Discovering the Legacy of Hispanic/Spanish and South American Landscapes through Geohistorical Sources: The Geographical and Topographical Relations of Philip II

Abstract

Landscapes have history and memory, which are eloquent generators of testimonies and traces on the processes of the landscape that take place today, and that will take place in the future. In recent years, numerous methods of analysing land and landscape patterns have been developed and evaluated, based on the multiplicity of these type of geographic and historical data sources, which have developed the concept of the geohistorical source. The goal of these sources of information allows us to historically reconstruct landscapes. With this in mind, the basic objective of the present research is to approach a geohistorical source with a wide spatial spectrum in Europe and America: the geographical and topographical relations of Philip II. This source has been chosen for the quality, quantity, variety and systematization of the data it provides on the territory and landscape of the crown of Castile. In addition, it ended up being the model of how to obtain organized and homogeneous knowledge of a large spatial area, considering the geographical, anthropological and historical data of the different territories. This geohistorical source is reliable, because the local authorities, both secular and ecclesiastical, are questioned, as they are the ones who inhabit, use, and, at different levels, govern the territory and its people.

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Citation: Vallina-Rodríguez, A.;
Aguilar-Cuesta, Á.I.; García-Juan, L.;
Bernabé-Crespo, M.B.; Bringas-
Gutiérrez, M.A.; Camarero-Bullón, C.
Discovering the Legacy of
Hispanic/Spanish and South
American Landscapes through
Geohistorical Sources: The
Geographical and Topographical
Relations of Philip II. Sustainability
2022,14, 1306. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su14031306
Academic Editors: Raúl
Romero-Calcerrada, Javier Cabello,
Manuel Pacheco-Romero and Koldo
Trapaga Monchet
Received: 4 November 2021
Accepted: 20 January 2022
Published: 24 January 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
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distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
sustainability
Article
Discovering the Legacy of Hispanic/Spanish and South
American Landscapes through Geohistorical Sources: The
Geographical and Topographical Relations of Philip II
Alejandro Vallina-Rodríguez 1,* , Ángel I. Aguilar-Cuesta 2, Laura García-Juan 3, Miguel B. Bernabé-Crespo 3,
Miguel A. Bringas-Gutiérrez 4and Concepción Camarero-Bullón3, *
1Department of Geography, University of Salamanca, 00503 Ávila, Spain
2Department of Social Sciences, Valencian International University, 46002 Valencia, Spain;
aaguilarc@universidadviu.com
3Department of Geography, Autonomous University of Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
laura.garciaj@uam.es (L.G.-J.); miguelb.bernabe@uam.es (M.B.B.-C.)
4Department of Economics, University of Cantabria, 39006 Santander, Spain; miguel.bringas@unican.es
*Correspondence: alvallina@usal.es (A.V.-R.); concepcion.camarero@uam.es (C.C.-B.);
Tel.: +34-(663)-179812 (A.V.-R.)
Abstract:
Landscapes have history and memory, which are eloquent generators of testimonies
and traces on the processes of the landscape that take place today, and that will take place in the
future. In recent years, numerous methods of analysing land and landscape patterns have been
developed and evaluated, based on the multiplicity of these type of geographic and historical data
sources, which have developed the concept of the geohistorical source. The goal of these sources of
information allows us to historically reconstruct landscapes. With this in mind, the basic objective of
the present research is to approach a geohistorical source with a wide spatial spectrum in Europe and
America: the geographical and topographical relations of Philip II. This source has been chosen for
the quality, quantity, variety and systematization of the data it provides on the territory and landscape
of the crown of Castile. In addition, it ended up being the model of how to obtain organized and
homogeneous knowledge of a large spatial area, considering the geographical, anthropological and
historical data of the different territories. This geohistorical source is reliable, because the local
authorities, both secular and ecclesiastical, are questioned, as they are the ones who inhabit, use, and,
at different levels, govern the territory and its people.
Keywords: geohistorical source; historical geography; territory; landscape
1. Introduction
Our current perspective of landscapes and terrains is the result of their evolution
over time. For this reason, and as a means to understand the characteristics of a given
historical place and society, researchers must consult documents, references and data that
provide information about societies, and the lands in which they occupy and place value.
Historical geography, in addition to other branches of knowledge such as history, eco-
nomics, anthropology and medicine, among others, use specific features or characteristics
to form a corpus of information that allows reliable interpretation of the past [
1
] (p. 142).
To this end, spatial analytical approaches have traditionally been used, employing a wide
range of textual resources, cadastral or paracadastral documents, cartographic materials,
photographs, statistics and censuses and literary resources, which have been increasingly
combined with technologies such as geographic information systems or, more recently, Big
Data [
2
] (p. 45). Thus, in recent years, numerous methods for analysing land and landscape
patterns have been developed and assessed, based on a multitude of geographical and
historical data sources, and have given rise to the concept of a “geohistorical source” [
3
]
Sustainability 2022,14, 1306. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14031306 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 2 of 14
(p. 20). Under the umbrella of this notion is a set of sources containing geographical and
historical data which can be spatialised [4] (p. 69).
The landscape, aside from the features that any geographical space can acquire, is an
instrument that shapes how reality is perceived and helps in the interpretation and under-
standing of a particular reality within a specific spatial area. Hence, approaches involving
the perspective of time require the analysis of all available features and characteristics, with
the premise that in order to understand the present and be able to foresee the future, it
is necessary to know how to interpret the past histories of landscapes, which, on many
occasions, constitute a rich source of information regarding the structural changes that have
taken place, as well as the origins of the socio-cultural perceptions of the inhabitants [
5
]
(p. 210). It must therefore be stated that for modern geography [
6
] (p. 98), as in other sci-
ences and branches of knowledge that focus on societies and the environment, landscapes
are the holders of both history and memories. They are the eloquent creators of clues and
traces of the landscape processes that are currently taking place and those that will take
place in the future [7] (p. 23).
The key to all of this is to arrive at the historical reconstruction of landscapes, which
is undoubtedly linked to sources of information, how to find and deal with these sources,
the essential information and circumstances they provide, and the interpretation and
discussion of the data. In light of the above, it is extremely important to identify the right
sources of information for each particular purpose and to read and interpret the background
and references correctly. This exercise on environmental history, of which only the view
from human geography is presented here, is not always easy to achieve, mainly because
finding the necessary data to reconstruct the landscapes of the recent past becomes, on
most occasions, an arduous task and is not exempt to difficulties. Geohistorical sources
contain a huge amount of data which, if well managed, provide extensive information
about the structure of societies at the time they were created [
8
] (p. 171). However, these
volumes present a vast amount of diverse and varied information that often impedes their
handling, owing to the wide learning curve required in order to use the sources in which
they appear. For the purpose of clarifying, as much as possible, the basic typologies of
geohistorical sources that can be used in the understanding and the study of landscapes,
the following categorisation based on different criteria, which in no way excludes other
approaches, is proposed:
•
Bibliographic sources: These are understood, suitably, as written sources, generally
in printed form, and in particular literature of a diverse nature and production, in
which information on landscapes appears in a tangential way or can be the object
of interpretation by the reader. The data of this type of documentation in the field
of landscapes, although difficult to find, are quite relevant with regard to epistolary
relationships, literature and travel accounts, encyclopaedias and local historiographies,
among other texts suitable for studying landscapes, terrains and societies.
•
Cartographic and iconographic sources: The sets of maps and plans, as well as other
products linked to these, such as planimetric sketches, sketches, views and drawings
and historical photographs, lithographs, drawings, paintings, watercolours, etc., not
only allow an objective approach to territorial phenomena, but also allow subjective
perspectives to be drawn about the reality of rural and urban areas [9] (p. 11).
•
Direct textual sources: This typology of geohistorical sources is probably the most
interesting and relevant in terms of the volume and quality of historical information
they provide on landscapes and their components. In a rather summarised form, it
can be stated that a large part of this typology derives from fieldwork, i.e., it derives to
a greater or lesser degree from the inspections carried out in the territories in question.
These documents, which include land registers, topographical dictionaries, reports
and studies of the period, replies to interviews and questionnaires and other similar
elements, require a great mastery of the subject to be analysed. This also includes a
detailed understanding of the study area, the document itself and its authors, and the

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 3 of 14
use of a clear scientific method in order to extract the information required for the type
of study to be carried out (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Extract from the Topographic Relation of Philip II for the municipality of Albalate de
Zorita (Guadalajara, Spain). Library of the Royal Monastery of El Escorial. Manuscript, paper
318 ×215 mm
. Signature J-I-15 [
10
]. Reproduced from [or Adapted from] “Relationships of peoples
of Spain made in the time of Philip II, for the years from 1574 to 1580” by the authors of the research
(https://rbmecat.patrimonionacional.es/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=695 (accessed
on 24 October 2021)). Public Domain Work.
•
Indirect textual sources: Although normally less comprehensive than the previous
sources, a set of information on local reality can be derived indirectly from this typol-
ogy. From historical documentation such as medical topographies, ecclesiastical roga-
tions, lawsuits and the collection of tariffs and duties, memorials of complaints, etc., it

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 4 of 14
is possible to extract information to be considered in relation to the history of a land-
scape, especially in the absence of other more exact direct documentary sources [
11
]
(p. 13). Research using these types of sources must be carried out in a scientific manner.
Additionally, the information obtained must be compared, analysed and completed
with that provided by other available sources, allowing for a correct, careful and
logical analysis.
In this initial approach to geohistorical sources as the basis for the study of landscapes,
it is necessary to bear in mind that they are heterogeneous but complementary sets of
sources. Their interest, therefore, lies in the information they contain, not only on aspects
highly related to land use, but also in the testimony they provide on the relationship
between these aspects and the physical, biological, historical, social, environmental or
demographic facts of the geographical frameworks to which they refer.
2. Materials and Methods: Geographical Examinations as a Source for Landscape
Study and Reconstruction
The increase in the number of studies on landscapes has led to a significant rise in
the use of all kinds of geohistorical sources, sometimes in the absence of the knowledge
required to understand the source being consulted [
12
] (p. 17). In order to understand
a source, extracting the information it offers the researcher, it is necessary to answer
the following questions [
13
] (p. 11). What is the purpose of the source? What type of
information does it contain and with what criteria was the data collected, structured and
prepared? What techniques were used to collect the information, to ensure its accuracy and
correctness, and to prepare the data? In what political, social and economic context was the
assessment carried out? Who was or who were those ultimately responsible for the source?
Consequently, this collection of reflections, as well as a few more, can be summarised in
four main questions that all researchers must ask themselves when confronted with any
source to be used, but especially with those of a geo-historical nature, given the length in
time since the sources were prepared [14] (p. 171):
•
What is the socio-economic, political and technical context in which the source was
developed and carried out?
•Why was it carried out?
•What does it involve?
•Of what use is it currently to the researcher?
It should be noted that this lack of knowledge, which is more widespread than
desirable, has all too often led to somewhat surprising conclusions and has highlighted the
need to undertake a systematic and in-depth study of the geo-historical sources themselves
before proceeding to the excavation and interpretation of the data they contain. This has
led to a line of research in which much progress is already being made, especially in the
case of cadastral and paracadastral sources.
Specifically, the research will base its research criteria on the hypothetico-deductive
method, one of the most used models in the geographical sciences and humanities. Accord-
ing to this method, it has been established as a fundamental hypothesis that the landscape
and the territory have a clear reference of knowledge in geohistorical sources. Specifically,
examples of the Topographic Relationships of Philip II are used to observe the knowledge
of the landscape that was had in the 16th century in America and Europe. From this, the
phenomena included in the geographical descriptions are explained, the most elementary
consequences or implications of the hypothesis itself are deduced, and, finally, the deduced
statements are checked or refuted by comparing them with the experience and current state
of the territory.
Geographical or geographical-like surveys, carried out in the interest of becoming
familiar with the territory or for other purposes, are a widely used set of sources due to
the immediacy of the data they provide and the ease with which they can be processed
and interpreted [
15
] (p. 12). Ease, it must be said, is more apparent than real. In the
following pages we describe an approach, involving important surveys of spaces on both

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 5 of 14
sides of the Atlantic, namely, the Geographical and Topographical Relations of Philip II.
This source was chosen because of the quality, quantity, variety and systematicity of the
data it provides. In addition, it has become the model to follow for obtaining organised,
systematic and homogeneous information about an immense space, without eliminating
the geographical, anthropological and historical specificities of the different territories.
Owing to space limitations, we have left out other key surveys carried out during 18th
century Spain, of which the Philippine survey is most notable and is referred to in the
following works: ([
16
] (p. 67); [
17
] (p. 93); [
18
] (p. 26); [
19
] (p. 110); [
20
] (p. 47); [
21
] (p. 42)).
3. Results
The 16th century marked the beginning of the efforts of European monarchies to
design tools and methods to obtain territorial information that, when suitably performed,
would allow them to systematically survey their lands and the people inhabiting the area.
In Spain, such practices were initiated by Philip II (1527–1598), who was king of Spain and
the Indies from 1554 and of Portugal from 1580. King Philip II is the monarch Richard
Kagan refers to as “the king among geographers” [
22
] (p. 34), and who has also been
referred to as the rey papelero or “the paper king”. As far as we are concerned, here we
are dealing with a Renaissance prince, who, before acceding to the throne, had travelled
around Europe, embraced the values of humanism, and, who, following the abdication
of his father, Charles I of Spain and V of the Holy Roman Empire, came to rule over
territories on which the sun never sets. This was a varied and diverse territory, one that the
king wanted to know and was obliged to know and one that was to be described in texts
and mapped out. Philip II chose to stop living for the Empire, as his father and the war
against Protestantism had done. He then focused his attention on the Hispanic territories,
including those inherited by the dynasty, the Netherlands, a key area for the development
of the cartography of the time, and the territories of the Spanish Empire. Philip II was also
the king who was responsible for the construction of El Escorial, which was to become
the pantheon of the dynasty, a monastery, a royal site and a centre for study. El Escorial
was endowed with a magnificent library for which he had acquired all types of books,
manuscripts and maps, regardless of their provenance and content.
For America, the reign of Philip II signified what has come to be called “the new stage
of Hispanic America”, giving way to the pacification of the territory and its organisation,
after the discovery and conquest of the Americas. This was the time of the founding of
extremely important cities: Mexico, Santafé, Cartagena de Indias, Lima, Santiago de Chile,
Buenos Aires, among others (Figure 2).
In this state of affairs, the Casa de Contratación and the reorganization of the Council
of the Indies, based on new ordinances approved in September 1571, would be key to
the task of getting to know this large and now consolidated territory. These defined the
post of the Major Chronicler of the Indies and that of the cosmographer. The former was
entrusted with creating an archive in which all the documents relating to America were to
be kept, while the task of the latter position was to write a general geography of the Indies,
based on the particular reports sent to him from the provinces. Initially, both positions
converged with one person being appointed, Juan López de Velasco, who collaborated with
Juan de Ovando, President of the Council of the Indies between 1570 and 1774. Together
they drafted the questionnaires that were sent to America, dated 1569, 1571 and 1577,
organised the scarce amount of material that was gathered, and wrote the “Geography
and General Description of the Indies” (1571–1575), based on the reports received and the
documentation that was being gathered from the New World.

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 6 of 14
Figure 2.
The city of Trinidad, province of the Musos in the New Kingdom of Granada. Library of
Royal Academy of the History of Spain. Map: 54
×
69 cm. Collection: Cartography and Graphic
Arts Section-Signature: C-028-002 [
23
]. Reproduced from [or Adapted from] Royal Academy of
History Digital Library by the authors of the research (https://bibliotecadigital.rah.es/es/catalogo_
imagenes/grupo.do?path=1049537 (accessed on 24 October 2021)). Public Domain Work.
Nonetheless, it was not only necessary to obtain information about America, but it was
also necessary to explore Spain. To this end, a procedure was carried out which involved
asking the local authorities on both sides of the sea to answer a survey or questionnaire
regarding the territory and its inhabitants (in reality, several surveys were sent out, but
with the same basic information). These questionnaires were dispersed mainly in the 1570s,
but not exclusively. As we have seen, the questionnaires, although basically the same,
had specific aspects concerning each of the territories. The information requested was
structured in a series of points including the name of the place (current and former), type
of jurisdiction, geographical situation, topographical characteristics, river courses, distance
to surrounding areas, administrative organisation, demographic aspects (population and
settlement), natural resources, tax burdens, municipal and council resources, aspects of
town planning, buildings, agricultural, livestock and forestry activities, craft and industrial
activities, mining (mines, quarries, salt mines, etc.), liberal ideas, services, transport, aspects
of health and welfare, public and private education, religious aspects, and miscellaneous
subjects such as history, legends, art among others. In the case of America, in addition to
the abovementioned topics, specific information was requested about the environment: the
ancient name of the population in the indigenous language or languages and its meaning,
indigenous toponymy and its meaning, language spoken, ethnicity, legends and historical
facts, mountains, rivers and coasts, tides, and islands, etc. It was undoubtedly known that
place names were valuable for gaining insight into the elements comprising the landscape
and the resources of villages, their location and their history [24] (p. 72) (Figure 3).

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 7 of 14
Figure 3.
The city of Toquio, 28 January 1579. Library of Royal Academy of the History of Spain
[C-028-001]. El Tocuyo (Venezuela) [
25
]. Reproduced from [or Adapted from] Royal Academy
of History Digital Library by the authors of the research (https://bibliotecadigital.rah.es/es/
consulta/resultados_ocr.do?id=1579&forma=ficha&tipoResultados=BIB&posicion=5 (accessed on
24 October 2021)). Public Domain Work.
This research will briefly refer to toponymy, as this concept reflects the location of the
localities, the elements of the surrounding landscape and the conjunction with historical-
legendary facts. In particular, these facts are based on the relationship of the town of Segura
de la Sierra (Jaén, Spain), located at the top of the Sierra of the same name, in the shadow of
a castle, in a territory that, for several centuries, was the border between the lands of Castile
and the Nasrid Kingdom. In relation, reference is made to an earlier place name, Altamira,
which is directly related to the altitude of its location and the territory in sight, and to the
second, which reflects the idea of altitude from the Sierra and the idea of security from the
enemy, with the name Segura (safe). It also refers to a time when the locality was more
important, as it seems to have had the status of a city, which was lost in the 16th century,
probably when the strategic value of this territory disappeared once the Reconquest ended
with the conquest of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada in 1492.
This town is now called Segura de la Sierra, and in the past, it used to be a city called
the city of Altamira, and thus these mountains were called the lands of Altamira. It is said
that a King came fleeing and took refuge in its fortress, which was very high in such a way
that it almost seems that in some parts he was safe from everyone; he said “here, I am safe”.
It is said that the name, Segura, was taken from this account.
In addition to the textual information, resulting from the answers provided in the
survey, it was requested that a sketch be made of the locality or area to which the report
referred, sometimes involving larger bodies of land in the case of America. However, in
the case of Spain, the sketches were always of local areas. Consequently, there is now a
set of maps that constitute a collection of non-technological cartography, which could be
called “popular”, of great interest. This is owed to the information this source contains
and because it reflects the perception of space and the elements of the landscape of those
who populated it, answered the questionnaire, and sketched the area. To a large extent, this
information provides an account of the natural elements of the landscape, in terms of the
characteristics of the geoforms contained within the territory, the natural vegetation and
the anthropic use of the soil, and, finally, the recollection of the fluvial resources available
in the territory assayed. Additionally, this type of information is of enormous value for
understanding the terrain and the landscape of the areas surveyed, as it contains reports
that, to a greater or lesser degree, provide accounts of the main consubstantial and visual
aspects of the landscape of the epoch [26] (p. 41) (Figure 4).

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 8 of 14
Figure 4.
Map of Minas de Zumpango, Archbishopric of Mexico, 09-04663, n
º
36, 10 March 1582.
Library of Royal Academy of the History of Spain [
27
]. Reproduced from [or Adapted from]
Royal Academy of History Digital Library by the authors of the research (https://bibliotecadigital.
rah.es/es/consulta/registro.do?control=RAH20110000394 (accessed on 24 October 2021)). Public
Domain Work.
It is important to note that, in terms of graphs, the wealth of information comprising
the Indies Relations is incomparably superior to that of the Spanish Relations. Of these,
only two sketches remain (it is not known whether others were made): one included in the
Pastrana Relation (Guadalajara) and another in that of Consuegra (Toledo). Both of these
Spanish towns are located in the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. On the other hand, a very
significant number of sketches or maps of the most varied origin remain from America,
although it is true that not all the reports were accompanied by maps and that not all
of them have been preserved. Some are more intuitive and others more technical; some
focus on the space around the locality, roads, mountains, volcanoes, rivers, salt mines,
mines, and springs, etc., while others focus on urban aspects, municipalities and larger
areas. Additionally, some include texts in local languages and drawings alluding to ancient
deities, glyphs among others. Simply put, they are textual and graphic documents that
unite both the old and the new. This material captures the changes in the landscape: the
union of pre-existing elements and those brought in from outside.
The extremely revealing questions, concerning the settlement and the population and
referring to the anthropogenic environment, delve into examining the social structure of a
population and the different trades and leave a basic impression of the rural areas. This
can be seen, for example, in many of the sketches taken from around the fields, where the
newly incorporated livestock and stock species are drawn together with the native trees
and vegetation. Some examples of maps or paintings, as they are sometimes called in the
sources, give an idea of the types of maps that were made.
Perhaps one of the most interesting maps in terms of landscape and the fusion of
cultures is that of Macuilxóchitl and his jurisdiction (Oaxaca) from 1580 (Figure 5), in
which elements of Zapotec mythology, Christian elements, annotations in Spanish and
Nahuatl, and the lingua franca of Mesoamerica, are mixed. The main glyph, depicting a
mountain where three human figures are located: Coqui Pilla (Lord Snake), Ciqui Piziat
(Lord Golden Eagle) and Lady Yozi Xonaga Pela Laa (house)-are located, represents the
hill Cerro Danush. In addition, the annotations included in the drawing and text of the
relation make it possible to identify the elements of the landscape and the legend behind

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 9 of 14
the different symbols. The roads are identified through the use of symbols of bare feet and
horseshoes, the river is identified by the colour blue, the settlements by houses topped by a
cross, the livestock are scattered throughout, and the vegetation is depicted as agave and
prickly pears in the lowlands, and trees and features in green on the hills.
Figure 5.
Map of San Mateo Macuilxóchitl, provincia de Guaxaca (Oaxaca) Mexico, 1580. Li-
brary of Royal Academy of the History of Spain [
28
]. Reproduced from [or Adapted from] Royal
Academy of History Digital Library by the authors of the research (https://bibliotecadigital.rah.es/
es/consulta/resultados_ocr.do?id=1595&forma=ficha&tipoResultados=BIB&posicion=1 (accessed on
24 October 2021)). Public Domain Work.
As a technical map, the one of Tlacotalpa (Veracruz), which is practically a nautical
chart, is very interesting. It was drawn by the Sevillian sailor Francisco Stroza Gali, a
connoisseur of the Mexican coast. According to C. Manso [
29
] (p. 38), it is likely that Gali
was on an official mission when he was entrusted with this work, and that the detailed
coastal profiles and the nautical data he provided using the astrolabe were very useful for
the Casa de Contratación. In the document, he states that he “has walked and examined all
the heights and parts herein contained”; and, at the top centre of the document the following
note was included: “Report of the northern latitude in which the land of this description
is truly (sic) and faithfully situated”. In total, nine localities are mentioned: San Juan
de Olua, Punta de Anton Niçardo, Boca de Aluarado, Roca Partida, Tacotalpa, Taliscoya,
Tustla, Tlaçinta y Guateupa and Tapacula. The map, dated 1580, also includes a detailed
description of the coastline, islands, navigation channels and their depth (bathymetric
soundings), rivers, their tributaries and their mouths, lagoons, and human settlements
among other features. Additionally, exhibiting a certain degree of technical skill, but of an
inland area, the map of Zapotlitán drawn by Juan de Estrada is of particular interest. This
chart includes a graphic scale, distances between settlements, and draws and labels the
Xaltepec volcano, among other features.
The map of the town of Texupa and its surroundings shows an orthogonal urban
layout, formed by 22 square and rectangular blocks, with the square in the centre and the
annotation “the town and head of Texupa”. Above it is the church, a large stone building
with a bell tower, pictured on top. From the square, paths lead off to the east and west,
marked using bare footprints. The first path joins up with “the road from Chalco to Tezcuco
and from Tezcuco to Chalco” and passes through the farm (estancia) of Santa María. The

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 10 of 14
second path links up with “the road from Coatlychan to Mexico”, with “the road from
Tezcuco to Mexico” and with “the road from Mexico to the town of Coatepec”, which
passes through the farm of Coatongo. Outside the city walls, a toponymic glyph of Texupa
is represented: a fountain over which there is a bird (chicuatototl), with the annotation:
“the ancient fountain of Texupa from which the town took its name”. At the bottom there is
a lagoon, with the annotation “the all-blue lagoon”, and to the right there are mountain
ranges. In the centre of the mountain ranges there is a higher hill, on which a square
building has been drawn with the following annotation: “the hill and the house of [
. . .
]”,
“the hill where the Chimalhuacan people worship”. The map is dated 1579 (Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Description of the town of Texupa and its jurisdiction, Mexico. 20 October 1579. Library
of Royal Academy of the History of Spain [C-028-010] [
29
]. Reproduced from [or Adapted from]
Royal Academy of History Digital Library by the authors of the research (https://bibliotecadigital.
rah.es/es/consulta/registro.do?control=RAH20110000400 (accessed on 24 October 2021)). Public
Domain Work.
It is important to bear in mind that literal and graphic documentation is complemen-
tary when it exists. Additionally, the set of textual information collected in the reports and
the annexed graphic information in the maps, paintings or drawings, provides a rather
interesting perspective of the people on both sides of the Atlantic. This includes their
perception of space, settlement, landscapes, etc., in the second half of the 16th century, the
starting point of important changes in the landscape [30] (p. 362).
The documents resulting from the surveys was given two distinct names. With respect
to the American set, this was generally referred to as Geographic Relations, while the
Spanish documentation was referred to as Topographic Relations. The latter are currently
kept at El Escorial library, while the American documents are more dispersed, being housed
at the General Archive of the Indies (Seville, Spain), the Royal Academy of History, the
University of Glasgow, the Benson Latin American Collection (University of Texas) among
other sites. In some cases, the textual and graphic documents are kept in different archives.
For example, the Suchitepec Relation (Oaxaca, 1579) is housed at the Royal Academy of
History and its map at the General Archive of the Indies. However, in general, when both
types of documents exist, they are kept in the same archive [31] (p. 247).
The value of this resource, from a geographical perspective and as an important
reference, has already been appreciated in the past, as it was used during the second half of

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 11 of 14
the 18th century. The Royal Academy of History undertook the creation of the Geographic
Dictionary of Spain, entrusting several academics with the task of copying “verbatim”
from the Spanish Relations [
32
] (p. 177). This copy is kept in the archive of the latter and,
incidentally, is easier to read than the original source.
4. Discussion
In the second half of the 16th century, the traditional approaches for charting territories,
such as descriptions and drawings, were considerably enriched through the introduction
of the practice and use of questionnaires. This tool allowed the state administration to
gain more in-depth knowledge about the territory under its jurisdiction and to use the
findings obtained for its own interests and needs. The questionnaires analysed here were
designed, executed and used with different visions and objectives, which has an undeniable
reflection on the way in which they ask the questions and how they require the answers. In
this way, it is necessary to note that the questions of the interrogations pertaining to the
topographic relations of Philip II are, for the most part, extraordinarily open in terms of
the breadth of data requested and the low precision with which the answers are urged,
which undoubtedly promoted very varied information on landscape matters, with few
possibilities of generalization and extension for fiscal use. This first major survey exercise
served rather as an action aimed at obtaining an instruction on how to proceed in the
collection of information about the territory. If the Topographic Relationships, due to
their casuistry, remained as a reliable sociological and anthropological analysis of the
geographical reality of their time.
The request for, and interpellation of, reports by different levels of government was
a constant occurrence in the kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula during the Modern Age.
Specifically, the surveys of Philip II and the method for gathering spatial information
designed was not only useful at the time, but also constituted a model and a true reference
point for the enlightened of the 18th century. The natural desire for gaining scientific knowl-
edge at a time when research was beginning to form part of the day-to-day organisation of
territorial management was instantly united by an economic factor. Since data had been
obtained from the various surveys carried out, the States were able to gather information
more efficiently about the actual state of the territory and the ways in which the inhabitants
were using the resources in the area under survey.
Among the questionnaires designed during this century, following the path laid down
two centuries earlier by the relations of Philip II, we find, in Spain, some of the most relevant
cadastres-inventories in Europe of the time; that is, the one by Patiño for Catalonia and the
Ensenada for the Crown of Castile, as well as that of the geographer Tomas López and the
Audience of Extremadura, among others. These questionnaires were designed, executed
and used for different outcomes and purposes, which is undeniably reflected in the way
the questions and the answers required were formulated. In this way, it is noteworthy that
the questions of surveys belonging to the topographical relations of Philip II are, for the
most part, extraordinarily open in terms of the breadth of data requested and the fact that
the requested answers were not very specific. This undoubtedly encouraged those filling
in the questionnaire to provide extensively varied information about the landscape, with
little possibility for simplification and or fiscal application. This first major cadastral survey
served more as an exercise for obtaining ideas on how to proceed with the collection of
information on the territory. If the topographical relations, due to their casuistry, remained
a reliable sociological and anthropological analysis of the geographical reality of their time,
the other questionnaires dealt with here came to light with a very different intention in
mind. The questions contained in the 18th century surveys, which were quite specific in
nature and non-anthropological for practical reasons, are indicative of being purely for
management purposes, of which the Cadastre of Patiño for the four Catalan provinces is
a paradigm.
These types of documentary information sources, of the most varied diversity of
periods and contents, have been widely used as a methodological foundation by many

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 12 of 14
social and natural sciences, although in recent decades the geographical discipline has
managed to make optimal use of textual information and cartographic that contain the
analysed paracatastral documents, focusing them on some of the most discussed fields
of research, such as regional studies of the territory and the analysis of the landscape
from its perspective of historical comparison. After reviewing the latest developments
in treatment and research with documentary sources, it is clear that geohistorical sources
hold a large set of data that, well managed, provide a source of knowledge not only for the
structure of the society of the moment in which they were carried out, but also serve as the
basis for other types of research. Having analysed the needs of this group of sources, we
understand that the most plausible solution is to establish a meeting point for researchers,
from which the general public can also benefit. For all this, the development of specific
tools was required, the functionalities of which have been on the roadmap for some years:
firstly, of the SIGECAH initiative, and currently of the IDE GEOHIS Research Group of the
Autonomous University of Madrid.
5. Conclusions
The universality and expansion of the paradigms of a knowledge society has supposed,
for the vast majority of the sciences, an incentive for adapting their methodologies, proce-
dures, criteria and applications to the demands of the dynamic, changing and competitive
world of the 21st century. In the field of Geography, these trends have served as support
for the complete and generalised integration of the use of the so-called geotechnologies,
which, together with the creation and consumption of large amounts of data with spatial
characteristics, has led to a boost in the achievement of technological and research solutions
that satisfy the new needs that have arisen. In this context, geohistorical sources are increas-
ingly becoming an inexhaustible source of information and understanding for 21st-century
sciences. In the geoinformation society that dominates today’s world of culture, science
and society, the value of these types of sources is reinforced by the capacity to treasure an
incalculable set of heterogeneous data, which can serve as a basis for multiple disciplines,
but with a spatial and territorial components as the origin of its contents. Well managed,
this volume of data provides, as the medical topographies show, a source of knowledge,
not only for the fields of medicine and geography but also about the structure of a society
at the time it was created, which constitutes a first-rate collection that can be used as a basis
for many different types of research.
After analysing the characteristics and the way of acquiring knowledge of this group
of geohistorical sources, the researchers understand that the most notable advantage is
the use and application of the cadastral and parachute documentation on Spain in the
Enlightenment Century, as a basis for the analysis of the territory. This importance lies in
the in-depth study of how and why the analysed documentation was prepared, in order to
establish the foundations for a better understanding and use of the information provided to
the researcher. In this tidal wave of strong impulses and expansion of the Earth sciences, the
European States played a preponderant role, even more so if the enormous incorporation
of overseas territories into the maritime empires of the moment is put into perspective.
In the second half of the sixteenth century, the traditional instruments of knowledge
of the territory, such as description and representation in drawing, were considerably
enriched with the introduction of the practice and use of interrogations, which allowed the
State Administration to gain more exhaustive knowledge about the territory under their
jurisdiction and the use of the inquiries made in pursuit of their own interests and demands.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization: C.C.-B. and A.V.-R.; methodology: C.C.-B., A.V.-R. and
M.A.B.-G.; validation: A.V.-R., Á.I.A.-C. and L.G.-J.; formal analysis: C.C.-B., A.V.-R. and Á.I.A.-C.;
investigation: C.C.-B. and A.V.-R.; writing—original draft preparation: A.V.-R., M.B.B.-C. and C.C.-B.;
writing—review and editing: A.V.-R., M.B.B.-C. and C.C.-B.; project administration, C.C.-B. and
A.V.-R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Sustainability 2022,14, 1306 13 of 14
Funding:
This research was funded by project PID2019-106735 GB-C21, from the call I + D 2019,
“Advancing our Understanding of the Land Registry and Other Cadastral Sources: New Perspectives
Based on Complementarity, Modelling and Innovation” (Avanzando en el conocimiento del catastro
de Ensenada y otras fuentes catastrales: nuevas perspectivas basadas en la complementariedad, la
modelización y la innovación), of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, and the Knowledge
Transfer project FUAM-465026 awarded by the Autonomous University of Madrid Foundation
(FUAM) and the Spanish General Directorate for Cadastre “New Methods and Approaches for the
Transfer in the Social Sciences and Humanities in Cadastral Issues: A Story Worth Telling (Nuevos
métodos y enfoques para la transferencia en ciencias sociales y humanidades en materia catastral:
una historia que merece ser contada).
Institutional Review Board Statement:
Not applicable. This study not involving humans or animals.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or
in the decision to publish the results.
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