - - [61]
2.17–4.48 2.67–3.16 0.21–0.23 - [63]
8.36–14.13 - 0.42–1.01 - [64]
8.16–9.04 1.78–2.63 - - [65]
3.45–3.47 2.20–2.23 - - [66]
0.01–5.47 - - - [67]
L. ruthenicum
2.96 0.27 nd 1- [25]
26.9 36.1 0.40 56.1 2[60]
7.26–9.01 9.77–12.32 0.001–0.003 - [63]
3.44–6.45 5.66–11.16 - - [66]
21.14–28.52 1.23–1.38 - - [68]
49.07 - - - [69]
1
nd—not detected; TPC—total phenolic content; TFC—total flavonoid content; TCC—total carotenoid content;
LBP—L. barbarum polysaccharides content; 2LRP—L. ruthenicum polysaccharides content.
3. Antioxidant Properties of Goji Berries
The goji berry is unique in its types and its overall content of bioactive compounds [
5
].
Compared to other common fruits, goji berry presented less antioxidant capacity than
blackcurrant and blueberry, but more than kiwifruit, raspberry, and orange [
8
]. In addition,
several studies indicate that black goji berries have more potent antioxidant properties than
red goji berries [
25
,
63
,
66
,
70
] (Figure 1). The antioxidant activities of goji berries are closely
associated with the presence of polysaccharides, carotenoids, flavonoids, and AA-2
β
G [
71
].
These compounds can exhibit antioxidant effects in several ways: radical scavenging
activities toward reactive species via hydrogen atom transfer or electron donation, through
metal chelation, or interactions with other antioxidants [72].
The antioxidant effect of flavonoids is influenced by the number of hydroxyl groups on
the B ring of their structure. Flavonoids with two hydroxyl groups in the B ring with ortho
arrangement had higher scavenging activity. Moreover, due to higher molecule flexibility,
flavonoids with single bonds between C2 and C3 showed better antioxidant ability than
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 5 of 29
structures with double bonds. In addition to radical scavenging activities, flavonoids
exhibit metal ion chelating and reducing ability [
20
,
72
]. Anthocyanins donate hydrogen
atoms to highly reactive free radicals and block free radical chain reactions. Similar to other
flavonoids, the scavenging activity of anthocyanins correlates with the number of hydroxyl
groups. Different phenolic compounds in goji berry can have synergistic, additive, or rarely
antagonistic antioxidant effects. These interactions are usually concentration-dependent,
and are likely due to how phenolic compounds interact with different free radicals. In
addition, flavonoids and other phenolics could increase the expression of antioxidant
enzymes, such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and
suppress the formation of reactive oxygen species [
9
,
18
,
19
,
69
]. Due to the highest phenolic
content, the pulp of goji berries has the highest contribution rate to antioxidant capacities
compared to seeds and whole fruits [66].
Goji polysaccharides (LBPs) exhibited anti-lipid peroxidation activity, reducing capac-
ity and radical scavenging activity towards the superoxide anion. The activity was similar
to those of the synthetic antioxidant, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) [
9
].
Lin et al. (2009)
evaluated the antioxidant activity of neutral polysaccharides (LBPN) and three acidic
polysaccharides isolated from goji berry, and compared with crude polysaccharide (CP),
crude extract of polysaccharide (CE), deproteinated polysaccharide (DP), and deproteinated
and dialyzed polysaccharide (DDP). Except for CE and DDP, most polysaccharide fractions
at high concentrations exert effective scavenging radical activities. DDP and CE demon-
strated lower reducing power, while LBPN and CE showed poor metal ion chelating activity
compared to other polysaccharide fractions [
73
]. Similarly, Wang et al. (2010) demonstrated
a poor ferrous ion-chelating effect for LBPN and CE, whereas moderate chelating activities
were noticed for CP and acidic polysaccharides [
74
]. The ability of the carboxyl group
from galacturonic acid to scavenge radicals and chelate metal ions contributes a better
antioxidant effect of acidic polysaccharides than neutral polysaccharides [
73
75
]. It is also
supposed that LBPs bind low molecular weight phenolic compounds during extraction
from raw materials, which contributes to their antioxidant properties [76].
AA-2
β
G is also an important antioxidant compound of goji berries, which may share
similar but distinct mechanistic properties with L-ascorbic acid [77].
Due to the structural diversity of bioactive compounds and their various mech-
anisms of antioxidant action, different methods have been used to determine the an-
tioxidant activities of goji berry. Among others, the most frequently applied assays in-
clude 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl(DPPH)radical,2,2
0
-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-
sulphonic acid) (ABTS) radical cation scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power
(FRAP), cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity (CUPRAC), oxygen radical absorbance
capacity (ORAC), and β-carotene bleaching inhibition.
In fact, in vitro studies have found a strong correlation between polysaccharides and
phenolics with antioxidant activities [
20
,
60
,
66
,
78
], supporting that these compounds are
the most significant contributors to the total antioxidant activities of goji berries [
60
]. On
the other hand, the absence of a significant correlation between
in vitro
antioxidant activ-
ities (DPPH
, ABTS
+
, and FRAP assays) and total carotenoids [
60
] could be explained
by a lack of the enzyme which is capable of hydrolysing zeaxanthin esters to free zeax-
anthin [
79
]. However, the abilities of goji berry extract to inhibit lipid peroxidation in
the
β-carotene-linoleic
acid assay are linked to carotenoids content [
17
,
25
]. Namely, the
presence of a long chain of conjugated double bonds in carotenoids was attributed to
their more distinct effect in scavenging hydroxyl radicals compared to other bioactive
compounds [
74
]. Furthermore, among carotenoids, there is evidence that zeaxanthin has
the highest hydroxyl radical-scavenging activity hydroxyl radical-scavenging activities,
followed by β-carotene, lycopene and lutein [80].
In addition to genetic differences, reports on the antioxidant activities of goji berries
reflect differences in bioactive compounds affected by environmental conditions in various
geographical regions, and extraction methods, among many others (Table 2).
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 6 of 29
Table 2. Antioxidant properties of goji berries.
Sample Origin Extraction Solvent DPPHABTS+FRAP Reference
L. barbarum
China
ethanol (60%, v/v)44.63–47.63% - 0.15–0.17 µmol Fe+2/g [66]
methanol (80%, v/v) 35.88–85.46 µmol TE/g fw 59.3–95.6 µmol TE/g fw 57.7–92.5 µmol TE/g fw [60]
Acetone/water/acetic acid
(70:29.5:0.5) 16.07–17.47 µmol TE/g 53.92–64.38 µmol TE/g 26.39–46.51 mmol Fe+2/g [63]
Greece water 1.29–3.00 mg/mL (IC50) 0.42–1.10 mg/mL (IC50) -[22]
water 0.83–1.15 mg/mL (IC50) 0.19–0.4 mg/mL (IC50) -[61]
Italy methanol: water
acidified with HCL - - 18.00–20.89 µmol Fe+2/g fw [8]
North
Macedonia water 1.51–6.25 mg/g dw 1.94–9.93 mg /g dw -[26]
Poland methanol (80%, v/v) +
1% HCl -16.0–68.3 µmol TE/g 14.4–63.0 µmol TE/g [28]
Portugal methanol (80%, v/v) 6.25 mg/mL (EC50) - - [20]
Romania methanol (70%, v/v) 8.79–9.35 mg TE/g 24.86–25.12 mg TE/g 16.91–19.52 mg TE/g [16]
Serbia methanol (80%, v/v) 4.52 µmol TE/g fw 0.12 µmol TE/g fw 5.32 µmol TE/g fw [25]
Switzerland methanol 6.94–13.22 µmol TE/g dw -[27]
Turkey water 22.64 mg/mL (EC50) -2.93 mM Fe+2 [65]
methanol (80%, v/v) 18.19 mg/mL (EC50) -2.62 mM Fe+2
L. ruthenicum
China
ethanol (85%, v/v) 315.7–460.5 µmol TE/g dw 327.8–485.6 µmol TE/g dw 377.0–539.4 µmol TE/g dw [70]
ethanol (60%, v/v)63.09–85.15% - 0.55–0.62 µmol Fe+2/g [66]
methanol (80%, v/v) 49.65 µmol TE/g fw 47.8 µmol TE/g fw 56.3 µmol TE/g fw [60]
acetone/water/ acetic
acid (70:29.5:0.5) 32.29–35.86 µmol TE/g 147.00–180.03 µmol TE/g 278.21–363.46 mmol Fe+2/g [63]
Serbia methanol (80%, v/v) 10.22 µmol TE/g fw 0.28 µmol TE/g fw 19.43 µmol TE/g fw [25]
TE—Trolox equivalent; fw—fresh weight; dw—dry weight.
4. Health Benefits and Side Effects of Goji Berry Consumption
4.1. Health Benefits of Goji Berry Consumption
The global popularization of goji berry and goji berry-based products is supported by
scientific evidence on their health-promoting effects (Figure 1). In general, LBPs, zeaxanthin
dipalmitate, vitamins, betaine, and mixed extracts have been attributed to the anti-aging,
improving eyesight, anti-fatigue, and other beneficial effects of goji berry described in
ancient herbals [
7
]. The main findings from human intervention studies demonstrating the
health properties of goji berry, juice, or extracts are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3. Clinical studies on the effects of goji berries and their products.
Study Design Study Population Number Intervention (Dose) Main Outcomes Reference
Single-blinded,
placebo-controlled, parallel
design study Healthy adults 27
28 days (15 g/d
wolfberries-estimated to
provide ~3 mg/d
esterified zeaxanthin)
plasma zeaxanthin increased
2.5-fold [81]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Healthy adults 34
14 days (120 mL/d LBP
standardized
juice—equivalent at least
150 g of fresh fruit)
subjective feelings of
general well-being,
neurologic/psychologic
performance and
gastrointestinal functions
[82]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Healthy adults 39 30 days (120 mL/d
LBP-standardized juice) SOD, GSH-Px
lipid peroxidation (MDA) [83]
Parallel design
intervention study Healthy elderly subjects 177 3 months (LBPs)
plasma triglycerides, total
cholesterol, and LDL
cholesterol
HDL cholesterol
[84]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Older healthy adults 60
30 days (120 mL/d LBP
standardized
juice—equivalent at least
150 g of fresh fruit)
several immunological
responses and subjective
feelings of general
well-being
[85]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Healthy adults 28
14 days (120 mL/d LBP
standardized
juice—equivalent at least
150 g of fresh fruit)
waist circumference [86]
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 7 of 29
Table 3. Cont.
Study Design Study Population Number Intervention (Dose) Main Outcomes Reference
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Healthy elderly subjects 150 90 days (13.7 g/d
milk-based formulation of
goji berry, LWB)
plasma zeaxanthin and
antioxidant levels protects
from hypopigmentation and
soft drusen accumulation in
the macula of elderly subjects
[87]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Healthy elderly subjects 150 90 days (13.7 g/d
milk-based formulation of
goji berry, LWB)
postvaccination serum
influenza-specific
immunoglobulin G levels
and seroconversion rate
[88]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Type 2 diabetes patients 67 90 days (300 mg LBPs/d)
glucose and
insulinogenic index HDL
cholesterol [89]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT
Healthy overweight and
mild
hypercholesterolemic subjects 53 8 weaks (80
mL/pouch-contained
13.5 g of WBE)
anti-oxidative and
anti-inflammatory effects by
modulating mRNA
expression
[90]
Parallel design RCT Metabolic syndrome patients 50 45 days (14 g dried goji
berry with healthy dietary
pattern)
transaminases and waist
circumference
serum antioxidant capacity
and GSH
lipid peroxidation
[91]
Double-blinded,
placebo-controlled RCT Retinitis pigmentosa (RP)
patients 42 12 months (10 g of LB
granules/d, estimated to
provide 0.175 g LBPs)
LB supplement provides a
neuroprotective effect for the
retina and could help delay
or minimize
cone degeneration in RP
[92]
Double-blind crossover RCT Healthy, overweight men 17 25 g of dried LB fruit
6=postprandial energy
expenditure, substrate
oxidation, and markers for
lipid and glucose
metabolism
[93]
Parallel design RCT Middle-aged and
older adults 40 16 weak (15 g/d whole,
dried wolfberry with
healthy dietary pattern)
improves vascular tone
lipid peroxidation
(8-iso-prostaglandin F2α)[94,95]
Parallel design RCT Healthy, middle-aged
subjects 27 3 months (25 g of whole
goji berries or supplements
of lutein and zeaxhantin)
macular pigment optical
density [96]
RCT—randomized control trial; RP—retinitis pigmentosa; LB—L.barbarum; LBPs—L.barbarum polysac-
charides; LWB—Lacto-Wolfberry; SOD—superoxide dismutase; GSH-Px—glutathione peroxidase; MDA—
malondialdehyde; LDL—low density lipoprotein; HDL—high density lipoprotein; WBE—aqueous extract of
wolfberry; GSH—glutathione.
In 2008, the first randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study was
conducted, which reported the general effects of goji juice in healthy adults outside of
China [
82
]. Participants in the intervention group consumed 120 mL/day of commercial
goji juice (GoChi), standardized to contain LBP equivalent in at least 150 g of fresh fruit.
Consistent with traditional use, the main beneficial effects observed in the intervention
group after 14 days included increasing general well-being and improving neurologi-
cal/psychologic performances and gastrointestinal functions. Other studies demonstrated
that the 30-day daily consumption of GoChi led to the improvement of endogenous antiox-
idant enzyme activities, along with a decrease in malondialdehyde (MDA), an oxidative
stress marker [
83
], and an increase in lymphocyte, IgG, and IL-2 levels in healthy subjects,
without adverse effects [
85
]. In addition, it was found that GoChi consumption for 14 days
increases metabolic rate and reduces the waist circumference in healthy subjects of both
sexes [86].
As Yu, Wu, and Niu (2009) demonstrated, LBP extract exhibited favourable effects
on plasma lipids and the risk of cardiovascular diseases to the elderly [
84
]. In addition,
based on the observed hypoglycemic activities and increased HDL concentration, after
three months of supplementation (300 mg/day), LBP has been considered as a prominent
adjuvant therapy for patients with type 2 diabetes [
89
]. Although several mechanisms
may account for these effects, there is a finding that the water goji berries extract exerted
antioxidative and anti-inflammatory effects by controlling the expression of inflammatory
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 8 of 29
mRNAs in overweight and hypercholesterolemia-suffering subjects [
90
]. In another study,
the inclusion of 14 g of dried goji berry as part of a healthy diet after 45 days was associated
with a significant reduction in transaminases and waist circumference, improved lipid
profile, and oxidative stress parameters in patients with metabolic syndrome [
91
]. However,
a meta-analysis of the effects of L. barbarum supplementation on cardiometabolic risk factors,
which included 548 subjects, indicated only a favourable effect on glucose control, and a
marginal reduction in total cholesterol and triglyceride levels, without any benefit to body
weight and blood pressure [
97
]. Moreover, a single dose of 25 g of dried L. barbarum fruits
did not influence the postprandial energy expenditure, plasma glucose, serum-free fatty
acids, and triglycerides concentrations in healthy, overweight men [93].
According to Cheng et al. (2005), dietary supplementation with whole dried goji
berry (15 g/day), estimated to contain 3 mg zeaxanthin, resulted in a 2.5-fold increase of
plasma zeaxanthin. Based on this result, goji berry has been proposed as an inexpensive,
effective, and safe food dietary strategy to increase plasma zeaxanthin concentration [
81
].
A recent study showed that 90 days of goji berry consumption was accompanied by an
increase in macular pigment optical density, a marker of age-related macular degeneration
in healthy, middle-aged adults [96]. Other studies demonstrated that dietary intervention
with a proprietary milk-based formulation of goji berry (13.7 g/day), with enhancing
zeaxanthin bioavailability [
98
], for 90 days, increases plasma zeaxanthin and improves
antioxidant capacity and macular characteristics [
87
], as well as enhancing the immune sys-
tem in healthy elderly subjects [
88
]. Moreover, the retinoprotective effects of 12-month goji
berry supplementation were proven in patients with retinitis pigmentosa [
92
]. Thus, goji
berry supplementation may represent a model of the successful integration of traditional
Asian practices into Western medicine related to the prevention and treatment of retinal
disorders [99].
Due to limited evidence on the health effects of whole dried fruits, considering pos-
sible synergism among bioactive compounds, Toh et al. (2021) investigated the effects
of healthy dietary patterns, either with or without whole dried wolfberry (15 g/d), in
middle-aged and older adults. They demonstrated that adherence to a healthy dietary
pattern based on whole grains, fruits, non-starchy vegetables, and non-processed meats
improves vascular tone, while incorporating goji berry into the diet further improves the
blood lipid-lipoprotein profile, and may lower long-term cardiovascular risk [
94
]. In ad-
dition, they observed an inverse association between the changes in plasma zeaxanthin
and plasma 8-iso-prostaglandin F2
α
. Therefore, goji berry within a healthy dietary pattern
is proposed as a dietary strategy to attenuate lipid peroxidation among middle-aged and
older adults, with a heightened risk of oxidative stress-induced age-related disorders [
95
].
Furthermore, a recent meta-analysis of goji berry-based RCTs indicated more pro-
nounced effects of whole goji berry versus goji berry extract in improving the blood lipids
and lipoproteins profile, supporting its incorporation into dietary patterns targeted at
improving cardiovascular health [100].
Overall, findings from human interventional studies support the health benefits of
goji berry consumption with the dosages used in traditional medicine, which range from
6–30 g of dried whole goji berry [12].
4.2. Side Effects of Goji Berry Consumption
Based on long-term traditional use over 2500 years, goji berry is now generally rec-
ognized as a non-toxic food [
9
,
12
]. Additionally, findings from dietary interventional
studies indicate the safety of goji berry and its products when taken within traditionally
established doses. However, some concerns about goji berries have been raised, especially
regarding their consumption in large amounts. However, studies evaluating adequate
dosage regimens, adverse reactions, and the long-term safety of goji berries and their prod-
ucts are scarce [
12
]. The oral administration of goji juice (GoChi) in rats demonstrated no
toxicity, even at the maximum dose (10 mL/kg/day) [
101
]. However, high concentrations
of goji juice should be carefully consumed, due to recently observed pro-oxidant effects
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 9 of 29
and reducing the lifespan of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a model organism for
in vivo
tests [
102
]. There are also reported cases of hepatotoxicity related to consuming goji
berry [103,104].
Other risks related to goji berry include the presence of tropane alkaloids [
9
], chemical
contaminants, such as pesticides and toxic elements [
105
,
106
], or some proteins that can
cause allergic reactions in sensitive consumers [
31
]. However, it has been shown that
the organic production system has a significant influence on the lower content of toxic
elements [
13
], and the low contents of tropane alkaloids and pesticides, in general, have
no toxicological relevance [
9
,
106
,
107
]. A recent study reported that the exposure of the
dangerous effects of chemical residues is more likely from goji berries obtained from
plantations than from goji berries from supermarkets, and that metal exposure is more
dangerous than pesticide exposure [106].
Since the goji berry was introduced into the European market as a functional food
and a nutraceutical a few years ago, its consumption has significantly increased. However,
there is evidence from several countries that its consumption might lead to hypersensitive
reactions. A 53-year-old male developed systemic photosensitivity due to the simultaneous
prolonged use of goji berries and cat’s claw for 5 and 3 months, respectively. However,
furthermore, the photo-provocations test revealed that photosensitivity is accompanied only
by goji berry [
108
]. There is evidence that goji berries can cause allergic reactions in exposed
and unexposed food-allergic individuals [
109
]. In addition, two cases of anaphylaxis were
reported [
110
,
111
]. Cross-reactivity was demonstrated with peach, tomato, tobacco, a
mixture of nuts, and Artemisia sp. pollen, while lipid transfer proteins (LTPs) are recognised
as the major allergens involved in sensitisation and cross-reactivity [
109
,
112
]. Therefore,
a high-cross reactivity with other frequently consumed foods could explain the high
prevalence rate and the low frequency of clinical symptoms of goji berry allergies among
European populations [31].
In addition, there is a risk of possible interactions between goji berry and medicines.
There is evidence that the concomitant use of Lycium fruit tea, juice, and wine with oral
anticoagulants, such as warfarin, might increase the risk of bleeding [
113
]. In a recent case
report, Guzman et al. (2021) described the toxicity of the antiarrhythmic drug flecainidine
in a 75-year-old female associated with goji berry tea consumption as a self-medication
practice for the prevention of COVID-19 [114].
5. Processing of Goji Berries
5.1. Oven and Freeze-Drying Dehydration Techniques
Dehydration is one of the most commonly used processes for extending the shelf life
of fruit, and it is based on the simultaneous transfer of heat and mass. Solar drying is a
traditional drying method for goji berries. However, this type of drying and environmental
conditions can cause a loss of fruit quality. In recent years, oven-air, freeze, or advanced
drying techniques have been increasingly used for goji berries dehydration, thus preventing
enzyme activity, reducing microbiological spoilage, and minimizing adverse reactions dur-
ing storage [
115
]. However, drying goji berries is difficult due to the wax layer surrounding
the peel of the berries, which impedes the diffusion of water from berries [
115
,
116
]. In
addition, the wax layer of goji berries requires high temperatures and extended treatment,
which can negatively affect the content of high-value compounds.
Thus, several studies have examined the possibility of using pre-treatment before
drying, intending to speed up the drying process, reduce energy consumption, and im-
prove the quality of dried products [
115
120
]. For example, abrasive pre-treatment in
a motorized drum coated with sandpaper was used to carefully remove wax from the
surface of goji berries, which shortened the drying time in the convective oven at 60
C,
preserved colour, increased antioxidant properties, and maintained the sugar content of
berries
[115,117,119]
. In addition, washing and soaking goji berries in sodium carbonate
solution before hot air drying increased the effective diffusivity and reduced the drying
time; that is, it increased the content of bioactive compounds (total phenolics, flavonoids,
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 10 of 29
carotenoids, and betaine) and improved the antioxidant activities of goji berries dried at
40
C and 50
C [
120
]. Moreover, sodium carbonate pre-treatment combined with hybrid
drying techniques increased the pore size of goji berries, which accelerated the drying
process and improved heat and mass transfer [121].
Pre-treatments, such as osmotic dehydration (60 min, 55
C) and combined effect
pulsed electric field and osmotic dehydration, have led to a decrease in drying time for the
goji berry, maintaining its bright red colour, improving its texture, retaining its high antiox-
idant potential, and prolonging shelf life during the storage of dried goji berries [122,123].
The application of pulsed electric fields in pre-treatment affected the permeabilization of
the tissue of goji berries, which increased the mass transfer during subsequent osmotic
dehydration and air-drying [
122
]. The most conventional techniques use high drying
temperatures, which most often impair the quality of the product (colour, taste, aroma, and
texture), prevent rehydration, generate a Maillard reaction, and contribute to forming a
hard coat around the berry [
124
]. However, although the texture of oven-dried goji berries
is often disturbed, they are a good source of bioactive compounds such as phenolics, and
show antioxidant activity [105,125].
On the other hand, quick-freezing using liquid nitrogen at
80
C proved to be the
most suitable freezing process for goji berries in comparison with other freezing tempera-
tures at
60 and
100
C, because, at this temperature, goji berries retain good sensory
properties, have the lowest activity of polyphenol peroxidase, and more negligible damage
of the internal structures of epidermal cells [
126
]. Furthermore, the advanced freeze-drying
technique contributes to preserving goji berries
´
bioactive compounds (phenolic acids,
vitamin C, monoterpenes, and carotenoids) and nutrients. This results in high-quality,
dried goji snacks which are light, crunchy, with original taste, preserved texture, and a
healthy alternative to sweet snacks [
124
,
127
,
128
]. In addition, Song et al. (2018) reported
that the application of advanced freeze-dried with instant controlled pressure drop drying
for the dehydration of goji berries resulted in excellent crispness and texture, as well as
high contents of total polysaccharides (139.8 g/kg) and carotenoids (2.43 g/kg) in dried
products [121].
5.2. Advanced Techniques
In recent years, the effect of novel pre-treatments and the possibility of applying
advanced techniques for drying goji berries have been increasingly examined. The recently
developed cold plasma pre-treatment applied to goji berries has significantly reduced
drying time, improved rehydration, and maintained the colour of berries [
129
]. After
pre-treatment with cold plasma, the cell walls of the goji berries become thinner and
more permeable, affecting the loss of bioactive compounds, probably degraded after
interaction with charged particles generated by cold plasma during long treatment [
129
].
The electrohydrodynamic drying technique (EHD) has been successfully applied for the
dehydration of goji berries, previously pre-treated with alkaline solution (KOH and NaOH),
Na
2
CO
3
, sucrose ester, and ultrasonic. All applied pre-treatments accelerated drying,
reduced drying time, affected energy savings, maintained good berry quality, and changed
the surface microstructure of goji berries. However, only alkaline pre-treatment can be
used as an optimal pre-treatment for the industrial application of goji berries dried using
EHD [118].
Infrared drying has been successfully used for drying various fruit and vegetables,
but this type of drying is not suitable for products sensitive to heat, so it is often com-
bined with other drying methods [
130
]. Till now, far-infrared radiation heating assisted
pulsed vacuum drying (FIR-PVD) [
131
], and a pilot-scale pulsed vacuum infrared drying
system (PVID) [
132
] was used to dry goji berries. Both infrared-based drying techniques
significantly reduced drying time and increased drying efficiency; that is, the goji berries
had a more sustainable and attractive colour compared to hot air-dried berries. In addi-
tion, porous and fissured microstructures were observed in berries that were dried using
FIR-PVD
, and can potentially improve drying kinetics and rehydration [
132
]. Finally, the
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 11 of 29
most favourable conditions for drying goji berries are a drying temperature (infrared
heating) of 65
C, a vacuum duration of 15 min, and atmospheric durations of 4 and
2 min [131,132].
A new technique of pulsed vacuum drying combined with carboxymethyl cellulose
coating (optimal concentration was 2.0% w/w) allowed higher drying efficiency, less drying
shrinkage, the preservation of colour, and an improvement of the quality of dried goji
berries (total polysaccharides and phenolics) have been proposed as effective pre-treatment
dehydration models for goji berries [
133
]). Carboxymethyl cellulose is a hydrocolloid that
can form a flexible and transparent coating on the surface, limiting mass transfer resistance
from inside the berry. At the same time, pressure pulsation affects the formation of a porous
structure, which facilitates the transfer of mass and heat during drying [
133
]. Interestingly,
Qi et al. (2021) suggest that low-intensity pulsed ultrasound-assisted vacuum drying at
50 C with a pulsed ultrasound ratio of 10s:10s is a novel, promising drying technique for
goji berries juice [134].
5.3. Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds from Goji Berries
As previously mentioned, goji berries are a source of numerous bioactive components,
such as polysaccharides, carotenoids, and phenolics. These molecules can be isolated from
goji berries and further used in the food and pharmaceutical industries. The water-soluble
bioactive components of goji berries are traditionally extracted using hot water as a solvent.
In order to improve the extraction efficiency, numerous novel extraction methods have been
developed, including ultrasound- or microwave-assisted aqueous extractions [
135
,
136
],
as well as subcritical water extraction [
137
]. In addition to the extraction method, other
factors may affect the extraction procedure, including the origin of fruits, selected solvent,
extraction time, and temperature, etc. Several research groups have demonstrated that
higher phenolic compounds can be extracted by using ethanol as a solvent rather than
water [
138
]. The efficiency of other solvents for extraction has been studied, including ultra-
pure water, acetone, ethanol, and methanol in different concentrations and mixtures [
139
].
Zhou et al. (2020) have demonstrated that the extraction solvents (water, hydrochloric acid
0.4%, or sodium hydroxide 0.6% solution) used for extraction at different temperatures
affect the structures of the extracted polysaccharides. Alkali extractions resulted in low
galacturonic acid and higher protein content than acidic and water extractions. In particular,
low-temperature alkaline extraction conditions have led to extensively branched rhamno-
galacturonan I, whereas high-temperature acidic conditions provided homogalacturonan
regions, and resulted in the removal of part of the side chain [
140
]. Ahmadi et al. (2022)
have also reported that the highest galacturonic acid contents were obtained by hot acid ex-
traction [
141
]. A similar effect was reported on the stability of black goji berry anthocyanins,
under variable pH conditions [
57
]. Water or acidified solvents are predominantly used
for anthocyanin extraction, and they also indicated that the storage stability of the crude
black goji anthocyanin extract is high in acidic (pH of 3–4) and low in alkaline pH [
57
].
Therefore, if water is used as the extraction solvent, it is necessary to carefully investigate
the influence of pH on the stability of the obtained extracts.
The extraction process can be optimised for high(est) yield, bioactivity, and/or re-
source efficiency, by varying the relevant parameters through an experimental design.
The obtained, optimised extracts can be used for further processing. Box–Behnken, as a
response surface design, and different factorial designs, have been reported to optimize the
goji berries extraction procedures.
Jixian Zhang et al. (2021) reported that the polysaccharides of goji berries stabilized and
maintained the morphology of selenium nanoparticles. Moreover, these polysaccharide-
SeNPs possess structural stability during digestion, and can enhance the absorption and
bioavailability of selenium [
142
]. In addition, the polysaccharides of goji berries in combina-
tion with some minerals or other macromolecules can easily lead to gelling, or help form gel
network structures [
143
,
144
]. For example, the addition of Ca
2+
ions plays a crucial role in
forming the gel network structure in the polysaccharide of goji berries, which enables their
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 12 of 29
broader application in the food industry [
144
]. On the other hand, goji polysaccharides
support the formation of gels of heat-induced whey protein at different pHs, and encourage
the development of new gel-type foods [143].
Carotenoids from goji berries are lipophilic and unstable molecules, easily degraded
under the influence of light, heat, or oxygen. For this reason, they are often extracted from
berries and incorporated into appropriate delivery systems, which improve their bioavail-
ability. Till now, different types of oil, such as soybean, sunflower, palm, or cottonseed,
have been applied as carriers of carotenoids separated from goji puree [
145
]. Moreover, the
bioaccessibility of carotenoid esters, primarily zeaxanthin esters, is significantly increased
when goji berries are mixed with O/W emulsion [
146
]. This also represents a new food
model for increasing the bioaccessibility of carotenoids from different fruits. According
to recent studies, carotenoid esters extracted or separated from goji berries have been
incorporated into nanoemulsion [
147
], or nanocarriers formed by complex coacervation
between gelatin and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose [
148
]. De Campo et al. (2018) have
exploited the use of cactus cladode mucilage (Opuntia monacantha, (Willd.) Haw., Cactaceae)
as an encapsulation agent for zeaxanthin. Due to its lipophilic properties, the encapsulation
of zeaxanthin by the mucilage polysaccharides may provide improved solubility in water.
Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that the encapsulation provided improved stability
against various agents [
149
]. Hempel et al. (2017) have studied the effect of the ripening
of goji berries on the conversion of carotenoids from being bound to chloroplastidal thy-
lakoids, to their accumulation in the nano-scale liquid-crystalline state, predominantly in
the form of zeaxanthin dipalmitate [79].
Lipid-based nanoparticles were derived from goji berries, specifically from the lipid
contents extracted from goji berries [
150
]. The lipidomic analysis of the obtained nanoparti-
cles was performed, as well as the analysis of the bioactive flavone. Vitexin-2-O-rhamnoside
was detected in the lipid nanoparticles. Experiments have indicated the capacity of goji
berries’ lipid nanoparticles to inhibit the secretion of the main pro-inflammatory cytokines,
and to regulate the expression of anti-inflammatory factors. It has further been demon-
strated that the obtained nanoparticles can relieve ulcerative colitis symptoms.
Polyphenols from goji berries’ leaves have been encapsulated in liposomes to improve
their delivery in terms of sustaining their release, and avoiding the burst effect compared
to the dissolution of the free extract [
151
]. The obtained liposomes have successfully
served as carriers for polyphenols and demonstrated a cytoprotective effect on L-929 mouse
fibroblasts cells.
Finally, the whole aqueous extracts of goji berries encapsulated in maltodextrin can
be used as potentially prebiotic food additives, because they have been shown to support
growth and viability, and stimulate the proliferation of probiotic strains of bacteria, such as
Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus, in simulated gastrointestinal conditions [
152
]. The same
research group [
153
] has also demonstrated that the aqueous extracts of goji berries, where
the encapsulation was performed with minimal maltodextrin content and high polyphenols
content, had high antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. Such products could be used for
the preservation of food or plant protection.
6. Goji Berry as Source of Functional Ingredients in Different Food Products
Recently, goji berries have become increasingly used as a raw material for the pro-
duction of specific beverages, or incorporated into various food products, such as bakery,
confectionery, meat, and milk products, contributing to their nutritional, health-promoting,
and sensory properties (Figure 2) [
18
,
20
]. The applications of goji berries as functional
ingredients in the formulation of different food products are reviewed and shown in Table 4.
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 13 of 29
Figure 2. Goji berry-based functional food products.
6.1. Goji Berry as a Raw Material or a Functional Ingredient in the Production of Beverages
Goji berries (red and black) were used for goji juice production [
102
,
154
], goji tea [
70
],
and specific fermented beverages such as fermented goji juice [
155
158
], goji wine [
159
,
160
],
and kombucha beverages [
161
]. Fermented goji beverages had high TPC, TFC, and TAcy
content, as well as good
in vitro
antioxidant properties evaluated using DPPH
, ABTS
+
,
FRAP, CUPRAC, and ORAC assays [
155
,
156
,
159
,
161
]. More precisely, bioactive compounds
such as phenolic acids (p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric, and ferulic acid), rutin, and various
volatile compounds were predominantly identified in fermented beverages [
156
,
158
,
162
]. In
addition, goji juice fermented by probiotics (Lactobacillus and/or Streptococcus sp.) showed
high cellular antioxidant activity (HepG2 cells) [
155
], improved function against ulcerative
colitis, decreased intestinal permeability, and modulated gut microbiota [
157
]. Moreover,
fermented goji beverages generally had moderate colour intensity, a specific odour/flavour
(fruity, honey, floral and vanilla) related to volatile compounds, balanced taste (slightly
sour and sweet), and good acceptability by consumers [156,158,159].
Goji berries were also successfully used as a functional ingredient in different stages
of the production of amber ale beer [
162
]. Beer with goji berries had increased contents
of total phenolics, some individually phenolic compounds (rutin, p-coumaric, and ferulic
acid) and AA-2
β
G, as well as good antioxidant potential. In addition, these beers had
good sensory acceptability with specific sensations of odour and taste, such as red fruit,
honey, caramel, coffee, hay, smoke, and a balanced ratio of bitterness and sourness [
162
].
Finally, black goji extract can be used as a functional ingredient and natural colour in many
food products [
163
]. This extract predominantly contains petunidin derivatives, primarily
cis and trans isomers of petunidin-3-p-coumaroyl-rutinoside-5-O-glucoside, responsible
for colour retention and improvement intensity, and the stability of colour in wide pH
ranges [163].
6.2. Goji Berries as Functional Ingredients in Meat Products
Goji extract has been successfully incorporated in products of minced catfish [
164
] and
horse meat [
165
,
166
] to improve sensory properties and oxidative stability during storage.
Moreover, chitosan/goji extract can be used as a biopreservative and antilisterial agent
when mixed with minced catfish [164].
The addition of goji berries or extract in sausages effectively suppressed lipolysis
and protein/lipid oxidation, reduced microbial count during storage, and preserved the
bright red colour, fresh aroma, and taste of sausages [
167
,
168
]. Furthermore, beef burgers
with different shares of goji puree (0%, 2.5%, and 5%) had increased total phenolic content,
decreased lipid peroxidation, and good antioxidant properties, as well as a pleasing odour,
taste, flavour and texture for various groups of consumers (young, adult, and elderly) [
169
].
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 14 of 29
Interestingly, the meat of rabbits fed with goji berries as a dietary supplement had increased
total phenolic content, decreased oxidation and unchanged colour, water-holding capacity,
and muscle tenderness [
170
,
171
]. Moreover, meatballs made from the meat of rabbit fed
with goji berry had a high sensory score and were more acceptable in terms of colour,
juiciness, taste, and overall liking [171].
6.3. Goji Berries as Functional Ingredients in Confectionery and Bakery Products
Goji berry sweet products, such as jam or jelly, had good antioxidant potential and
high scores for colour, consistency, flavour, and sweetness. However, these products
had lower sensory scores for sourness and aftertaste [
172
]. On the other hand, different
confectionery and bakery products can be fortified with various shares of goji berries to
improve their functional, sensory, or texture properties. For example, rice extrudates and
instant gruels with an increasing share of dry goji berry in mixture had increased content
of total phenolics, some individually phenolic acids, rutin, zeaxanthin dipalmitate, and
AA-2βG, as well as higher antioxidant properties [173,174].
In addition, muffins and cookies enriched with different shares of goji berries powder
or by-products had increased total phenolic, insoluble, and soluble fibre contents, and
good sensory properties (sourness, slightly sweet and specific flavour). They darkened the
colour of the extrudates via the Maillard reaction [
175
,
176
]. However, muffins and cookies
enriched with goji berry by-products had decreased firmness and hardness/fracturability,
respectively [
175
]. Furthermore, gluten-free bread, progressively enriched with goji berries
in the range of 0% to 15%, had decreased bread volume, hardness, lightness of bread
crumbs, increased redness, elasticity, and cohesion of bread crumb [
177
]. The addition of
goji berries (9% w/w) in prebiotic chocolates has changed the perception of most aroma,
flavour, and texture attributes; that is, it increased and improved the bitter taste, bitter
aftertaste, astringency, adherence, grittiness, hardness, and aroma of the goji berry [
178
].
More precisely, chocolate with goji berries had consumer acceptance scores above six on a
9-point scale.
6.4. Goji Berries as Functional Ingredients in Milk Products
Incorporating goji berries or extract into milk products such as probiotic yogurt
[179181]
and cheese [
182
] contributes to an increase in the TPC and antioxidant activities of these
products. Goji berries also improved the viability of lactic acid bacteria in yoghurt during
storage [
180
]. Furthermore, cheese with goji extracts showed decreased inhibitory activity in
the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). However, cheese enriched with goji extract/fish
collagen had the highest production of peptides after the 14th and 28th days of storage,
which could potentially have anti-ACE activity [
182
]. Finally, in the study of Rotar et al.
(2015), a sensory analysis showed that consumers preferred yogurt with 7% goji berries,
with a score of 8.21 points on the hedonic scale [180].
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 15 of 29
Table 4. An overview in the functional food products development using goji berries or goji berry products.
Products Goji Berries Microbial Species Involved in
Fermentation
Main Observations Specific Note Reference
Functional Properties Sensory and Texture Properties
BEVERAGES
Kombucha beverages
Dried goji berries:
1. Red goji berry
(Lycium barbarum L.)
2. Black goji berry
(Lycium ruthenicum Murr.)
Kombucha culture:
Symbiosis of acetic acid
bacteria and yeast species
1. High TPC
2. High antioxidant
properties (DPPH, FRAP
and CUPRAC)
1. Decrease colour intensity due
to microbial transformation of
phenolics (high score)
2. Odour highly acceptable(smell
from fruity to acetic acid)
3. Taste (fruity, sour and
sparkling flavour)
Increased TPC and
antioxidant properties
(except DPPH) after
in vitro digestion
[161]
Amber ale beer Dry goji berries Saccharomyces cerevisiae
yeast
1. High TPC
2. High rutin, p-coumaric and
ferulic acid content
3. High content of AA-2βG
4. High antioxidant activity
(TEAC and ORAC)
Hedonic score: Appreciation
1. Lower intensity
2. High colour intensity
3. Odour (red fruit, grainy, honey,
caramel, coffee, hay-like and
smoky)
4. Taste (bitterness, sourness, red
fruit-, caramel-, coffee- and
grainy-like)
Goji berries were added
to ale type beer at
different stages of the
production process
[162]
Fermented goji juice Goji berries extract Lactobacillus plantarum
RV21797
1. High TPC, TFC and TAcy
2. Expressed in vitro
antioxidant properties
(DPPH, ABTS+, FRAP and
ORAC)
3. High cellular antioxidant
activity (HepG2 Cells)
/ / [155]
Fermented goji juice Dried goji berries
(soaked goji berries)
Bacillus velezensis,Bacillus
licheniformis,Lactobacillus reuteri,
L. rhamnosus and L. plantarum
1. High TPC and TFC
2. High p-hydroxybenzoic
acid, p-coumaric acid and
rutin content
3. High individually volatile
compounds content
4. High antioxidant activity
(DPPHand hydroxyl radical)
1. Colour is moderate, very good
2. Flavour (aroma of goji juice is
pure and has no odour)
3. Taste (slightly acidic or sweet)
4. Acceptability (very like)
/ [157]
Goji berry tea
Dried goji berries:
1. Red goji berry
(Lycium barbarum L.)
2. Black goji berry
(Lycium ruthenicum)
/
1. High TPC
2. High LBP content
3. High antioxidant activity
(DPPH, ABTS+and FRAP)
1. Colour of red and black goji
berry tea were light
yellow and purple, respectively,
and then colour gradually
changed to darker with the
increase of time and temperature
of soaking
This study monitored the
effects of various
temperatures and times of
soak on antioxidant
properties of specific goji
berry tea.
[70]
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 16 of 29
Table 4. Cont.
Products Goji Berries Microbial Species Involved in
Fermentation
Main Observations Specific Note Reference
Functional Properties Sensory and Texture Properties
Fermented goji juice
by probiotics Dried goji berries
(soaked goji berries) Lactobacillus plantarum,L. reuteri
and Streptococcus thermophilus
1. Decreases the levels of
pro-inflammatory cytokines
and total superoxide
dismutase in serum and colon
2. Increased the levels of
anti-inflammatory cytokines,
myeloperoxidase and
glutathione peroxidase
3. Decreases intestinal
permeability
4. Modulate gut microbiota
/
Probiotics fermentation of
goji berry juice
contributing to enhanced
the anti-ulcerative
colitis function.
[157]
Fermented goji juice Fully ripe and frozen goji
berries (goji purre
crashed with pectinase)
Lactiplantibacillus plantarum,
Lactobacillus acidophilus, L.
helveticus, Fructobacillus
fructosus, Weissella cibaria
1. Highly individually
volatile compounds content
(93 volatile compounds and
seven non-volatile
organic acids)
1. Juices fermented with L.
plantarum or
L. acidophilus were described with
‘honey’, ‘wild jujube’ odours and
‘sour’ taste
2. Juices with L. helveticus were
described with ‘goji berry’, ‘floral’
and sweetness
3. Juices with F. fructosus or W.
cibaria were described with
‘vinegar’ and sweetness
L. helveticus 6024 is the
most active strain able to
retain or liberated the key
compounds positively
associated with ‘goji
berry’ note.
[158]
Goji juice and
goji capsules Goji berries / 1. Source of nutritional and
mineral elements /
Goji capsules contained
higher concentration of
all individually minerals
compared to
goji juice samples.
[154]
Goji wine Dried goji berries
(goji puree) Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1. High TPC and TFC
2. High LBPs content
3. High individually volatile
compounds content
4. High antioxidant activity
(DPPHand ABTS+)
1. Flavour (woody, vanillia and
clove aroma), aroma related with
compounds such as cis- and
trans-whisky lactone, vanillin,
eugenol, isoeugenol, and
4-vinylguaiacol
2. The highest score in olfactory
and gustative attributes
This study monitored the
effects of various oak
matrices (medium toast
barrel, medium toast
shavings, non-toast chips,
light toast chips, medium
toast chips, and heavy
toast chips) on the
volatiles and antioxidant
activity in Goji wine.
Thus, Goji wine treated
with oak shavings had the
highest antioxidant
activity, phenolics and
flavonoids content
[159]
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 17 of 29
Table 4. Cont.
Products Goji Berries Microbial Species Involved in
Fermentation
Main Observations Specific Note Reference
Functional Properties Sensory and Texture Properties
Goji berry juice Dehydrated goji berries /
1. High protocatehuic acid,
vanillic acid, p-coumaric acid,
catechin and rutin content
2. Goji juice caused toxicity
and reduced the lifespan of
Caenorhabditis elegans
3. Goji juice increased
lipofuscin, glucose levels,
number of apoptotic bodies
and lipase activity
/
High concentration of goji
juice showed toxic effects
and promoted premature
aging in C. elegans. Thus,
goji juice should be
carefully consumed until
further studies
are conducted.
[102]
Black goji extract as
source of natural colour Dried black goji berries /
1. High content of petunidin
derivatives, primarily cis and
trans isomers of
petunidin-3-p-coumaroyl-
rutinoside-5-O-glucoside
Acylated petunidin anthocyanins
are responsible for colour
retention and improvement of
colour intensity and stability.
Black goji anthocyanins
produced various colour
shades in broad ranges
of pH.
[163]
Goji wine
Dried goji berries (mixed
with water and
decomposed
with pectolase)
Saccharomyces cerevisiae / /
Ethyl carbamate was
formed during the
fermentation and storage
processes of goji wine.
[160]
MEAT PRODUCTS
Minced catfish Goji berry extract / /
High score for odour, texture,
colour and overall quality of
catfish minced blended with
chitosan/goji berry extract,
immediately after mixing and
after 14 days of storage.
Chitosan/goji berry
extract can be used as a
biopreservative and
anti-listerial agents
(prevents the growth of
Listeria monocytogenes),
and also enhanced
sensory properties and
storage stability, when is
mixed with
catfish minced.
[164]
Beef burgers Goji puree
(0%; 2.5%; and 5%) /
Burgers with goji:
1. Increased TPC
2. Improved antioxidant
properties (DPPH, ABTS+
and ORAC)
3. Decreased lipid
peroxidation
Burgers had acceptable
appearance, odour, taste, flavour
and texture for all groups of
consumers (young, adult
and elderly)
Burgers with goji had
significantly higher TPC
and antioxidant
properties after
in vitro digestion
[169]
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 18 of 29
Table 4. Cont.
Products Goji Berries Microbial Species Involved in
Fermentation
Main Observations Specific Note Reference
Functional Properties Sensory and Texture Properties
Cooked sausages Dried goji berries
(0.5% and 1%) / /
The addition of 0.5% goji berries
had the highest contribution to
the preservation of bright red
colour, fresh aroma and taste of
functional cooked sausages
The addition of 0.5% and
1% of goji berries
effectively inhibited
protein oxidation,
lipolysis, and lipid
oxidation in functional
cooked sausages
[167]
Rabbit meat Rabbit feed was
supplemented with 3%
goji berries / /
Consumers gave a higher score
for meatballs produced of meat of
rabbits which were fed with goji
berries dietary supplementation.
These samples had more
acceptable colour, juiciness, taste
and overall liking.
Meat obtained of rabbits
fed with goji berries
dietary supplementation
had reduced TBARS
values and significant
impact on Lactobacillus
spp. prevalence.
[170]
Smoked common carp
sausages Goji berry extracts
(1% and 2%) / /
1. Sausages with goji berry
extract had partial redness colour
2. The highest score of aroma and
colour had sausages with
1% goji extract.
Sausages supplemented
with goji extracts had
decreased TBA values,
TVB-N contents and total
aerobic mesophilic
bacteria during storage,
in comparison to control
sample (without goji).
[168]
Cooked and smoked
horse meat product
Goji berry extract and goji
berry extract/buckwheat
flour / /
A high score for appearance,
shear, colour, taste, odour and
consistency were evaluated for a
horsemeat product enriched with
goji extract or
goji/buckwheat mixture.
/ [165]
Rabbit meat Rabbit feed was
supplemented with 1%
and 3% goji berries /
Meat obtained of rabbits fed
with goji berries dietary
supplementation:
1. Increased TPC
2. Improved antioxidant
properties (ORAC)
Goji berries dietary
supplementation did not affect
the colour, water holding capacity
and tenderness of rabbit
meat muscle.
Meat obtained of rabbits
which were fed with 3%
goji berries dietary
supplementation showed
an increase in
oxidative stability.
[171]
Kazakh horse-meat
product Goji berry extract
(0.5% and 1%) /
A high score for surface colour,
smell and taste were evaluated
for a horsemeat product enriched
with 0.5% and 1% goji extract.
Horse meat products with
1.0% of goji extract had
improved oxidative
stability. On the other
hand, adding of goji
berries had destructive
effect on most meat fiber.
[166]
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 19 of 29
Table 4. Cont.
Products Goji Berries Microbial Species Involved in
Fermentation
Main Observations Specific Note Reference
Functional Properties Sensory and Texture Properties
BAKERY AND CONFECTIONERY PRODUCTS
Goji jam and jelly Dehydrated goji berries / 1. High antioxidant activity
(DPPH)
Both goji products had high score
for colour, appearance, consistency,
flavour and sweet taste, however,
for sour taste and aftertaste
products had lower scores.
/ [172]
Muffins and spritz
cookies
Whole goji berries
(0% and 10%)
Goji powder
(0%, 3%, 5% and 10%)
/ /
1. Pastry products with goji
berries had a sour, slightly sweet
and specific flavour.
2. Consumer’s preferred muffins
with 10% whole goji and cookies
with 5% goji powder.
/ [176]
Muffins and cookies Goji berry by-products
(0%, 10%, 20%, 30%
and 40%) /
Bakery products enriched
with goji by-products:
1. Increased TPC
2. Increased insoluble and
soluble fibre
1. Increased goji by-products
level decreased muffin firmness,
that is, hardness and
fracturability of cookies.
2. Muffins with 20% of goji
by-products and cookies with
10% of goji by-products had the
best sensory properties.
/ [175]
Prebiotic white
chocolate Dried goji berries
(9% w/w)/ /
1. According to quantitative
descriptive analysis, adding goji
berries in chocolate reduced the
perception of most aroma and
flavour attributes, and improved
the bitter taste, bitter aftertaste,
astringency, and most of the
texture attributes
2. Increased adherence, grittiness,
hardness, astringency and goji
berry aroma in comparison with
control sample.
3. Chocolates enriched with goji
berries had acceptance scores
above 6 on a 9-point scale.
/ [178]
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 20 of 29
Table 4. Cont.
Products Goji Berries Microbial Species Involved in
Fermentation
Main Observations Specific Note Reference
Functional Properties Sensory and Texture Properties
Rice flour based
extrudates Dry goji berries
(0%, 13%, 23% and 28.5%) /
Increasing goji berry level in
rice flour based extrudates
resulted in:
1. Increased TPC
2. Increased antioxidant
activity (DPPHand ABTS+)
3. Increased rutin, zeaxanthin
dipalmitate and AA-2βG
content (content of listed
compounds were higher in
samples before extrusion)
/ / [173]
Instant gruels Dry goji berries
(1%, 3% and 5%) /
Increasing goji berry level in
instant corn gruels resulted in:
1. Increased TPC
2. Increased antioxidant
activity (TEAC and
TLC-DPPH)
3. Increased protocatehuic,
4-OH-benzoic, p-coumaric,
ferulic, isoferulic and salicylic
acid content
/
This study also monitored
time (10 and 15 min) and
rotation speed of the
extruder screw (80 rpm,
100 rpm and 120 rpm)
[174]
Gluten-free bread Dried goji berries
(0%, 3%, 6%, 9%, 12%
and 15%) / /
1. Goji addition in bread, range
3–12% had no significant
influence on bread volume, while
addition of 15% caused reduction
in volume
2. Goji addition in bread reduced
lightness and increased redness
of bread crumb
3. Increasing of goji in bread
influenced on decreased hardness
of bread crumb and increased
elasticity
4. Increasing goji content from 3%
to 6% in bread influenced on
increased cohesion of the crumb
/ [177]
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 21 of 29
Table 4. Cont.
Products Goji Berries Microbial Species Involved in
Fermentation
Main Observations Specific Note Reference
Functional Properties Sensory and Texture Properties
MILK PRODUCTS
Yoghurt
Dried goji berries
(aqueous/ethanolic
extract)
(0.05%, 0.1% and
0.15% w/v)
Commercial yoghurt culture
(yo-FAST-88), Hansen,
Denmark
Increasing goji extract level in
yoghurt resulted in:
1. Increased TPC
2. Increased antioxidant
activity (DPPH)
Increasing goji extract level in
yogurt decreased consumer
acceptability, with the same trend
at the 1st day and after 20 days.
/ [179]
Yoghurt Goji berries with/without
honey
(0%, 3%, 5% and 7%)
Starter mezophylic culture
Lyofast Y450B
(Streptococcus thermophilus and
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus (ratio 1:1))
/Consumers preferred
yoghurt with 7% goji berries
(8.21 points on hedonic scale)
Goji berries maintained
viability of lactic acid
bacteria in yoghurt during
storage
[180]
Yoghurt Dry and ground goji
berries
(2%, 4% and 6%)
Lactobacillus delbreukii ssp.
bulgaricus,Streptococcus
thermophilus
Increasing goji extract level in
yoghurt resulted in:
1. Increased TPC
2. Increased antioxidant
activity (DPPH)
/
Total phenolic content
and antioxidant activity
of yogurt enriched with
goji berries is
continuously reduced
after 3th, 7th and 14th
days of storage.
[181]
Cheese
1. Dried goji berries (3%
water extract)
2. Goji extract/fish
collagen
Lactic acid bacteria
1. Cheese with goji extract
showed decreased ACE
inhibitory activity
2. Cheese enriched with goji
extract and fish collagen had
the most enhanced peptides
production after 14th and
28th days of storage, and
potential anti-ACE activity.
/ / [182]
“/”—not analysed; TPC—total phenolic content; TFC—total flavonoid content; TAcy—total anthocyanin content; LBPs—L. barbarum polysaccarides; AA-2
β
G: 2-O-
β
-d-glucopyranosyl-L-
ascorbic acid; DPPH 2,2
0
-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity; FRAP—ferric reducing antioxidant power; CUPRAC-cupric ion reducing antioxidant capacity; TEAC-trolox
equivalent antioxidant capacity; ORAC—oxygen radical antioxidant capacity; ACE—angiotensin-converting enzyme; TBA—thiobarbituric acid; TVB-N: total volatile basic nitrogen.
Antioxidants 2022,11, 248 22 of 29
7. Conclusions and Future Directions
Increasing scientific evidence on the health-promoting effects of goji berries has in-
creased interest in the possible application of goji berries or their extracts as raw materials or
functional additives in various food products. Several important conclusions regarding goji
berries valorisation in the functional food industry can be drawn from previous research
studies: (1) Goji berries are sensitive and easily susceptible to spoilage, which requires new
postharvest and storage investigation to prolong the stability of fresh goji berries; (2) Dried
goji berries can be found most often in the market, but in the future, more attention should
be focused on applying modern drying technologies with appropriate pre-treatments to
produce dried goji berries with better nutritional value and sensory properties; (3) Goji
berry products or products fortified with goji berry have improved nutritional, functional,
and sensory properties; (4) Sensory and texture properties generally depend on the share of
goji berry added in the final products; (5) Consumption of highly concentrated goji products
such as juice can potentially have an adverse effect and require additional research in the
future; (6) New micro- and nanoencapsulation models should be investigated in the future,
to protect sensitive compounds from goji berries during processing, and ensure their better
absorption during digestion; (7) Further research should also examine the effect of the food
matrix on the phenolic profile and the functional properties of incorporated goji berries;
(8) During the processing of goji berries, significant quantities of their by-products are
formed. Thus, in the future, attention should be paid to the valorisation of goji by-products
and their application in the food industry; (9) It has been shown that goji berries’ addition
to feeding improves rabbit meat quality; this should also be confirmed with other animals.
Finally, the efficacy and safety of goji berry-based food products and nutraceuticals
need to be proven through well-designed clinical trials. Moreover, the possible interactions
of goji berry with conventional medications and natural health products need investigation
in more detail.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, B.B.V. and M.B.P.; writing—original draft preparation, B.B.V.,
D.D.M., M.D.M., J.D.D., T.D.I. and A.Ž.K.; writing—review and editing, B.B.V., D.D.M., M.D.M., and
M.B.P.; visualization, D.D.M.; supervision, M.B.P.; project administration, B.B.V., and M.B.P.; funding
acquisition, B.B.V. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This work was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Develop-
ment, Republic of Serbia through grant numbers 451-03-9/2021-14/200161 and 451-03-9/2021-14/200116.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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