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Kerven et al. 2020 Initial Evaluation of the productivity and physical properties of a selection Kyrgyz cashmere goat breeding flock.

Authors:
Carol Kerven at University College London UCL
Carol Kerven
  • University College London UCL
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Abstract

Cashmere production offers a new source of income for remote farmers in Central Asia where goats have long been raised. Between 2008-2018 we established a selected breeding flock to preserve, assess and improve the economic and genetic potential of cashmere-bearing indigenous goats in Kyrgyzstan. Significant effects of year, age and the sex of goats affected cashmere weight, while year and age of goat affected cashmere length and year affected cashmere fiber diameter. The best statistical model explained about 60% of the variation in both cashmere weight and length and about 30% of the variation in fiber diameter. No particular measurement year trend could be detected for any trait. Between years, cashmere weight varied between 103-150 g, fiber diameter between 15.8-17.6 m and length between 32-48 mm. Key words:Coat color, Indigenous goats, Fiber diameter, Fiber length, Genetic improvement
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PROCEEDING BOOK
30-31 OCTOBER 2020
ONLINE CONGRESS
IV. INTERNATIONAL
EURASIAN
AGRICULTURE AND NATUR AL
SCIENCES CONGRESS
ONLINE - 2020
IMPRESSUM
4th International Eurasian
Agriculture and Natural Sciences
Congress, 2020
EDITOR IN CHIEF
Prof. Dr. Önder TÜRKMEN
R. A. Ünal KAL
ISBN
Website
www.agrieurasia.com
The authors are responsible for the scientific content of the reports.
IV. INTERNATIONAL
EURASIAN
AGRICULTURE AND NATUR AL
SCIENCES CONGRESS
ONLINE - 2020
978-605-69010-2-7
HONORARY COMMITTEE
NAME SURNAME TITLE
 The Rector of Konya Food and Agriculture University
Prof. Dr. Metin AKSOY The Rector of Selcuk University
Prof. Dr. Mykhailo BROSHKOV The Rector of Odessa State Agrarian University
Prof. Dr. Alpaslan CEYLAN The Rector of Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
ORGANIZATION COMMITTEE
Congress President

Congress Secretary
Dr. Musa SEYMEN
Dr. Hasan CAN
R.A. 
Committee Members
Prof. Dr. Has

Prof. Dr. Ertan Sait KURTAR

Prof. Dr. Mustafa PAKSOY
Prof. Dr. Tinatin DOOLOTKELDIEVA
Prof. Dr. Dinesh K. MAHESHWARI
Dr. Ajay KUMAR
Dr. Nurlan MAMATOV
Dr. Mahabat KONURBAYEVA
Dr. Daria BULYSHEVA
Dr. Saykal BOBUSEVA
SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE
NO
SURNAME NAME*
TITLE
INSTITUTION
1
ABBASOV, Mehraj
Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
ANAS
2
ABDEL-
Ahmed
Prof. Dr.
Alexandria University
3
ABDURASULOV, Yrysbek
Prof. Dr.
Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
4

Prof. Dr.
University
5
AL-DABBAS Maher
Prof. Dr.
University of Jordan
6

Prof. Dr.
Bangladesh Agricultural University
7
AL-MOMANY Ahmad
Prof. Dr.
University of Jordan
8
ANDROKHANOV Vladimir
Prof. Dr.
The Ins. of Soil Sci. and Agricultural Che.
9
ARICAN, Zafer
Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
10
BARPETE, Surendra
Dr.
ICARDA
11
BASRA, Shahzad M.A.
Prof. Dr.
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
12
CHALAK, Lamis
Prof. Dr.
Lebanese University
13
CHI, Hsin
Prof. Dr.
National Chung Hsing University
14

Prof. Dr.
Mustafa Kemal University
15


Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
16

Prof. Dr.

17
DE PESCALE, Stefania
Prof. Dr.
 
18

Prof. Dr.

19

Prof. Dr.
Ankara University, Horticulture
20

Prof. Dr.

21
DJENBAEV, Bekmamat M.
Prof. Dr.
Kyrgyz National Academic Science
22
DOOLOTKELDIEVA, Tinatin
Prof. Dr.
Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
23
DURSUN, Atilla
Prof. Dr.

24
Ekinci Melek


25

Prof. Dr.

26

Assoc. Prof.
Dr.

27
Erper 

Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
28

Prof. Dr.

29

Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
30

Prof. Dr.
Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
31
GRANINA, Natalia
Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
Irkutsk State University
32

Prof. Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
33
GULIYEV, Alovsat
Prof. Dr.
Azerbaijan Ins. of Soil Science and Agroche.
34
HASAN, Ahmed Khairul
Prof. Dr.
Bangladesh Agricultural University
35

Prof. Dr.
Tabriz university
36
M. Ismail
Prof. Dr.
Assiut University
37

Prof. Dr.
Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
38
ISMAYILOV, Amin
Prof. Dr.
Azerbaijan Ins. of Soil Science and Agroche.
39

Prof. Dr.
Bangladesh Agricultural University
40
JAVED, Khalid
Prof. Dr.
University of Veterinary and Animal Sci.
41

Prof. Dr.
Ordu University
42

Prof. Dr.
University of Debrecen
43
KAZAS, Soner
Prof. Dr.
Ankara University
44
KHABIROV, Ilgiz
Prof. Dr.
Bashkir State Agrarian University
45
KHEIRALLA, A. Fadlelmola
Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
University of Khartoum
46
KITOWSKI, Ignacy
Assis. Prof.
Dr.
State School of Higher Education in Chelm
47

Prof. Dr.
Ege University, Zootekni
48
KUMAR, AJAY
Dr.
Agriculture Research Organization
49

Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
50
KUSSAINOVA, Maira
Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
Kazakh Res. Ins. of Soil Sci. and Agroche.
51
KUZYAKOV, Yakov
Prof. Dr.

52
LAPA, Vitalij V.
Prof. Dr.
Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry
53
MAHESHWARI, DINESH, K.
Prof. Dr.
Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidhyalaya
54
MAMEDOV, Amrakh
Prof. Dr.
University of Tottori
55
MATCHAVARIANI, Lia
Prof. Dr
Iv. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University
56
MAZIROV, Michail
Prof. Dr.
Russian State Agrarian University
57
MELIKHOVA, Elena
Prof. Dr.
Volgograd State Agrarian University
58

Dr.
Czech University of Life Sciences
59
MIKAILSOY, Fariz
Prof. Dr.

60
MILANOVSKIY, Evgeniy
Prof. Dr.
Russia Lomonosov Moscow State University
61
MINKINA, Tatiana
Prof. Dr.
Southern Federal University
62

Prof. Dr.
Central University of Jharkhand
63
NASERI, Lotfali
Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
Urmia University
64

Prof. Dr.

65
Cennet
Prof. Dr.

66

Prof. Dr.

67

Prof. Dr.
Marmara University
68
Paksoy, Mustafa
Prof. Dr.
Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
69
PAPADOPOULOS, Apostolos G.
Prof. Dr.
Harokopio University
70
PINSKIY, David
Prof. Dr.
Ins. of Physicochemical and Biological problems of
Soil Science
71
PIRBALOUTI, Abdollah Ghasemi
Prof. Dr.
Islamic Azad University
72
RAHN, Clive
Dr.
University of Warwick
73
REYES, Renato G.
Prof. Dr.
Luzon State University
74
RUSU, Teodor
Prof. Dr.
University of Agricultural Sci. and Vet.
75
SAPAROV, Abdulla
Prof. Dr.
Kazakh Res. Ins. of Soil Sci. and Agroche.
76

Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
77
SCRIMGEOUR, Frank
Prof. Dr.
University of Waikato
78

Assoc. Prof.
Dr.

79
SHEIN, Evgeny
Prof. Dr.
Lomonosov Moscow State University
80
SHOBA, Sergey
Prof. Dr.
Lomonosov Moscow State University
81

Prof. Dr.
UCLAN
82

Prof. Dr.

83

Prof. Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
84

Prof. Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
85

Dr.
Aarhus University
86
STANICA, Florin
Prof. Dr.
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary
Medicine of Bucharest
87
STEENFELDT, Sanna
Dr.
Aarhus University
88
STREIBIG, Jens Carl
Prof. Dr.
University of Copenhagen
89
STULINA, Galina
Assoc. Prof.
Dr.
Sci. Information Center of Interstate Coor. Water
Commission
90
TAYYEM, Reema Fayez
Prof. Dr.
University of Jordan
91

Prof. Dr.
University Of Athens
92

Prof. Dr.

93
TURAN, Metin
Prof. Dr.
Yeditepe University
94
UMAROVA, Aminat
Prof. Dr.
Lomosonov Moscow State University
95
UNCU, Ali Tevfik
Asts. Prof. Dr.
Necmettin ErbakanUniversity
96
VANNOZZI, Gian Paolo
Prof. Dr.

97
VASSU-DIMOV, Tatiana Elisabeta
Prof. Dr.
University of Bucharest
98
YAM
Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
99

Prof. Dr.

100


Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University
101
YILMAZ, Burak
Dr.
Konya Food and Agriculture University
*Sorting is done in alphabetical order.
PREFACE
The International Eurasian Congress of Agriculture and Natural Sciences is a series of
congresses that bring together all partners of agriculture, food and related natural sciences. The
congress was held in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan in 2017, and in Baku, the capital of
Azerbaijan in 2018. The third is on 17 to 20 October 2019, hosted by Turkey, was held in Antalya,
one of the city in the foreground with agricultural potential. Our congress, which we were planning
to hold in Odessa, Ukraine this year, was held on online 30-31 October 2020 due to the pandemic
that affected the whole world. With the participation of valuable scientists from different countries a
total of 110 oral presentations were presented in our online congress. Besides, 47 poster
presentations were also presented at our congress. Today, sustainable agriculture and food supply
have become the most important component of the independence of countries. Although the name
of our congress is Eurasia, the main purpose of our congress is to bring together scientists who are
actively working with agriculture, food and natural science. In addition to this, valuable scientists
from different countries participated in our congress and shared their valuable work with the
participants. The scientists participated in our congress from Turkey, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine,
Kazakhstan, India, Iran, Italy, Chile, Australia, Russia, United Kingdom and Latvia. In the
presentations, different problems, approaches and solutions in different areas of agriculture were
discussed. From this point of view, the problems, opportunities and the similarities in the areas
studied and required to be studied have attracted attention. Thus, the main mission of the congress,
scientists with scientists in those countries to bring together in Turkey, there has been a successful
convention process in developing the culture of common sense and cooperation. Although such
scientific congresses are widely held, the success achieved in our previous congresses, where strong
collaborations have been formed within the framework of the basic mission of our congress, has
emerged in this congress as well. In other words, it was aimed to contribute to the development of
culture of cooperation between countries and to introduce scientific wealth of our country to other
scientists and to form the basis of scientific unity.


Mykhailo BROSHKOV the Rector of Odesa State Agrarian University, and Prof Dr Alpaslan
CEYLAN the Rector of Kyrgyz Turkish Manas University for their contribution to our congress as
honorary president.
Sincerely yours.

On Behalf of the Organizing Committee
CONTENTS
GROUNDWATER DOC AND DON TRENDS IN TWO CONTRASTING SOILS
CULTIVATED VIA CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE
L. Alessandrino1, M. Gervasio3, F. Vincenzi3, N. Colombani2,, G.Castaldelli3,M.Mastrocicco1 ........ 1
EFFECT OF VERMICOMPOST ON SEEDLING QUALITY AND GROWTH IN
WATERMELON (Citrullus lanatus L.)
 12 23......................................................................................... 10
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT ROOTSTOCKS (C. maxima × C. moschata) ON THE
YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY OF W-135 F1 AND GABRIEL F1 WATERMELON
VARIETIES
Alim AYDIN1*, Hamide BOZOK2 ................................................................................................... 17
MARKETING CHANNELS OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN TURKEY
Y. E. Erturk, A. N. Sahin ................................................................................................................... 27
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DOSES OF BIOCHAR AND COMPOST APPLICATION ON
THE GRAIN YIELD AND GROWTH PARAMETERS OF THE MAIZE CROP
1*112 ...................................... 35
CHANGES IN SOIL CARBON MINERALIZATION UNDER THE EFFECTS OF
FUNGICIDE CYPRODINIL
............................................................................................................................................. 42
INITIAL EVALUATION OF THE PRODUCTIVITY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A
SELECTED KYRGYZ CASHMERE GOAT BREEDING FLOCK
Carol Kerven1, Joaquin P Mueller2 , Bruce A McGregor 3, Sabyr Toigonbaev4 ............................... 49
MAPPING ANATOLIAN STEPPE REGION AND ECOSYSTEM TYPES BY USING
EARTH OBSERVATION AND GIS
E. Aksoy1, S. Keskin2, C. Aktuz2, F. Bozdemir3, D. Muchoney1, A.K. Ozbek2................................ 58
DETERMINATION OF CATALASE ACTIVITY IN SALT AFFECTED SOILS
E. Erd ................................................................................................ 68
In silico CHARACTERIZATION OF SUCROSE SYNTHASE (SUS) GENES IN HIGHER
PLANT SPECIES
 * .......................................................................................................................................... 74
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND VEGETATIVE DEVELOPMENT RESPONSES OF GRAPEVINE
ROOTSTOCK SAPLINGS TO GRAPE POMACE, SPENT MUSHROOM COMPOST AND
FARMYARD MANURE APPLICATIONS
A. SABIR1, Y. GAYRETLI2, S. A. A. ABDULHADI2 .................................................................... 86
BICARBONATE INDUCED CALCIUM STRESS IMPAIRS THE PHYSIOLOGY OF
GRAFTED AND NONGRAFTED ‘PRIMA’ GRAPEVINES IN NURSERY
Y. GAYRETLI1, S.A.A. ABDULHADI1, A. SABIR2 ...................................................................... 93
ESTIMATION OF WHEAT WATER FOOTPRINT BASED ON CRU AND AgMERRA
GRIDDED DATASETS
Faraz GORGIN PAVEH1*, Hadi RAMEZANI ETEDALI2, Parisa KAKVAND1 ......................... 100
ESTIMATION OF MAIZE WATER FOOTPRINT BASED ON GPCC AND AgCFSR
GRIDDED DATASETS
Parisa KAKVAND1, Hadi RAMEZANI ETEDALI2, Faraz GORGIN PAVEH1* ......................... 105
CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID IN MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS AND ITS EFFECTS
ON HEALTH
111 ........................................................................ 111
THE APPLICATION AREAS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD INDUSTRY
1*, Hatice Sena Olcay21, Alime Yaldiz Cabi11 ...... 118
IN-OVO FEEDING WITH PROPOLIS EXTRACT IN POULTRY
1*, Ergin OZTURK2 ........................................................................................... 124
USE OF PROPOLIS AS A DIGESTIVE SYSTEM REGULATOR IN POULTRY
1*, Ergin OZTURK2 ........................................................................................... 131
THROUGH A PARTNERSHIP TO SAFETY OF VALUABLES
Murataliev Bolot Anarbekovich, Mamatov Nurlan Elebesovich, Karabaev Aibek Nurudinovich . 138
HISTORICAL INFORMATION REMAINING ON THE STONE
Kubatbek Tabaldiev, Taalaybek Abdiev, Mamatov Nurlan Elebesovich, Aibek Karabaev ............ 143
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOLID GROWING MEDIA ON ONION FRESH LEAF
YIELDS IN SOILLESS CULTURE
H. CAN1, M.PAKSOY*,1,21 ........................................................................ 148
INVESTIGATION ON THE GROWTH POSSIBILITIES OF SOME PLANT SPROUTS
H. CAN1, M. PAKSOY*,1,2 .............................................................................................................. 153
EFFECTS OF MEDETOMIDINE/KETAMINE ANESTHESIA AND THEIRS REVERSAL
BY ATIPAMEZOLE ON ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC VALUES IN CATS
M. Kibar1* ........................................................................................................................................ 158
EFFECTS OF MEDETOMIDINE/KETAMINE ANESTHESIA AND THEIR REVERSAL
BY ATIPAMEZOLE ON OCULAR PARAMETERS AND MONITORED ANESTHESIA
CARE IN CATS
M. Kibar1 .......................................................................................................................................... 166
USE OF MICROBIAL STIMULANTS TO REDUCE THE NEGATIVE IMPACT OF
DROUGHT IN SUSTAINABLE VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Musa Seymena,* ................................................................................................................................ 173
SECTOR THAT DETERMINES THE MARKET VALUE OF FOODS: COLD STORAGES
Mustafa AYDINLI ........................................................................................................................... 181
HOW CAN WE USE COMPUTER AND SOFTWARE TECHNOLOGY TO ANALYZE
AND DEVELOP AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY DESIGN?
M. Ucgul1 ......................................................................................................................................... 188
DETERMINATION OF ADAPTATION ABILITIES OF SOME APRICOT VARIETIES IN
BISHKEK ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
1.2, N. Alimova1 ................................................................................................................... 196
DETERMINATION OF POMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME LOCAL
APPLE GENOTYPES GROWN IN KYRGYZSTAN
1,2, N. Begimbaeva1 ............................................................................................................. 205
DETERMINATION OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND AGRONOMIC PROPERTIES OF
SOME F1 MELON POTENTIAL VARIETY CANDIDATES
Necibe Kayakab, cbaa
b, Musa Seymenb ................................................................................................................ 212
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF LOCAL BEAN
POPULATIONS
Necibe Kayakabbabb, Arif
b, Musa Seymenbb, Ertan Sait Kurtarb ............................................ 219
BLACK GARLIC (Allium sativum L.) AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES
O. Tomar1 2 ................................................................................................................... 225
DETERMINATION OF THE ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT OF EXTRACTS OF PEACH
TREE (Prunus persica L.) RESIN IN DIFFERENT SOLVENTS
O. Tomar1 2 ................................................................................................................... 232
GENOME WIDE AND GENE SPECIFIC EPIGENETIC ANALYSES IN Fusarium
SPECIES
1, 21,211* ...................................................................... 239
MODELLING THE SEASONAL PRODUCTIVITY OF NATURALISED PASTURE IN
THE SOUTH OF CHILE
P. Flores1* 2-4 2 3-4 ............................................................................. 247
USE OF BIOCHAR IN AGRICULTURE
Raziye KUL ..................................................................................................................................... 258
THE EFFECTS OF Hyphantra cunea ON SOME PARAMETERS OF MAIZE
R.YAVUZ 1 ..................................................................................................................................... 263
EFFECTS OF WATERLOGGING ON SOME MORPHOLOGICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL
AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC PARAMETERS IN BARLEY
1*2 ...................................................................................... 271
POSTHARVEST UV-C TREATMENTS TO MAINTAIN COLD STORAGE QUALITY OF
BLACKBERRY FRUITS
F. K. Sabir1, S. Unal1, M. K. Aslan2 And D. Metin2 ........................................................................ 279
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT ROOTSTOCK AND GRAFTING METHODS ON PLANT
GROWTH AND YIELD IN TOMATO
S. Unal1, M. Paksoy1 ........................................................................................................................ 286
THE MONITORING OF THE FIRE BLIGHT SPREAD AND ITS DANGER FOR THE
CONSERVATION OF GENETIC RESOURCES OF WILD APPLE VARIETIES IN THE
FORESTS OF KYRGYZSTAN.
Tinatin Doolotkeldieva, Mahabat Konurbaeva , Saikal Bobushova, Sezim Zholdoshbekova ........ 294
SOME MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF QUALIFIED TOMATO INBRED LINES
AND PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THESE PROPERTIES

a
*, Necibe KAYAK
b

b

a,c
, Musa SEYMEN
a

TURKMEN
a
, Ertan Sait KURTAR
a
.............................................................................................. 301
ANTIOXIDANT AND IMMUNOSTIMULANT EFFECTS OF SOME MEDICINAL AND
AROMATIC PLANTS
Ugur TEMIZ1, Ergin OZTURK2 ..................................................................................................... 312
ESSENTIAL OILS AS NATURAL ADDITIVES
Ugur TEMIZ1, Ergin OZTURK2 ..................................................................................................... 318
THE EFFECT OF SEAWINE FERTILIZER ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPINACH
AND LETTUCE PLANT
 ................................................................ 323
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SOME MORPHOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS BY PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSES IN PINTO BEAN
m DALa*, Necibe KAYAKbabb, Neslihan
ISSIb, Arif Selim ARICIb, Musa SEYMENaa, Ertan Sait KURTARa ............. 333
SOME PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND WORKABILITY OF SOILS
IN A SARAYKÖY RESEARCH AND APPLICATION STATION
Zeynep Demir .................................................................................................................................. 341
ESTABLISHMENT OF A RECIRCULATING SUMP SYSTEM FOR THE CRAYFISH
CULTIVATION IN IZMIR KATIP ÇELEBI UNIVERSITY
Onur KARADAL ............................................................................................................................. 349
SEVERAL METHODS FOR EXTENDING THE STRAWBERRY PRODUCTION SEASON
A. Lizalo1, L. Demirsoy1 .................................................................................................................. 356
POSTER PRESENTATIONS
SUMMER-FALL STRAWBERRY PRODUCTION WITH DAY NEUTRAL
STRAWBERRIES
A. Lizalo1, L. Demirsoy1 .................................................................................................................. 366
CURRENT PROBLEMS OF LAND MARKET AND LAND RELATIONS IN UKRAINE
V. Artemov, T. Movchan ................................................................................................................. 375
MATHEMATICAL METHODS FOR EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF
ADVERTISING IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION
  ..................................................................................... 383
FUTURE OF AGRICULTURAL LAND MONITORING IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE
CHANGE - UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
D. Bulysheva1, O. Varfolomeyeva1, O. Panasyuk1 ........................................................................ 390
OPTIMIZATION OF THE STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF TECHNOLOGICAL
COMPLEXES FOR HARVESTING GRAIN CROPS BY ENERGY COSTS
D.A. Domuschi*, P.I. Osadchuk ** ................................................................................................ 396
INCREASING THE RELIABILITY OF COMBINES FOR HARVESTING GRAIN CROPS
BY METHODS OF RESERVE SUBSTITUTION
D.A. Domuschi*, A.D. Ustuyanov** ................................................................................................ 402
BIOCHEMICAL EFFECTS ON THE FLAVOR OF FERMENTED SAUSAGE
H. Sen Arslan1, H.S. Olcay2, E. Alagoz3, A. Yaldiz Cabi3, I. Celik3, C. Saricoban3 ....................... 407
NOVEL METHODS USED IN MEAT TENDERIZATION
E. Alagoz1, C. Saricoban1, K. Unal1 ................................................................................................ 414
SOME FLEECE QUALITY TRAITS OF BAFRA SHEEP
Emine DUMAN1, Evren ERDEM2, Serkan ERAT22,
OKTAY2 ................................................................................................................. 421
INFLUENCE OF AGROCLIMATIC CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTHERN UKRAINE ON
THE GENERAL PHYTOSANITARY STATE OF THE MAJOR FARM CROPS
GALINA BALAN............................................................................................................................ 427
THE EFFECT OF FEEDING BEES ON THEIR VIABILITY AND EGG LAYING BY THE
QUEEN BEES
K. Khamid, A. Kitaeva, T. Pushkar ................................................................................................. 437
THE EFFECT OF ABSORBENTS AND WATER-SOLUBLE COMPLEX CHELATED
FERTILIZERS IN DIFFERENT PLANTING METHODS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF
GRAPE PLANTS IN THE SOUTH OF UKRAINE
E. Khrenovskov, Y. Savchuk ........................................................................................................... 444
EVALUATION OF WORKING QUALITIES OF ORLOV TROTTER BREED HORSES OF
DIFFERENT ORIGIN AND RESULTS OF THEIR TESTS IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE
BRANCH “ODESSA HIPPODROME” SE ‘HORSE BREEDING OF UKRAINE
S. Kosenko, V. Cheban, A. Cheban, A. Shulgina ............................................................................ 451
DYNAMIC OF ENZYMES ACTIVITY ON COMPLEX THERAPY OF DOGS, SICK WITH
ACUTE CATARRHAL BRONCHOPNEUMONIA
Kushnir V.Yu ................................................................................................................................... 458
DYNAMICS OF IgG TOXOPLASMA GONDII TITER IN BLOOD OF DOGS DURING
THERAPY
M. Broshkov, V. Kusturov ...................................................................................... 463
ENGLISH IDIOMS WITH ANIMALS: THE WAYS OF THE LINGUISTIC AND
CULTURAL COMPETENCE FORMATION AT ENGLISH LESSONS
Svitlana Nasakina, Anna Golubova, Iryna Shums`ka ...................................................................... 467
RESEARCHING THE GEODETIC WORKS IN FORECASTING THE LEVEL OF THE
BLACK SEA COASTLINE
O. Malashchuk, L.Vikulina, L. Smolenska ...................................................................................... 475
HUMUS CONDITION OF CHERNOZEM SOILS IN SOUTHWEST OF UKRAINE
Olena OZHOVAN, Iryna LEONIDOVA ........................................................................................ 481
HYDRATION OF RAPESEED OIL USING AN ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD.
P.I. Osadchuk ................................................................................................................................... 488
CLEANING SUNFLOWER OIL USING THE ULTRASONIC FIELD
P.I. Osadchuk, D.P. Domuschi......................................................................................................... 494
ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF COMPLETE FEED PRODUCTION PROVIDED THE USE
OF PROTEIN AND VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTS FOR BROILER CHICKENS
AGED 1-3 WEEKS 5%
Igor Fedorovych Riznychuk, Olena Kostiantynivna Kyshlaly ........................................................ 500
SOME INDICATORS OF MILK QUALITY DEPENDING ON SANITARY AND
HYGIENIC CONDITIONS OF ITS OBTAINING
Ruslan Susol, Natalia Kirovich, Valentina Yasko, Elfeel Ayman ................................................... 503
PROSPECTS FOR THE UTILISATION OF PIGSKIN OBTAINED FROM PIGS OF
DIFFERENT BREED-OF-ORIGIN IN UKRAINE
R.L. Sus .................................................................................................................... 508
EXPANSION OF TECHNOLOGICAL CAPABILITIES OF DIAGNOSTICS OF
FINISHING THREAD GRINDING OPERATIONS
S.M. Uminsky, I. I. Dudarev ............................................................................................................ 514
MARKETING DEVELOPMENT OF INNOVATIVE PRODUCTS
M. Sakhatskiy, H. Zapsha, P. Sakhatskiy ........................................................................................ 521
FACTORS OF UKRAINIAN SOUTHERN REGIONAL GRAIN MARKET
DEVELOPMENT
Nataliia SMYRNOVA1, Hanna DIDUR2, Iryna NAIDA3 ............................................................... 526
ASSESSMENT OF THE MAIN SELECTION-GENETIC SIGNS OF THE PRODUCTIVITY
OF THE SHEEP OF THE ODESA TYPE OF THE ASCANIAN MEAT AND WOOL
BREED OF DIFFERENT ETHOLOGICAL TYPES
Valeriy Chigiryov, Mykola Bohdan, Kristina Mazhilovskay, Ievgenia Gurko ............................... 534
PROCEEDING BOOK
ORAL PRESENTATIONS
30-31 OCTOBER 2020
ONLINE CONGRESS
IV. INTERNATIONAL
EURASIAN
AGRICULTURE AND NATUR AL
SCIENCES CONGRESS
ONLINE - 2020
1
GROUNDWATER DOC AND DON TRENDS IN TWO
CONTRASTING SOILS CULTIVATED VIA CONSERVATION
AGRICULTURE
L. Alessandrino1, M. Gervasio3, F. Vincenzi3, N. Colombani2,, G.Castaldelli3,M.Mastrocicco1
Corresponding author: luigi.alessandrino@unicampania.it
1 DiSTABiF - Department of Environmental, Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences and
 Italy
2 SIMAU - Department of Materials, Environmental Sciences and Urban Planning,
Polytechnic University of Marche, Via Brecce Bianche 12, 60131 Ancona, Italy
3 SVeB - Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, Via L.
Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
Abstract
Conservation agriculture is one of the most popular practices to mitigate climate stress on
crops; it is a technique that combines organic matter addition with minimal soil disturbance. The
present study investigated the effects of compost application combined with minimum tillage
followed by traditional fertilization in the groundwater, where dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and
dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) were monitored for three years (2016-2019) via several
campaigns. The study area is located in the Po valley lowland (Ferrara Province, Italy). Here two
field sites, named Gualdo and Bando, characterized by contrasting soil types and depositional
environments, were selected as representative of the most common environments of the Po valley
lowland. The two field sites were instrumented with multi-level samplers (MLS) for groundwater
samples collection and hydrogeological measurements (Fig.1, lower panel). At the Gualdo
experimental site, the piezometers were installed at -2, -3, -4 m below ground level (b.g.l.). At the
Bando experimental site, the piezometers were installed at -1, -2, -3 m b.g.l.. For each experimental
field three treatments were carried out: a control with traditional tillage and no compost application,
a treatment with traditional tillage and compost application and a treatment with minimum tillage
and compost application. The trends of DOC and Norg in the groundwater , both in Gualdo and
Bando field, highlighted that there are no significant variations between the control and the two
treatments. Therefore, the application of compost does not yet had an impact on the groundwater,
but only on the unsaturated zone.
Keywords: dissolved organic carbon, compost, minimum tillage, organic nitrogen, groundwater
2
INTRODUCTION
The environment within which agricultural crops and agro-nomic practices developed over the
past 10,000 years is rapidly changing due to human-induced climate change, that has and will have
a negative impact on agricultural soil fertility due to changes in rainfalls and temperatures (IPCC,
2014). The climatic changes of recent years represent a great stress for many of the most important
crops in the world (Teixeira et al. 2013). Global warming has a highly negative impact on
agricultural production, and more generally on food production (Schmidhuber and Tubiello, 2007).
Conservation agriculture is one of the most popular practices to mitigate climate stress on
crops. It is a technique that combines organic matter addition with minimal soil disturbance (Eze et
al., 2020). Minimum tillage improves the availability of nutrients for plants, the conservation of
organic carbon in the soil, the water retention capacity and it decrease nutrients leaching (Khan et
al., 2017).
Compost application involves adding nutrients and organic matter to the soil, improving its
fertility and structure (Diacono and Montemurro, 2011). Compost is derived from the
biodegradation of organic waste especially of the agri-food type in line with the postulates of the
circular economy (Hargreaves et al., 2008). Excessive compost application can, however, lead to
an increase of dissolved organic carbon and (DOC) organic nitrogen (DON) in groundwater
(Esteller et al. 2009), on the other hand, the addition of organic matter by compost could decrease
N leaching towards groundwater by increasing the soil denitrification capacity (Colombani et al.,
2020).
The present study investigated the effects of compost application combined with minimum
tillage followed by traditional fertilization in the groundwater, where DOC and inorganic carbon
(DIC), DON and dissolved total nitrogen (DTN) were monitored for three years (2016-2019) via
several campaigns in two contrasting soils.
The study area is located in Gualdo and Bando (Figure 1) in the Po valley lowland (Ferrara
province, Italy), where intensive cultivation and excessive use of fertilizers is widespread (Lasagna
et al., 2016). The two soils chosen for this study are the most representative of the area. The soil in
Gualdo is a Hypocalcic Haplic Calcisol and this site is characterized by fluvial plain depositional
environments (Colombani et al. 2020); while the soil in Bando is a Calcaric Gleyic Cambisol and
it is characterized by coastal lagoon marsh depositional environments (Colombani et al. 2019).
In a recent study carried out with stable isotopes by Colombani et al. (2019) has been found
that the Gualdo site is affected by a plume produced by old upstream manure fertilizations; while
the Bando site is affected by DON plume coming from geogenic sources due to the presence of peat
 2).
3
Figure 1. The two  location and the geological map of the Area. Bando site (GPS coordinates  47'  N and  
E) is located in the south-eastern part of the Ferrara province; and Gualdo site (GPS coordinates   
-eastern part of the Ferrara province.
Figure 2. Geological profile of Bando site (on the left) and Gualdo site (on the right). White-blue arrows represent the flow paths,
and the blue rectangles show the average water table ranges. Modified by Colombani et al. 2019.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental design
The experimental design involved three different treatments: A, C and M. Treatment A
includes classical tillage only, this treatment was used as a control. Treatment C includes the
application of compost coupled with classic tillage. The M treatment, on the other hand, includes
the application of compost coupled with minimum tillage. Each treatment was followed by
traditional fertilization with ammonium nitrate and urea and each site underwent rotational
4
cultivation of winter wheat and maize.
Groundwater collection and analysis
The two field sites were instrumented with multi-level samplers (MLS) for groundwater
samples collection, respectively at 2 and 3 meters below ground level (m b.g.l.) for bando site and
3 and 4 m b.g.l. for Gualdo site. Groundwater sampling was done on a monthly basis for three years.
The samples were taken from each piezometer using a bailer, after low flow purging for at least 3
well's volumes. Then samples were poured into 0.5 L HDPE flasks, which were stored inside a
portable fridge and successively frozen until analysed. DIC and DOC were analysed with an
elemental analyser Shimadzu TOC-V-CSM. DTN was analysed with a Technicon Autoanalyzer II.
DON was obtained indirectly using the following equation:
 =  
Where DIN is the dissolved inorganic nitrogen. DIN was, also, obtained indirectly using the
following equation:  = 4+ + 3 + 2
Where ammonium (4+), nitrate (3) and nitrite (2) were analysed with a double beam
Jasco V-550 UV/VIS spectrophotometer.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Gualdo site
Figure 3 schematizes and summarizes the results obtained during the three years of
monitoring in the Gualdo site for the DOC at 3 and 4 m b.g.l. At 3 m b.g.l. C treatment shows higher
value of DOC than the control (A treatment), while there are not large differences between the M
treatment and the control one. At 4 m b.g.l. there are not very important differences between the
three treatments. DOC values are higher at 4 m b.g.l. than 3 m b.g.l. due to the old upgradient
manure fertilizations. DIC values (Figure 4) show not important differences between the three
treatments both at 3 and 4 m b.g.l. Figure 5 shows the results obtained for the organic nitrogen in
Gualdo Site at 3 and 4 m b.g.l. There are no large differences between the three treatments both at
3 and 4 m b.g.l. In the last part of the monitoring period at 4 m.b.g.l. a climbing trend is present due
to the upgradient manure plume that is passing through the plots. This is evident from the fact that
the highest concentrations are found in the lower monitoring well, indicating that the DON is not
coming from the vadose zone and thus from the monitored plots. DTN concentrations (Figure 6)
show not significant differences between the treatments and the trends are very similar to those of
DON.
5
Figure 3. Gualdo site DOC values during a three years monitoring time at 3 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 4 m b.g.l. (right panel). The
blue line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control plot A.
Figure 4. Gualdo site DIC values during a three years monitoring time at 3 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 4 m b.g.l. (right panel). The blue
line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control plot A.
Figure 5. Gualdo site Norg values during a three years monitoring time at 3 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 4 m b.g.l. (right panel). The
blue line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control plot A.
6
Figure 6. Gualdo site Norg values during a three years monitoring time at 3 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 4 m b.g.l. (right panel). The blue
line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control
Bando site
Figure 7 schematizes and summarizes the results obtained during the three years of
monitoring in the Bando site for the DOC at 2 and 3 m b.g.l. At 2 m b.g.l. the C treatment shows
higher value of DOC than the control one (A treatment), while there are no appreciable differences
between the M treatment and the control plot. At 3 m b.g.l. there are no important differences
between the three treatments. DOC values are higher at 3 m b.g.l. than 4 m b.g.l. due to the upward
       environment that promotes exfiltration, thus
enhancing the transport of DOC from geogenic source like peat lenses. DIC values (Figure 8) show
not important differences between the three treatments both at 2 and 3 m b.g.l. Figure 9 shows the
results obtained for the DON in Bando Site at 2 and 3 m b.g.l. There are no important differences
between the three treatments both at 2 and 3 m b.g.l. In the last part of the monitoring period at 3
m.b.g.l. there is a rising trend due to the DON generated by seasonal oxidation of peat lenses
driven by water table oscillation. DTN concentrations (Figure 10) show not significant differences
between the treatments and the trends are very similar to those of DON.
Figure 7. Bando site DOC values during a three years monitoring time at 2 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 3 m b.g.l. (right panel). The blue
line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control plot A.
7
Figure 8. Bando site DIC values during a three years monitoring time at 2 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 3 m b.g.l. (right panel). The blue
line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control plot A.
Figure 9. Bando site Norg values during a three years monitoring time at 2 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 3 m b.g.l. (right panel). The blue
line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control plot A.
Figure 10. Bando site Norg values during a three years monitoring time at 2 m b.g.l. (left panel) and 3 m b.g.l. (right panel). The blue
line shows C treatment trend and black line shows M treatment trend, while red line shows the control plot A.
CONCLUSIONS
This study evaluated the effects of compost application combined with minimum tillage
followed by traditional fertilization in the groundwater, where DOC, DIC, DON and DTN were
monitored for three years via several campaigns in two contrasting soils. Compost was applied
8
only once in 2016 (start of monitoring) then during the whole monitoring period conventional
fertilization with synthetic fertilizers was carried out.
The trends of DIC, DON and DTN in groundwater highlights that there are no significant
variations between the control and the two treatments both in Gualdo and Bando fields.
In both the sites, the classical tillage combined with compost application showed DOC values
higher than the control for the upper piezometer, therefore classic tillage may have favoured the
leaching of organic carbon derived from the application of compost. Minimum tillage, on the other
hand, did not show any differences with the control for the DOC, therefore this practice tends to
slow down the leaching of organic carbon despite the application of compost. DON leaching was
minimal with negligible impact on shallow groundwater quality. Therefore, the application of
compost did not have a major impact on groundwater during the monitored period.
Nevertheless, N and C compounds leaching was superimposed on pre-existing
contaminations from anthropogenic sources in Gualdo and geogenic sources in Bando
(Colombani et al. 2019).
The experimental design proved to be highly efficient and cost effective, especially since the
use of multi-level samplers allowed to sample and discretize the aquifer at different levels
without creating mixing of different waters resulting from different pollution sources. Therefore,
to study the impact of agricultural practices on shallow groundwater bodies, monitoring
groundwater quality parameters via multi-level samplers is essential to have a real picture of the
system and avoid biased results induced by the overlap of different sources.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was funded by the Emilia-Romagna Region within the Rural Development Program
(PSR) 20142020 (Measure 16.1.01 - Operational Groups of the European Partnership for
Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability Focus Area 4B Improved management of water
resources, included the limitation of fertilizers and pesticides, Grant  
Nitrates - Agricultural techniques to prevent nitrates pollution and for the organic matter
conservation (https://ec.europa.eu/eip/agriculture/en/find-connect/projects/nitratiferrara-
tecnicheagronomiche-la).
REFERENCES
Colombani, N., Gervasio, M.P, Castaldelli, G., Mastrocicco, M. (2020). Soil conditioners
effects on hydraulic properties, leaching processes and denitrification on a silty-clay soil. Sci. Tot.
Environ. 733, 139342. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139342.
Colombani, N., Mastrocicco, M., Castaldelli, G., Aravena, R. (2019). Contrasting
biogeochemical processes revealed by stable isotopes of H2O, N, C and S in shallow aquifers
underlying agricultural lowlands. Sci. Tot. Environ. 691, 1282-1296.
doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.238.
9
Diacono, M., Montemurro, F. (2011). Long-Term Effects of Organic Amendments on Soil
Fertility. In: Lichtfouse E., Hamelin M., Navarrete M., Debaeke P. (eds) Sustainable Agriculture
Vol. 2. Springer, Dordrecht.
Eze, S., Dougill, A.J., Banwart, S.A., Hermans, T.D.G., Ligowe, I.S., Thierfelder, C.
(2020). Impacts of conservation agriculture on soil structure and hydraulic properties of Malawian
agricultural systems. Soil Till. Res. 201, 104639. doi:10.1016/j.still.2020.104639.
Lasagna, M., De Luca, D.A., Franchino, E. (2016). Nitrate contamination of groundwater
in the western Po Plain (Italy): the effects of groundwater and surface water interactions. Environ.
Earth Sci. 75(3), 240. doi: 10.1007/s12665-015-5039-6.
Schmidhuber, J. and Tubiello, F. N. (2007). Global food security under climate change.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 1970319708.
doi:10.1073/pnas.0701976104.
Teixeira, E. I., Fischer, G., van Velthuizen, H., Walter, C., & Ewert, F. (2013). Global hot-
spots of heat stress on agricultural crops due to climate change. Agricultural and Forest
Meteorology, 170, 206215. doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2011.09.002.
10
EFFECT OF VERMICOMPOST ON SEEDLING QUALITY AND
GROWTH IN WATERMELON (Citrullus lanatus L.)
A 12 23
1
2Erciyes University, Agricultural Faculty, Horticulture Department, Kayseri, Turkey
3Erciyes University, Agricultural Faculty, Soil Science and Plant Nutrition Department, Kayseri, Turkey
Abstract
In this study carried out under greenhouse conditions in summer period, a mixture of field soil, soil and farm
manure (1:1 v:v) was used as growth medium. 0 (control), %2.5, %5 and %10 vermicompost were added to
each soil. In the study using one liter pots, the amount of vermicompost was adjusted according to weight. A
total of 8*9*2 = 144 seeds were used. In this study, the effects of watermelon (Citrillus lanatus L.) on
seedling growth were investigated. The parameters measured in plants were measured plant height, stem and
leaf fresh and dry weights and leaf area. According to the results obtained in the study, plant growth was
observed in the highest soil and farm manure mixture and 5% vermicompost application, while the lowest
plant seedling growth was observed in unmixed field soil. In both soil mix, after 10% vermicompost
application, plant seedling growth decreased. As a result, it is seen that vermicompost application increases
plant growth but has a negative effect on plant growth after a certain place. For this, the mixture should be
prepared for each plant species and according to the content of the vermicompost used.
Keywords: Farm manure, Seedling development, Vermicompost, Watermelon
Introduction
Watermelon is a short duration vegetable crop belonging to Cucurbitaceae family, and is a
high value crop in Turkey and in many countries in the world. Watermelon seedlings are produced
in the greenhouse in the mixture of commercial hydroponic bed plant growing medium before the
nature is transported out of the greenhouse. It is very sensitive to the factors that cause the growth
of the medium in the early stages of growth, where high substrates are present in the foundation
organic seedling foundation. Peat moss is used as a hydroponic potting substrate in horticulture due
to its desirable physical properties and high nutrient exchange capacity (Raviv et al., 1986). In
recent years, however, environmental and ecological concerns have been increasing against peat
use, because the harvest is destroying the extinct swamp ecosystems worldwide. Other organic
materials such as fertilizer compost, vermicompost, rice, ash, tea wastes, cotton bolls, coconut
powder etc. (Agbo and Omaliko, 2006; Ercisli et al., 2005; Sahin et al., 2004)
Vermicomposts have been described by several authors as humus-like materials
and their degree of humification has been investigated fairly thoroughly. The humifying
capacity of earthworms, in the production of vermicomposts, was reported by Businelli et
al. (1983) after Lumbricus rubellus processed a range of mixtures: cow and rabbit dungs,
cattle and horse dungs, cow and sheep dungs and municipal waste compost.
11
Orlov and Biryukova (1996) reported that the total organic matter concentration of
vermicomposites contains 17-36% humic acid and 13-30% fulvic acid. Senesi et al. (1992)
compared the quality of the humic acids found in vermicomposites by using the spectroscopic
analysis procedures in natural soils.
Among their superior chemical attributes, Edwards and Burrows (1988) reported
that vermicomposts, especially those from animal waste sources, usually contained more
mineral elements than commercial plant growth media, and many of these elements were
changed to forms more that could be readily taken up by the plants, such as nitrates,
exchangeable phosphorus, and soluble potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
Werner and Cuevas (1996) reported that most vermicomposts contained adequate amounts
of macronutrients and trace elements of various kinds but were dependent on the sources of the
earthworm feedstock.
Vermicomposts have many outstanding biological properties. They are rich in
bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi (Edwards, 1983; Tomati et al., 1987; Werner and Cuevas,
1996) and cellulose-degrading bacteria (Werner and Cuevas, 1996). In addition, Tomati
et al. (1983) reported that earthworm castings, obtained after sludge digestion, were rich
in microorganisms, especially bacteria. Nair et al (1997) compared the microorganisms
associated with vermicomposts with those in traditional composts.
The objective of this research was to evaluate the effect of different vermicompost
combinations on the seedling growth and to determine the most effective formula for organic
seedling production of watermelon.
Materials and Methods
An experiment was conducted un a greenhouse conditions at the Faculty of Agriculture,
Erciyes University, Kayseri- Turkey. For the vegetation period, the average day/night temperatures
the relative humidity was 60-80% . Crimson Tide watermelon variety was use as a
plant material.
Experimental design. The experiment was carried out as a pot experiment in greenhouse
environment. Regular field soil (RFS) and mixture of soil and composted farm manure (S&M) (1:1
v:v) was used as growth medium. 0 (control), 2.5, 5 and 10 % vermicompost were added to each
type of soil. The amounts of vermicompost in the experiment where one liter pots were used were
adjusted based on the weight. The experimenatl design was complete rondomized plot and each
teratment replicated 9 times with 2 seedlings. In total, 8 * 9 * 2 = 144 seeds were used. After the
seeds were planted in the pots, they were irrigated until water drains from the bottom of the pot.
After the emergence, the pots were manually irrigated twice a week. The plants were harvested 40
days after seeding and the results were evaluated.
12
Soil sample and analysis
Table 1. Some physical, chemical and biological properties of soil used in the experiment
Properties
Value
Sand (%)
62.60
Silt (%)
27.10
Clay (%)
10,30
pH
7.50
EC
0,27
Organic Matter (%)
0.60
Lime (%)
1,10
Suitable Phosphorus (kg P2O5/da)
6.40
Total N (%)
0.052
Interchangeable K (cmol / kg)
Exchangeable Na (cmol / kg)
Interchangeable Ca (cmol / kg)
Interchangeable Mg (cmol / kg)
KDK (cmol / kg)
1,10
0.19
9.30
0,76
11.10
B (ppm)
Fe (ppm)
Mn (ppm)
Zn (ppm)
Cu (ppm)
0.68
1.10
2.14
0.81
1.21
Growth measurements. At the end of the experiment plants were harvested by separating
them into shoot and leaves. Main stem length (cm) was measured by using a ruler. For the fresh
weight determination plant organs were fractioned into the leaf, stem and leaves and then weighed.
The total leaf area for each treatment was determined by LI 3100 C Model Leaf Area Measuring
Device in cm2.The stem and leaf samples were placed in paper bags and allowed to dry until they
reached constant weight at 70 oC for 48 h. Then dried stem and leaf samples were removed from the
oven and weighed to determine their dry weight.
Statistical analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed using the SAS program
(SAS Institute, Cary NC, USA). If ANOVA determined that the effects of the treatments were
significant (P < 0.05 for F -test), the 
Range Test.
Results and Discussion
The plant hieght was significanly affected by both soil type and vermicompost application.
Farm manure and soil mixture (29.06) produced longer plants than field soil (14.13). While the
longest plant was recorded in S&M amanded with 5 % vermikompost with 35 cm, the shotest plant
were harvested from RS control treatments. The mean height of the plants increased significantly
by increasing vermicompost amount in both soil types up to 5%, but 10% vermicompost application
caused significant reductions in plant height (Figure 1).
The leaf area is also significantly influenced by both vermicompost application and soil
type. Similar to the height of the plant, S&M produced larger leaf area than RS. The largest leaf
area wasmeasured in S&M with 5% vermikompost with 155.3 cm2/plant and the lowest leaf area
13
was recorded in RS control treatments with 47.1 cm2/plant. (Figure1). These result are agreement
with many previous studies before about effect of vermicompost on vegetable seedling growth.
Atiyeh et al. (2000, 2001) reported that a wide range of vegetables germinated better in mixed
substrates with vermicompost than in commercial growth media (. The increased plant hight, stem
               ere
determined in tomato by Gutierrez-Miceli et al. (2007). Paul and Metzger (2005) also reported that
20% vermicompost additions to Metro-Mix36 (commercial substrate) caused a significant increase
in plant height, leaf area and root dry weight compared to control.. Leaf area, number of strawberry
suckers, number of flowers, shoot weight, and commercial fruit yields of strawberries all increased
significantly in response to supplemented vermicompost applications compared to those from
strawberries that produced by only inorganic fertilizers. (Arancon et al. 2004). Black pepper
cuttings raised in vermicomposts were significantly taller and had more leaves than those grown in
commercial potting mixtures. Plant heights, numbers of branches, and the longest taproots were on
cloves grown in the vermicompost mixtures (Vadiraj et al. 1998).
Figure1. Influence of vermicompost application on plant height (cm) and leaf area (cm2/plant) of
watermelon plants grown into two different soil types. RS(S): Regular soil control, S&M
(M): Soil and farm manure mixture. Each soil type was substituted with 2.5, 5 and 10 %
vermicompost.
Addition of vermicompost and soil type significantly affected plant stem fresh and dry
weight. While S&M produced higher stem fresh and dry weight than RS, the addition of
vermicompost significantly increased stem dry and fresh weight in all treatments except for R&S
with 10 % vermicompost treatments. The highest stem fresh weight was obtain from S&M with %5
vermicompost mixture with 9,54 g/plant, and the lowest plant stem fresh weight was recorded in
RS control with (2.28g/plant. With regard to plant stem dry weight, the lowest value was obtained
from RS control with 0.17g/plant and the highest stem dry weight was recorded in S&M with %5
vermicompost mixture treatments with 0,47g/plant (Figure 2). Similar to the current study, the
positive effects of vermicompost on vegetative and generative development in several vegetable
species were reported in previous studies. Edwards and Burrows (1988) reported that
vermicomposts increased vegetable seedling emergence compared with those in control commercial
gfde
bb
a
c
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
F-Test
Application***
LSD:1,02
e
dcbc
b
a
b
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
F-Test
Application: ***
LSD: 2,9
Leaf area (cm
2
)
Plant height (cm)
14
plant growth media, using a wide range of test plants such as pea, lettuce, wheat, cabbage, tomato
and radish.
Figure2. Influence of vermicompost application on stem fresh (g/plant) and dry weight (g/plant) of
watermelon plants grown into two different soil types. RS(S): Regular soil control, S&M(M): Soil
and farm manure mixture. Each soil type was substituted with 2.5, 5 and 10 % vermicompost.
The leaf fresh and dry weight was significantly affected by soil types and vermikompost rate
added to growth medium. As in previous parameters given above, S&M produced higher leaf fresh
and dry weight than that RS produced. S&M substituted with 5% vermikompost produced the
highest leaf fresh weight with 8,82 g/plant and tha lowest leaf fresh weight was recorded in RS
control treatment with 2.51 g /plant. In the same trend, the highest leaf dry weight obtained from
%5 vermikompost added soil and farm manure mixture (0,69g) and lowest leaf dry weight was
determined in RS control tratmnet with 0.29 g/plant. The reduction due to high doses was observed
in only S&M with substituted with 10% vermicompost. The application of vermicompost resulted
in a two-fold increase in the frsh weight of the leaf under the field soil conditions, but only a 40%
increase in the use of soil and farm manure mixture (Figure3). In accordance with current reseach,
Vadiraj et al (1998) reported enhanced growth and dry matter yield of cardamom (Electtaria
cardamomum) seedlings in vermicomposted forest litter compared with that in other growth media
tested. Increased yield in onion (Allium cepa) by vermicomposts produced from coir dust
application was reported by Thanunathan (1997). Atiyeh (2000) demonstrated that vermicompost
produced from pig manure substituted into Metro-Mix 360, at a range of concentrations increased
vegetable and ornamental seedling growth, even at low concentrations, when all the nutrients
needed by the crops were available. However, the larger percentages of vermicomposts substituted
into the soilless commercial growth medium (MM360) did not always improve plant growth
possibly because of salt content or other factors. They demonstrated further, that as little as 5% of
vermicompost substituted into MM360 was enough to produce conciderable growth responses of
tested crops.
0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
7,00
8,00
9,00
10,00
f
edd
c
b
a
c
F-Test
Application: ***
LSD:0,17
Stem fresh weight (g)
0,00
0,10
0,20
0,30
0,40
0,50
g
fedc
ba
d
F-Test
Application: ***
LSD: 0,013
Stem dry weight(g)
15
Figure3. Influence of vermicompost application on plant leaf fresh weight (g/plant) and leaf dry
weight (g/plant) of watermelon plants grown into two different soil types. RS(S): Regular soil
control, S&M(M): Soil and farm manure mixture. Each soil type was substituted with 2.5, 5 and 10
% vermicompost.
Conclusions
As a result, it is seen that vermicompost application increases plant growth but has a
negative effect on plant growth after a certain place. For this, the mixture should be prepared for
each plant species and according to the content of the vermicompost used.
References
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latifolia Benth stem cuttings in different rooting media. African Journal of Biotechnology, 5: 425-
428.
2. Atiyeh, R.M., Dominguez, J., Subler S., Edwards, C.A. (2000). Changes in biochemical
properties of cow manure processed by earthworms (Eisenia andreii) and their effects on plant-
growth. Pedobiologia, 44: 709-724.
3. Atiyeh, R.M., Edwards, C.A., Subler, S., and Metzger, J.D. (2001). Pig manure
vermicomposts as a component of a horticultural bedding plant medium: effects on
physicochemical properties and plant growth. Bioresource Technology, 78: 11-20.
4. Arancon, N. Q., Edwards, C. A., Atiyeh, R., and Metzger, J. D. (2004). Effects of
vermicomposts produced from food waste on the growth and yields of greenhouse peppers.
Bioresource Technology, 93: 139-44.
5. Buckerfield , J.C., Flavel, T., Lee, K.E., and Webster, K.A. (1999). Vermicomposts in solid
and liquid form as plant growth promoter. Pedobiolgia, 43: 753-759.
6. Businelli, M., Perucci, P., Patumi, M., and P.L. Giusquiani (1984). Chemical composition
and enzymatic activity of worm casts. Plant and Soil, 80: 417-422.
7. Edwards, C. A. and Burrows, I. (1988). The potential of earthworm composts as plant
growth media. In Earthworms in Environmental and Waste Management Ed. C. A., Neuhauser,
SPB Academic Publ. b.v. The Netherlands. 211-220.
0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
7,00
8,00
9,00
h
gfed
ba
c
F-Test
Application: ***
LSD: 0,24
Leaf fresh weight(g)
0,00
0,10
0,20
0,30
0,40
0,50
0,60
0,70
e
d
cbcb
a
b
F-Test
Application: ***
LSD: 0,01
Leaf dry weight(g)
16
8. Ercisli, S., Sahin, U., Esitken, A., and Anapali, O. (2005). Effects of some growing media on
the growth of strawberry cvs. 'Camarosa' and 'Fern'. Acta Agrobotanica, 58: 185-191.
9. Gutierrez-Miceli, F. A., Santiago-Borraz, J., Montes Molina, J. A., Nafate, C. C., Abud-
Archila, M., Oliva Llaven, M. A., Rincon-Rosales, R., and Dendooven, L. (2007). Vermicompost as
a soil supplement to improve growth, yield and fruit quality of tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum).
Bioresource Technology, 98: 2781-2786.
10. Nair, S.K., Naseema, A, Meenakumari, S.K., Prabhakumari, P. and Peethambaran, C.K.,
(1997). Microflora associated with earthworms and vermicomposting. J. Trop. Agric., 35: 93-98.
11. Paul, L. C., and Metzger, J. D. (2005). Impact of vermicompost on vegetable transplant
quality. Hortscience, 40: 2020-2023.
12. Orlov, D.S. and Biryukova, O.N. (1996). Humic substances of vermicomposts.
Agrokhimiya, 12: 60-67
13. Raviv, M., Chen, Y., and Inbar, Y. (1986). The use of peat and composts as growth media
for container-grown plants, in: Y. Chen, Y. Avnimelech (Eds.), The Role of Organic Matter in
Modern Agriculture. Martinus Nijhoff Publ., 257-287.
14. Sahin, U., Ercisli, S., Anapali, O., and Esitken, A. (2004). Physico- chemical and physical
properties of some substrates used in horticulture. Gartenbauwissenschaft, 67: 55-60.
15. Senesi, N., C. Saiz-Jimenez and T.M. Miano (1992). Spectroscopic characterization of
metal-humic acid-like complexes of earthworm-composted organic wastes. The Science of the Total
Environment, 117/118, 111-120.
16. Thanunathan, K., S. Natarajan, R. Senthilkumar and K. Arulmurugan (1997). Effect of
different sources of organic amendments on growth and yield of onion in mine spoil. Madras
Agricultural Journal, 84: 382-384.
17. Tomati, U., Grappelli, A. Galli, E. (1988). The hormone-like effect of earthworm casts on
plant growth. Biol. Fertil. Soils, 5: 288-294.
18. Tomati, U., Grappelli, A., and Galli, E. (1983). Fertility factors in earthworm humus. Proc.
Int. Symp. Agric. Environ. Prospects in Earthworm Farming. Publication Ministero della Ricerca
Scientifica e Technologia, Rome, 49-56.
19. Vadiraj, B.A. and Siddagangaiah, Potty, S.N. (1998). Response of coriander (Coriandrum
sativum L.) cultivars to graded levels of vermicomposts. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 7:
141-143.
20. Werner, M., Cuevas, R. (1996). Vermiculture in Cuba. Biocycle. Emmaus, PA., JG Press.
37: 61-62.
17
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT ROOTSTOCKS (C. maxima × C.
moschata) ON THE YIELD AND FRUIT QUALITY OF W-135 F1
AND GABRIEL F1 WATERMELON VARIETIES
Alim AYDIN1*, Hamide BOZOK2
1hir,
Turkey
2Erciyes University, Department of Horticulture, Kayseri, Turkey
*Corresponding author: alim.aydin@ahievran.edu.tr
ABSTRACT
The experiment was conducted between April and August 2020 in TETA seed company
     Gabriel F1 and W135) and 5 different
rootstock C. moschata × C. maxima hybrids genotypes (R172, R173,R174, Nun9075 and TZ-148)
Non-grafted plants were used as control in experiment. However non-grafted plants died due to
soil-borne diseases and measurements of these plants could not be made. Harvest was determined
by a dead tendril at the point where the fruit attached to the vine, along with a yellow ground spot.
Nine fruits from each replicate were randomly chosen to determine the yield per plant number of
fruit per plant, soluble solids content (Brix), fruit length, fruit diameter and thickness of rind.
According to the results, R172/W135, R174/W135, R172/Gabriel F1 grafting combinations had a
positive effect on yield and quality compared to other grafting combinations. As in our land, the use
of grafted plants may be preferred in areas where nun-grafted watermelon production is limited due
to soil-borne diseases. In addition, use of rootstocks (use of grafting plant) is also economically
feasible to the producer and can be considered as an alternative way in production to increase the
net revenue.
Keywords: Grafting, Rootstock, Scion, Yield, Watermelon
INTRODUCTION
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) is a member of the cucurbit family (Cucubitaceae) and is a
high commercial value crop in Turkey and in many countries in the World. China is the world
leader in watermelon production with 60.6 % of the total production in 2018. Other leading
countries are Iran (3.9%), Turkey (3.8 %) and Brazil (2.1%) (FAO 2018). To meet the growing
consumption demand worldwide, monocultures become the major cropping system for watermelon
production recently. However, watermelon subjected to consecutive monoculture is susceptible to
biotic (virus, bacteria, fungus, pests etc.) and abiotic stress (salinity, drought, alkalinity, low and
high temperatures, deficiency or excess of nutrients, heavy metals, air pollution, radiation and etc)
(Rivero et all., 2001; Uygur and YetRouphael et all., 2008; Hamurcu et
18
all., 2020; Kaya et all., 2003; Colla et all., 2010; Mo et all., 2016; Njoroge et all., 2008; Huang et
all., 2016).
Vegetable grafting is most common in European and Asian countries where crop rotation is
no longer an option and available land is under intense use. Grafting is an alternative approach to
reduce crop damage resulting from soilborne pathogens and increase plant biotic and abiotic stress
tolerance, which increases crop production (Hassell et al., 2008; Soteriou et al., 2014; Bertucci et
all., 2018; Tripodi et all., 2020). Rootstocks commonly used in watermelon grafting are C.
moschata, C. maxima, C. pepo, Benincasa hispida, Lagenaria siceraria, Sicyos angulatus Citrullus
lanatus var. citroides C. moschata × C. maxima hybrids (Lee, 1994).
Grafting with cucurbits was originally initiated as a preventive measure against a soil-borne
disease, fusarium wilt Since than, it has been demonstrated that grafting of selected rootstocks is
useful for increasing cultural efficiency and crop yield it promotes crop growth and enhances
environmental adaptability, the grafting procedure has been widely (Kawaide, 1985). This is due to
the use of Cucurbita spp. rootstock that induces vegetative growth (Kawaide, 1985). In a similar
study, Yamasaki et al. (1994) determined that grafts to interspecific hybrid squash cause more
vigorous growth. Grafted plants of Reina de Corazones watermelon cultivar onto Shintosa rootstock
increased the fruit yield as compared to non-grafted plants. However, fruit set was not affected by
the rootstock (Miguel et al., 2004). The average yields of grafted plants were much higher than the
yields of the non-grafted plants. The yield increase was 44% and 84% respectively for melon and
watermelon (Besri, 2008). Reports indicated that the use of rootstock alters yield and quality
attributes of the scion fruit. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of grafting
on fruit yield, characteristics and quality attr
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Plant Material, Treatments and Experimental Design
The experiment was conducted between April and August 2020 in TETA seed company
   scion genotypes (Gabriel F1 and W-135 F1) and 5 different
rootstock C. moschata × C. maxima hybrids genotypes (R 172, R 173,R 174, Nun 9075 and TZ-
148) Watermelon seeds were sown in a mixture of 2: 1 peat and perlite ratio, and one week later,
pumpkin seeds were sown. Seedlings were grafted at the beginning of May and were planted at the
end of May in open field. Grafts were performed as follows; seedlings were grafted by hand, the
tongue approach grafting method was applied (Lee, 2003). Grafting was carried out in the
glasshouse shaded and sheltered from wind to avoid wilting of the grafted plants. Grafting
combinations of scion / rootstock were shown (Table 1).
Tablo 2 Grafting combinations
Rootstock
Scion
R172
Gabriel F1
R172
W135
R173
Gabriel F1
R173
W135
R174
Gabriel F1
R174
W135
Nun9075
Gabriel F1
Nun9075
W135
TZ-148
Gabriel F1
19
After grafting the plants were kept at 28-30 C0 and with more than 95% relative humidity
for three days of healing, and then the relative humidity was gradually lowered and light intensity
increased. Foliar spraying of grafted plants with water was effective in helping them survive when
wilting was observed. The grafted and non-grafted seedlings were transplanted at the end of May in
open field conditions. Plants were spaced at 2 m between plants and 2 m between rows, with a
density of 2500 plants/ha as indicated. Non-grafted plants were used as control in experiment.
However non-grafted plants died due to soil-borne diseases and measurements of these plants could
not be made.
The experiment was ended at end of the August. The experiments were arranged as a
randomized complete block design with three replications of nine plants for each treatment. Ripe
fruits were harvested in August, when ripe. Harvest was determined by a dead tendril at the point
where the fruit attached to the vine, along with a yellow ground spot. nine fruits from each replicate
were randomly chosen to determine the yield per plant, number of fruit per plant, soluble solids
content (Brix), fruit length, fruit diameter and thickness of rind. Statistical analysis: Analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was performed using the SAS program Mean separations were performed when

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the present research the rootstock genotypes significantly influenced the increase of the
number of fruit per plant (Fig. 1). Avarega fruit number per plant of R174/W135 was significantly
higher than other grafted plants. The lowest fruit number was obtained in Nun 9075/GabrielF1
grafting combination. Pumpkin rootstock is associated with very strong growth vigor, which can
promote rapid canopy growth and the rapid growth of lateral stems, and thereby increase the
number of fruits on each plant and the total yield (Fallik et all., 2014; Kumar et all., 2019). The
obtained data agreed with those obtained by Salam et al. (2002) found that, grafting also produced
higher number of fruits per plant. Yield was increased by grafting in watermelon (Ruiz and
Romero, 1999 and Yetisir and Sari, 2003).
c
ab
c
bc
c
a
c
ab
bc
0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
F-Test
Grafting: ***
Figure 1. Number of fruit per plant
20
The yield per plant was the highest per plant in R172/W135, Nun 9075/Gabriel F1, R172/Gabriel
F1 and TZ 145/Gabriel F1 grafting combinations, respectively. the lowest yield per plant was
measured in the Nun9075/Gabriel F1 grafting combination. Similar to our results, average fruit
weight of watermelon is strongly influenced by grafting, and it is an important component of yield
(Fig. 2) ( These increases can be explained by an interaction of some or all of
the following phenomena: increased water and plant nutrient absorption (Kato and Lou, 1989),
augmented endogenous hormone production (Zijlstra et al., 1994), and enhanced scion vigor (Leoni
et al., 1990), resistance to soil pathogens (Lee, 1994 and Edelstein et al., 1999).
Significant difference in total yield per decare was recorded among grafting combinations.
The highest yield (3552.9 kg de-1 ) was obtained at R172/W135 grafting combonation while the
least value (2401.6 t de-1 ) was obtained at Nun9075/Gabriel F1 grafting combonation(Fig. 3).
There are several reports of increased productivity by grafting watermelon. Yield increases of 3.5
(Salam et al., 2002) and two to 3.5 times have been obtained depending on the rootstock used.
These increases are the result of control of Fusarium oxysporum sp. niveum and the increase in the
number and weight of fruits, even with reduction to half the plant density of nongrafted plants
(Yilmaz et al., 2007).
ab a
bc bc
ab ab
c
ab ab
0
2.000
4.000
6.000
8.000
10.000
12.000
14.000
16.000
F-Test
Grafting: ***
Figure 2. Yield per plant (kg)
21
Figure 3. Total yield per decare(kg)
ab a
cc
bc ab
c
ab ab
0,0
500,0
1000,0
1500,0
2000,0
2500,0
3000,0
3500,0
4000,0
F-Test
Grafting: ***
The analysis of my data showed that different grafting combinations had a significant effect
on SSC(%) of watermelon juice. SSC(%) of samples (R173/Gabriel F1 to R172/Gabriel F1) ranged
from 6.70 to 8.80 (Fig. 4). Similar to our results, during the 2 years, the content of soluble solids
was unaffected by grafting or fumigation (). These results were similar to those
observed by Colla et al. (2008), Miguel et al. (2004), Roberts et al. (2007), and Schultheis et al.
(2008) in watermelon and by Crino et al. (2007) in melon. In this respect, several investigators
    l. (2003) Yetisir and Sari (2003) and
Alan et al. (2007) in watermelon. Miguel et al. (2004) found no difference in SSC(%) of
watermelon fruit from scions grafted onto Cucurbita interspecific hybrid versus than in self-rooted
watermelons control.
aab
cbc a-c a-c ab
bc a-c
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
9,0
10,0
F-Test
Grafting: ***
Figure 4. Soluble solids content (Brix)
22
Different grafting combinations of showed a significant effect on watermelon fruit length
(Fig. 5). Fruit length was relatively more with R172/Gabriel F1 (22.54 cm) followed by
Nun9075/Gabriel F1 (21.49 cm) and lowest in Nun9075/W135 (15.70 cm). Grafting increased
fruit size, and this causes higher yields than in the control. These results agree with that of Miguel et
al. (2004), who mentioned that grafting watermelon on Shintoza rootstock increased both fruit set
and fruit size compared to the non-grafted plants. Bletsos, (2005) recorded that, grafting due to
positively affected on fruit yield and quality, fruit size in early production. In Egypt Kapiel et al.
(2005) who observed that the fruit size of watermelons grafted to rootstocks having vigorous root
systems is often significantly increased compared to fruit from intact plants.
Different grafting combinations of showed a significant effect on watermelon fruit diameter
(Table 2). Fruit diameter was relatively more with R172/Gabriel F1 (20.15 cm) followed by
R173/Gabriel F1 (19.17 cm) and lowest in R173/W135 (12.38 cm) (Fig. 6). These results agree
with that of El-Eslamboly (2010), who mentioned that grafted watermelon on gourd rootstock
produced larger fruits as shown from fruit size, length and diameter in both seasons without any
significant effect on fruit shape.
a
de b-e de
a-d
ce
ab
e
abc
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
F-Test
Grafting: ***
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
b
a
0,00
5,00
10,00
15,00
20,00
25,00
F-Test
Grafting: **
Figure 5. Fruit length (cm).
Figure 6. Fruit diameter (cm)
23
Fruit rind thickness in the grafting combinations tested in this experiment ranged from 1.11
to 1.95 mm. The highest rind thickness was measured in the Nun9075/Gabriel F1 grafting
combination, while the lowest was measured in the R174/W135 grafting combination. Fruit rind
thickness and average fruit weight were increased in all grafted plants (Fig. 7). The increase in rind
thickness and average fruit weight wer
-
al., 2012).
CONCLUSION
According to the results, R172/W135, R174/W135 and R172/Gabriel F1 grafting
combinations had a positive effect on yield and quality compared to other grafting combinations. As
in our land, the use of grafted plants may be preferred in areas where nun-grafted watermelon
production is limited due to soil-borne diseases. In addition, use of rootstocks (use of grafting plant)
is also economically feasible to the producer and can be considered as an alternative way in
production to increase the net revenue.
REFERENCES
Alan, O., N. Ozdemir and Y. Gunen (2007). Effect of grafting on watermelon plant growth, yield
and quality. Journal of Agronomy, 6(2): 362-365.
Bertucci, M. B., Suchoff, D. H., Jennings, K. M., Monks, D. W., Gunter, C. C., Schultheis, J. R., &
Louws, F. J. (2018). Comparison of root system morphology of cucurbit rootstocks for use in
watermelon grafting. HortTechnology, 28(5), 629-636.
Bletsos, F.A. (2005). Use of grafting and calcium cyanamide as alternatives to methyl bromide soil
fumigation and their effects on growth, yield, quality and fusarium wilt control in melon. Journal
of Phytopathology, 153: 155-161.
ab
ab
ab
b
ab
b
a
ab
ab
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
F-Test
Grafting: **
Figure 7. Fruit rind thickness(cm).
24
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26
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27
MARKETING CHANNELS OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURAL
PRODUCTS IN TURKEY
Y. E. Erturk, A. N. Sahin
Igdır University, Igdır, Turkey.
Abstract
Organic agricultural production in Turkey, to meet the demand for organic products from Europe
began in the mid-1980s. The first exports of organic agricultural products from Izmir in 1985. The types of
organic products subject to export have continuously increased in terms of both variety and quantity over the
years. As a result of the formation of local demand since the late 1990s, in order to meet the domestic
demand, boutique shops selling only organic products were established in big cities, in some districts with a
high foreign population. Subsequently, while producers in ecological markets established in big cities started
to market their products directly to consumers, supermarkets and hypermarkets started to sell organic
products in separate sections. In addition, large amounts of organic products are processed in the food
industry. These products are exported or offered to the domestic market. In addition, exporting companies
put up for sale their own products, products that have been obtained from other companies in Turkey, their
imported agricultural and non-agricultural products (aromatic oils, personal care products, etc.) in their own
organic product stores. Today, organic products are marketed as direct sales through ecological
neighborhood markets and open-air shops, stores selling natural products (specialized stores), in separate
departments in special outlets, supermarkets and hypermarkets, and as home delivery via e-commerce. In this
study, there have been examined organic products marketing channels in Turkey and evaluation.
Keywords: Organic Products Marketing, Distribution channels, Organic product
1. INTRODUCTION
The process containing the phases that it undergoes between the producer and the consumer in which
the ownership of products shift hands, in other words, the ways and processes through which the products
flow beginning from production and in which they go through various processes such as processing, storing,
parceling, and changing hand           
2016). The distribution channels are important since they enable the product to be at the right time and at the
right place. The producers that do business in agricultural sector are businesses that usually possess small
and limited marketing capability (Albayrak, 2013). The marketing channels, by becoming a part of the
activity, play a role in increasing the effectiveness and make it easy to reach the places outside the local sales
places (Eti, 2014). Marketing channels change depending upon product, organization level and competition
and trading policies of the country. Producers, brokers, middlemen, merchant brokers, transfer merchants,
private firms, institutions in the quality of government, exchange markets, wholesale markets, wholesalers,
retailers, cooperatives and production unions operate in the agricultural product markets (Albayrak, 2013).
Various marketing systems exist in in agriculture product trade in the world. Marketing of products occur
through channels that are direct or that include various brokers (Albayrak, 2009).
Direct marketing in agricultural products is to sell the products to the consumers without brokers,
middlemen and wholesalers. Direct marketing is a m
development and that encourage the connections and relations between the producers and the consumers. In
direct marketing systems, the producer takes place as a seller in the market in person. In this system, the

market, organic product market, selling with own vehicle in the street, on the sides of roads/gardens/fields,
electronic trade and open wholesale product sales centers (Albayrak, 2009). In addition, in his or her garden
the producer can directly sell the products he /she produces to the industrialist, exporter or retailer as
specified in the laws (Canik ve Alparslan, 2010). There are several factors in agricultural products that make
direct marketing attractive for consumers. These are to communicate directly with the producer that grow the
28
crops, desire for buying fresh and high quality good and the desire to support the local producer. In addition
to this, the consumers, while getting knowledge about crop growing methods, usage instructions and how to
evaluate it, find an opportunity to taste the product. Direct marketing in agricultural products is especially
suitable for small and mid
Direct marketing types;         
own vehicle in the street, seasonal road/garden/field side counters or farm shops, outdoor wholesale product
sales centers, organizations in which consumers collect the products themselves (you collect), society
supported agricultural initiatives, urban purchase clubs, agricultural tourism initiatives, operations in which
they catch the fisheries themselves (you catch), gift basket and sales through post, e-commerce and direct
sales 
The distribution channel structure in which various equity houses or institutions-organizations take
place is named as ‘marketing channels through brokers’. Brokers with different qualities, contract based
agriculture, producer unions, exporter unions, cooperatives, wholesale markets, exchange markets, street

2005) and big retailers take place in this system(Yurdakul, 2007; Albayrak, 2013; Eti, 2014).
Distribution channels are a highly important marketing tool for organic products. Because organic
agriculture crops are not much long lasting and consumers prefer to consume these products fresh. Choosing
the suitable distribution channels in transferring the organic products to the markets will effect directly to the
achievement of marketing activities about these products. The product should be delivered fast after
harvesting or should be transferred from producer to consumer with the shortest distribution channel.
Organic products are not sold together with other products. The sales of organic products that bear an
organic product tag is done either in shops that sell organic products or in a separate place in the shop or
should be provided directly from the place where production takes place. Organic agricultural products
especially such products as organic milk, yoghurt, fruit, vegetables that that go bad fast should be sent
directly to the consumer or to the retailer in a single level distribution plan. With this quality of theirs,
organic products take place among the products that can be sold directly (Vural ve Turhan, 2013;

The increase in demand which emerged with the increase of the consumer awareness about organic
products brought about the search for different distribution channels. Organic product stores are gradually
increasing in areas close to settlements of consumer groups with high education and income levels. Organic
product stores offer these products under the brand and packaging of the company for sale in charcuterie type
stores where only natural and organic products are sold in big cities. Although organic products reach their
final sales point in different ways, the marketing models of these products are also different from each other.
The most known and common of these models is the producer-wholesaler-retailer-consumer chain. Private
retail stores, super/hypermarkets (e.g.: Tesco, Migros, Carrefour, Real, Metro), local public markets, sales
transactions carried out directly in the garden of the producer represent the distribution channels in this
sector (Kurt, 2006; Eti, 2014). With the increase of information technologies, electronic commerce has also
been added to these channels.
On the other hand, sales through brokers consist of organizations that make sales of organic products
easy and provide time and place benefits to consumers. Using the experience and facilities of brokers during
the marketing of organic products will contribute to the development of organic product market. The fact that
the number of buyers and seller of organic products is not large enough causes the wholesale markets which
have an important place in the sale of traditional agricultural products to have no important function in the
sale of these products. Wholesale activities related to these products are carried out by more large
companies. Exporter wholesalers, which are densely located in the Aegean region, play an important role in
bringing these to both domestic and international markets.
In this study, there have been examined organic products marketing channels in Turkey and
evaluation.
29
2. DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIC PRODUCTS MARKETING IN TURKEY
Organic agricultural production in Turkey began in the mid-1980s to meet the demand for organic
products from Europe (Merdan, 2018). In the first years, some companies of European origin established
organic production projects in Turkey to grow the products they need with contracted farmers and to import
the obtai
                
apri
of organic products subject to exports have increased continuosly both variety and quantity over the years.
In the first years, the indispensable principles of these organic production activities such as
consultancy, inspection and certification were fulfilled entirely by foreign persons and organizations

trained in these subjects and started to represent foreign companies in Turkey.
The majority of organic products are offered to foreign market and some of these products are
              
Durmaz, 2010). Produciton project and marketing of products in organic agriculture are carried out in 4

1. The production project is carried out by a Turkish company and these products are processed,
               
process.
2. The production project is carried out by a foreign organization from abroad. The products obtained
according to the project are produced by the contracted Turkish manufacturer company according to

or export company.
3. The products which production project is carried out by a foreign organizations from abroad are
produced and processed in the facilities established by the foreign company as a owner or partner in
Turkey. It is exported to the project owner company by the processor or exporter company.
4. In a small number of applications, manufacturers certify their products by contacting the control and
certification firm directly and offer their products for sale in the free market directly to the
consumers.
Initially, the high prices of organic products, low income levels, lack of knowledge about organic
products among consumers, lack of marketing practices, limited varieties of fresh organic vegetables in the
market restricted the diversification and consumption of organic products in the domestic market.
Organic agricultural production, which started with a focus on the foreign market, has been brougth to
                
2017). Until the 1990s, organic products were mostly sold on the farm where they were produced or in the
neighborhood markets nearby. Since the late 1990s, in order to meet the domestic demand with the formation
of local demand, specialized (boutique) stores that only sell organic products have been established in some
districts where largely foreig
type of stores, natural and/or homemade products are also included to expand the product range and
information about organic products is offered to the consumer as an additional service. In the ecological
markets, which established in big cities, producers began to market their products directly to the consumer
while in supermarkets and hypermarkets began to offer organic products for sale in separate sections. In
addition, a large amount of organic products are processed in the food industry. These products are exported
of offered to the domestic market. Also, exporter companies offer their own products, products obtained
from other companies in Turkey, an imported agricultural and non-agricultural products (aromatic oils,
               
organic products are marketed as direct sales through ecological neighborhood markets and open-air shops,
stores selling natural products (specialized stores), in separate departments in special outlets, supermarkets
and hypermarkets, and as home delivery via e-commerce. In addition, a large amount of organic products
have recently started to be used in the food industry. These products processed in the food industry are
exported or offered to the domestic market.
30
In 2005, the number of stores selling organic products reached about 300, alongside supermarkets and
special corner in some outlets. In 2006, T        
(Rehber, 2011).
Today, organic product are sold in special deparments in supermarkets and hypermarkets as well as in
organic product stores (specialized stores) and in producer and district markets. In addition, producers offer
their organic products for sale in production areas. However, the amount and variety offered for sale is
limited due to the high prices of organic products. There is no major cooperative organization dealing with
organic ag            
2008; Rehber, 2011).
There are 809 enterprises operating in organic agriculture in Turkey. Of these enterprises, 158 are only
in production, 21 in marketing only, 11 in imports only and 14 in export activities only. The number of
enterprises that carry out all production-marketing-import-export activities is 10. By carrying out all the
production-marketing-import-export activities, there are 2 enterprises each in A

In recent years, organic products have started to be delivered to the consumer through organic product
markets established with the contributions of non-governmental organizations and municipalities. For the
                
         ns throughout in the country, organic product
markets have been established. Today, 18 organic markets serve, two of which are seasonal (Akyol ve

product markets have closed in the process (Table 1). These markets are organic product markets established

r of consumers, the organic 
       

Table 1 Organic product markets in Turkey
Place of establishment
Year
Place of establishment
Year
1

2006
12

2011
2

2006
13
Konya Meram
2012
3

2008
14

2013
4

2008
15
Kayseri/Talas
2013
5
Kartal
2009
16

2013
6

2010
17

2014
7

2010
18
Kayseri /Kocasinan
2014
8

2010
19

2016
9

2010
20
Adana
2017
10

2010
21

2017
11

2010
22

2018

Although it has a small share in sales areas and sales amounts in Turkey, there are also departments
where are organic products are offered for sale in supermarkets and hypermarkets. These departments
contain organic fresh fruits and vegetables, processed products and organic baby foods that are offered for
sale periodically. Examples of these supermarket chains in     tc.
Organic products are also offered for sale on some sites as e-trade on the intertet. On these sites, information

In the service sector, there are restaurants that offer menus prepared from organic products. These
restaurants serve alongside product sales either on their own or in stores established by private entrepreneurs.
These stores both provide information on how to consume organic products and allow consumers to test
organic products before purchasing (Marangoz, 2008).
3. DISTRIBUTION CHANNEL MEMBERS IN ORGANIC PRODUCTS
Distribution channel members of organic products:
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1. Farmers Association and Cooperatives
The marketing cooperatives that farmers will establish are mainly organizations that sell the products
they buy from producers not directly to the end consumer, but to the brokers such as wholesalers,
retailers, specialized stores, greengroceries. Thus, the products of the farmer producing organic products
are evaluated in the best way and reach the end consumer by going through the most appropriate
distribution channel (Marangoz, 2008; Rehber, 2011; Vural ve Turhan, 2013).
2. Wholesalers
Wholesaling refers to the activities of persons or companies that sell goods directly retailers and/or
other wholesalers or users but sell insignificant amount to end consumers. Wholesale markets which
have an important role in distribution of traditional agricultural products, do   
products. The reason is that there is small number buyers and sellers/producers. In the marketing and
distribution of organic products, mostly big companies carry out wholesale activities. These companies
mostly work in foreign markets and market the products they buy from the producer in the country
abroad. In our country, companies that buy organic products from producers and market them in foreign
            goz, 2008;
Vural ve Turhan, 2013).
3. Chain (Supermarkets and Hypermarkets) Stores
The market closest to the consumer is the retail market. The largest group of broker is also in this
market. Butchers, grocery stores, greengroceries, supermarkets and hypermarkets are the most
important retialers. They often work with a wholesaler because they sell a small amount of products.
Some buy products form the producers to reduce the cost of the broker. Retailers have started to include
organic products among their product groups since the 1990s and the number and sales of organic
products are increasing rapidly within the general product groups. In our country, organic products are
sold in local and regional supermarkets as well as large and chain stores like Migros, Tesko-Kipa,
CarrefourSA, Real and Metro. Large food stores have an advantage because organic products must be
sold packaged and labeled (Marangoz, 2008; Vural ve Turhan, 2013).
4. Producer’s Direct Sales
Organic products by their feature are products that can be sold by direct sales method. In the direct
marketing method, the products are delivered directly (without broker) to the consumer from the
producer. Direct marketing methods such as direct distribution from the farm (farm stores), roadside
sales, sales         r country. Apart from that direct
marketing takes place in the form of sales from the within the business, e-commerce, home delivery,
restaurants etc. Some farmers sell their products without processing them while other prefer to sell them
partly by proces
5. Ecological (Organic) Markets
Open markets selling organic products are usually public markets where organic products are sold and
where producers and consumers can come face-to-face. In our country, especially in big cities, %100
ecological public markets are a good example for this. Fresh products sold without packaging are
collected from the garden of the producer the day before the market opens and are sold in bulk to save
consumers from the cost of packaging. These products accepted into market with invoices, dispatch

the market. In this way, both the submitted amounts are checked and the amounts sold by the producer
that week are reported to the relevant certification body. The certificate of each product sold is
displayed on the counters and consumers are ensured to know where the product is produce and the
certification body (Maran
6. Organic Product Stores (Specialized Stores)
In the charcuterie type stores where only natural and organic products are sold in big cities, the
company can offer these products for sale with its own brand and packaging. There are also various
stores selling only organic products in large housing residential areas. In our country, there are stores
               
number of these stores are increasing day by day. Since consumers who buy and consume organic
32
products are mostly high in education and income levels, distribution channales that can reach this
segment should be used (Marangoz, 2008; Vural ve Turhan, 2013).
7. Public Institutions
As in other areas, one of the biggest buyers of organic products may be public institutions. This is
important in terms of both reaching and promotion of organic products to wider audiences and their
adoption. On the other hand, the producer are also encouraged since the products are sold. The state
may buy organic products espacially for hospitals, kindergartens, orphanages and nursing homes
(Marangoz, 2008; Vural ve Turhan, 2013).
8. Other Sales Places
Organic products can also be sold in sales places such as pharmacies, gas stations and greengroceries. In
addition, restaurants and hotels that use organic products on their menus are both customers of organic
products and brokers who market them after they process (Marangoz, 2008).
4.ORGANIC PRODUCTS MARKETING CHANNELS IN TURKEY
In Figure 1, the main actors that play a role in the marketing channels of organic products and their
relationships are shown. Producers of organic products give their certificated products to the marketing
channels either directly or through an broker. In a limited amount of product, farmers association and
cooperatives are brokers. Organic product markets, outdoor markets, roadside sales, farm stores, e-trade,
sales to restaurants and hotels, home delivery sales and direct sales channels to retailers are used as direct
sales channels. Certification bodies in the channel either export products through exporters or supply
products to the food industry or sell them to retailers. Exporters either operates the products they supply from
the producer, certification bodies and exporter associations to the food industry or export them directly and
give some of them to retailers. Producers association also offer the products they supply directly from the
producer to other marketing channels. Supermarkets, organic product stores, hypermarkets, greengroceries
and pharmacies make up the retailers in the marketing channel.
Figure 1 Organic Products Marketing Channels in Turkey
DIRECT SALES
Organic Product Markets
CONSUMERS
FARMERS
Food Industry
RETAILERS
CERTIFICATION
BODIES
Supermarkets
EXPORTERS
EXPORTER
ASSOCIATIONS
Roadside Sales
Farm Stores
E-Trade
Restaurants and Hotels
Outdoor Markets
Organic Product Stores
Hipermarkets
Greengroceries
Home Delivery Sale
FARMERS ASSOCIATION /
COOPERATIVES
CERTIFICATION
BODIES
Pharmacies
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5.CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
Despite the growing demand of some consumers about organic products and health concerns in recent
years, the organic product market in Turkey is still very small and the marketing channels in the domestic
market are still in the formation phase. Currently, the vast majority of production is made for the foreign
market. The increase in the number of products and producer gives hope for the future. The unique qualities
of organic production and products are the biggest constraint of the formation process of the marketing
channels. Overcoming this constraint can only be overcome by the high demand of a widespread consumer
awareness. The demand to consume healthy products spreading from big cities will allow organic agriculture
to grow in domestic market as well as exports. Within the existing marketing channels, the growth potential
of direct sales channel with e-commerce applications must be definitely considered.
In order to increase the consumption of organic products, producer, public, private sector and
consumer should implement growth-directional policies in cooperation with all stakeholders, without
compromising product quality and the quality of sales environment.
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      ting Practices In Organic Production and     
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                
Science, 2(1), 122-135.
Demir, A.Y. (2013). Turkey's First Organic Bazaar, European Scientific Journal March 2013 Edition, 9 (8), 185 7881.
   nal of the
Faculty of Agriculture, 28(1), 27-36.
 Development Eastern Black Sea Project Development
Administration Press, Giresun. https://www.dokap.gov.tr/
Agricultural Products Marketing
Channels and Tools in Turkey, Agriculture Week 2005 Congress VI. Technical Congress 3-7 January 2005, Ankara, pp.
1155-1171.
E      fic Agricultural Symposium
"Agrosym 2015", 15-18 October, Jahorina, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
    Organic Agriculture Marketing and its E-Commerce Applications in Turkey, 4th International EMI
Entrepreneurship & Social Sciences Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, 29-30 November 2019, pp. 1698-1705.
Eti, H.S. (2014). Marketing of Organic Food and Analysis of Consumer Attitude and Behavior Towards   
Kemal University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Ph. D. Thesis.

Republic Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Department of External Relations and EU Coordination, Expertise
Thesis.
34
Hat                
Economy, Anadolu University, Graduate School of Social Sciences, Master Thesis.
f Organic Products and a Field Research on Producers, Business and
Economics Research Journal, 5 (1), 39-65.
Kurt, Z. (2006). Marketing of The Organic Agricul         
Sciences, Master Thesis.

Merdan, K. (2018). Marketing Opportunities and Development Methods in Organic Production, Journal of Social and Humanities
Sciences Research, 5(19), 663-672.
A. (2014). Marketing Of Organic Products in Turkey, Journal of Social Sciences Research, I, 75-94.
Bursa.


   -Or
-
-39, Adana, s.145.
Yurda                  


Institute, Master Thesis.
35
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DOSES OF BIOCHAR AND
COMPOST APPLICATION ON THE GRAIN YIELD AND
GROWTH PARAMETERS OF THE MAIZE CROP
1*112
1Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, University of Selcuk, Konya, Turkey
2Soil, Water and Deserting Control Research Institute, Konya, Turkey
*Corresponding author: zmcetinayse@gmail.com
Abstract
Contrary to increasing population in the world, decrease in production areas leads to the
problems of hunger and nutrition, which are the main problems of humanity. Together with the
efficient and sustainable use of soils, while providing the improvement of problematic soils on the
one hand, productivity and quality increases will be provided on the other hand. Besides the
increase of organic matter content of soils together with the improvement in soil properties,
increases in productivity and quality in crop production are also provided. Different wastes such as
farm manure, composted wastes, post-harvest plant residues and biochar can be used for increasing
soil organic matter. For this reason, this study was carried out to determine the effects of compost
and biochar obtained from the same plant material on the properties of a calcareous and alkaline
yield components of the corn plant. The application of 0, 2 and 4 tons da-1 of biochar and compost
were investigated in this study, which was carried out in line with a randomized block design with
three replications in the 14 m2 sized parcels under field conditions, and the effects of the treatments
on plant height, stem diameter, leaf chlorophyll content and grain yield were determined. When the
yield values are examined in the highest doses of compost and biochar relative to the control, it was
found that yield values increased by 284.2% and 147.4%, respectively and also the effects of the
applications on the other measured plant parameters were statistically significant (p <0.05).
Keywords: Organic matter, compost, biochar, corn yield, efficient elements.
1. INTRODUCTION
Agricultural production, which is one of the ubiquitous fundamental of the economy, has an
important potential in our country. Agricultural production has an important place in human and
animal nutrition, and industries. Soil and seeds form the basis of agricultural production. A fertile
soil is an integral whole for sustainable agricultural activity. The physical and chemical properties
of the soil must be improved for the plant to develop a healthy crop stands in the soil by the
application of agricultural practices. Unsuitable intensive agricultural activities and the use of soils
36
beyond their capacity endanger the sustainable use of soils, leading to physical degradation in such
soils.
The most widely used method to improve the soil physical properties and ensure their
sustainability is the addition of organic matter to soils (Bender et al., 1998). It is possible to increase
the organic matter content of agricultural soils by applying various organic materials. In addition to
improving the physical properties of the soil, organic residues bring nutrients such as N, P, K, Ca,
Mg, Cu, and Zn to the soil ., 2006). Residues from threshed harvest can be applied to the
soil again as a result of organic matter sources without causing environmental pollution. The
disposal of such organic wastes poses a major financial problem, while their direct application to
the soil is inconvenient due to insufficient plant nutrients (Sanchez-Monedero et al., 2019). In
recent years, it is very popular to use organic residues by recycling them into soil properties, such as
compost and biochar, being transformed into materials that promote plant growth (Atkinson et al.,
2010; Vaccari ve ark., 2011). The effects of biochar and compost applications on the improvement
of soil quality, carbon sequestration and reduction of greenhouse gases are very important
(Agegnehu et al., 2017).
Therefore, in this study, the pruning residues of the spruce tree were transformed into
biochar and compost and applied to the soil. Maize (Zea mays L.), which is widely used in human
and animal nutrition in many parts of the world was used as a test crop for this study. The effects of
different doses of biochar and compost materials on the yield and yield components of the corn
plant were determined.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 Experimental Soil
This study was conducted in Karapinar Soil, Water and Combating Desertification Research
Institute (37.72 N latitude and 33.55 E longitudes), Konya. The general properties of the soil used in
the experiment are given in table 1. The texture class of the trial soil belongs to the sandy clay loam
soil according to the USDA soil texture classification, the lime content is very high and has an
alkaline properties.
Table 1: General soil properties
Soil properties
Values
References
Sand ( % )
60.48
Gee and Bauder (1986)
Silt ( % )
13.33
Clay (%)
26.19
Texture class
Sandy clay loam
Organic Matter (%)
1.51
Smith and Weldon
(1941)
pH (1:1)
8.59
Kacar (2009)
Lime ( % )
72.00
(McLean, 1983)
37
2.2 Experimental Materials
Spruce tree pruning residues were used in the production of biochar and compost. For
compost production, the pruning residues were divided into small pieces and the composting
process was made by mixing them with farm manure. Composting process was carried out using
the humidity ratio 70% and C / N ratio was 25: 1. Biochar was obtained by charring pruning
through slow pyrolysis method. Prior to applying compost and biochar, they
were sieved at a 4 mm sieve, then parcels with 3x5 m were designed and also experimental design
is given in Table 2.
Table 2: Experimental design
1st Block
2nd Block
3rd Block
Control
Control
Control
2%- Biochar
2%- Biochar
2%- Biochar
2%- Compost
2%- Compost
2%- Compost
4%- Biochar
4%- Biochar
4%- Biochar
4%- Compost
4%- Compost
4%- Compost
The field experiment involving compost and biochar application was established in May and
Pioneer 573-grain corn variety was planted. Plant height, stem diameter and spad measurements
were determined during the developmental period (Figure 1). Plant height was measured from the
base of the shoot to the tip of the highest leaf using a meter. Plant stem diameter was measured with
the help of a caliper. Leaf spad value was measured with a portable spad meter (SPAD-502,
Konica-Minolta, Japan). The grain yield was calculated by taking the average of the grains counted
from 10 cobs after being dried.
Figure 1: Developmental period in which growth parameters were measured
38
Figure 2: Period when Spad measurements were measured
3. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
Based on the findings of this field study, it was seen that different doses of compost and
biochar significantly affected the growth parameters of the maize. Compared with the control, a
significant increase of 15 and 34% in plant height at 2 and 4% doses of applied compost was
respectively observed (Figure 3). However, there was no statistically significant difference in
biochar applications compared to the control (Figure 3). It is known that biochar obtained from
plant wastes has less nutrient contents than that produced from animal wastes, but it has been
suggested that biochar obtained from plant wastes has a long-term effects within the soil system
(Singh et al., 2010; Aslam et al., 2014). The effects of biochar on plant growth was found to be less
than that of compost . It was found that 2 and 4% doses of biochar
and compost applications increased stem diameter compared to the control, and the maximum
applied doses-4% of the both biochar and compost significantly increased stem diamter by 41%
and 60%, respectively (Figure 4) and our results are in line with (Inal et al., 2015). Leaf spad value
measured with a portable spad meter experienced a downward trend under biochar applications
compared to the control. This is probably due to the sorption effects of biochar and also the
resistance of biochar to microbial activities, thereby slowly releasing nutrients (Zimmerman, 2010).
Spad value is a value that positively correlates with leaf chlorophyll content. The green hue in
plants is directly related to the nitrogen content (Minotta ve Pinzauti, 1996). In compost
applications, as the dose increases compared to the control, the spad value increased (Figure 5).
Compost applications were the most effective on increasing corn grain yield. Based on to the
statistical analysis, the highest grain yield was found in the following order: compost-4% >
biochar-4% > compost- 2% > biochar-2% > control (Figure 6). It was seen that compost presented
the highest effects over bichar due its high mineralization rate. However, due to the crystalline
graphic layer of biochar, the residence time of biochar in the soil is 10-1000 times more than that of
other organic materials (Atkinson et al., 2010). By considering the environmental benefits of
biochar in sequestering carbon and reducing greenhouse gas emissions, it is highly recommended
for sustainable agricultural production (Atkinson et al., 2010; Vaccari et al., 2011; Liang et al.,
2014).
39
Figure 3. The effects of compost and biochar
on plant height (cm).
Figure 4. The effects of compost and biochar
on stem diameter (mm).
Figure 5. The effects of compost and biochar
on the spad values(spad unit).
Figure 6. The effect of biochar and compost
applications on the grain yield of corn plant(kg
da-1)
0
50
100
150
200
250
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
d
c
ab b
a
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
40
Figure 7. Increase in size of corn cobs versus increasing dose
4. CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the study, the compost and biochar applications showed significant effects on
improving crop performance and yield. It was found that the highest applied doses of compost and
biochar, respectively increased yield by 284.2% and 147.4%, and also the effects of the applications
on other measured plant parameters were statistically significant (p <0.05). Compost has significant
effects on crop growth and yield over biochar in short-term as its mineralization rate is higher than
that of biochar, however, the effects of biochar could be more than that of compost in the long term.
Considering the fact that 1 year of experiment is not enough to contrast the effects of compost and
biochar applications on crop performance and yield, long-term study involving compost and biochar
application is recommended for conclusive results.
5. REFERENCES
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Inal, A., Gunes, A., Sahin, O., Taskin, M. ve Kaya, E., 2015, Impacts of biochar and processed poultry
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41
Kacar, B., 2009, Toprak analizle
Liang, X.-Q., Ji, Y.-J., He, M.-M., Su, M.-M., Liu, C. ve Tian, G.-M., 2014, Simple N balance assessment
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Plant Analysis, 45 (9), 1247-1258.

growth in a calcareous soil, Journal of Plant Nutrition, 43 (20), 3002-3019.
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nutrient use efficiency of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) seedlings, Forest Ecology and Management, 86
(1-3), 61-71.
Sanchez-Monedero, M. A., Cayuela, M. L., Sanchez-pez, G.,
-             
biochar, compost and biochar-blended compost across different cropping systems: Perspective from
the European project FERTIPLUS, Agronomy, 9 (5), 225.
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application as a soil amendment, Soil Research, 48 (7), 516-525.
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a strategy to sequester carbon and increase yield in durum wheat, European Journal of Agronomy,
34 (4), 231-238.
Zimmerman, A. R., 2010, Abiotic and microbial oxidation of laboratory-produced black carbon (biochar),
Environmental Science & Technology, 44 (4), 1295-1301.
42
CHANGES IN SOIL CARBON MINERALIZATION UNDER THE
EFFECTS OF FUNGICIDE CYPRODINIL

Department of Biology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Cukurova University, Adana, Turkey
*Corresponding author: bkocak@cu.edu.tr
Abstract
Soil organic carbon mineralization refers to the overall processes by which microorganisms
mineralize soil organic C and release it in the form of CO2. A short term experiment was carried out
to ascertain the effects of different recommended doses (RD) of fungicide cyprodinil [0 (Control),
10.7 (RD), 21.4 (RD x2) and 42.9 mg/ kg soil (RD x4)] on soil carbon mineralization using an
agricultural soil. Soil was sampled from Research Farm of Faculty of Agriculture in Cukurova
University (Adana, Turkey) in June 2018. This soil had no history of cyprodinil usage. After the
determination of some soil physical and chemical properties, soils were humidified at 80% of field
2
respiration was measured during the following days of incubation: 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 23, 30, 37 and
42. Cumulative carbon mineralizations (mg C(CO2)/ 100 g soil) were in the range between 68.56
(Control) and 79.20 (RD x4) while their rates were in between 3.78% (Control) and 4.37% (RD x4)
at the end of incubation period. All doses of cyprodinil significantly increased carbon
mineralization (P<0.05). Stimulations of microbial activity by doses of fungicide cyprodinil were
9.9% for RD, 10.5% for RD x2 and 15.5%  s suggested that microorganisms in this
soil may positively mineralize both recommended field dose of fungicide cyprodinil and its higher
doses.
Keywords: Fungicide, Aminopyrimidine, Cyprodinil, Soil microbial activity, Soil carbon
mineralization
INTRODUCTION
Pesticides are the important chemical compounds that are being used in agricultural systems
for protection of crops from pests including weeds, insects etc. Pesticides are usually applied for
many times during one crop season and a part of these chemicals always enter to the soil. Many
problems including the pollution of the environment have been created by the wide usage of
pesticides (Arora and Sahni, 2016). The effects of pesticides on soil microorganisms are depend on
physical, chemical and biochemical conditions, in addition to nature and concentration levels of the
pesticides (Aurelia, 2009; Sethi et al., 2013). In many studies, it was shown that microorganisms are
capable to grow and maintain their lives in the presence of several commercial pesticides. If a soil
microorganism can use the pesticide as a carbon and energy source, then catabolism and
detoxification metabolism may occur. Most pesticides work by poisoning pests (Arora and Sahni,
2016).In general, a systemic pesticide moves inside a plant following the absorption of plant. This
movement is often upward (through xylem) and outward with most fungicides (Shinde et al., 2015)
Cyprodinil was first applied on cereals in France in 1993. This fungicide has been used on
cereals, vegetables, fruits, field crops and ornamental plants as foliar application (Waechter et al.,
2010). Products contain cyprodinil were marketed in most European countries, in North America
and in Japan. Cyprodinil was also used in control of pathogen fungi like Pseudocercosporella
herpotrichoides, Erysiphe spp., Pyrenophora teres, Rhynchosporium secalis, Septoria nodorum,
Botrytis spp., Alternaria spp., Venturia spp., and Monilinia spp. (Waechter et al., 2010).
43
Formulations used in foliar applications were as WG (water dispersible molecules) or EC
(emulsifiable concentrates) type.
Cyprodinil was identified as a inhibitor of methionine biosynthesis in liquid cultures of
Botrytis cinerea. It was reported that pathway of cystathionine in filamentous fungi like Neurospora
grassa and Aspergillus nidulans has been established as the the major route of homocysteine and
methionine biosynthesis (Yamagata, 1989). In this -
lyase that synthesize cystathionine from homocysteine (Fritz et al., 1997; Masner et al., 1994).
Secondary target of cyprodinil was the secretion system of plant cell wall degrading enzymes in
pathogenic fungi. It is believed that these enzymes have an important role in the early periods of
plant infection and penetration of plant tissues by fungi mycelium was inhibited in the absence of
secretion of these enzymes (Milling & Richardson, 1995; Miura et al., 1994).
Soil microbial activities are critical in decomposition of processes (Cernohlavkova et al.,
2009). However, intensive applications of chemicals used in agriculture negatively influence on
these processes in many soils. Stability and productivity of soil ecosystems depend largely on soil
microorganisms and their activity. For this reason, determination of side effects of pesticides on soil
microbial communities is very critical for soil health. Carbon mineralization is an important
parameter that adopted in international guidelines for ecological risk assessment and standard tests
of pesticides and other chemicals (OECD, 2000). After pesticide applications, there were several
studies that soil carbon mineralization was increased in field and laboratory experiments (Das &
Mukherjee, 2000; Monkiedje et al., 2002). Carbon mineralization (Cmin) is an age-old reliable
method for studying microbial activities in soil. Changes in carbon mineralization have also been
used as criteria for pesticide toxicity (Tors
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of cyprodinil on soil C mineralization.
Recommended field dose (as it was written its etiquette, RD) and its 2 (RD x2) and 4 (RD x4) folds
of cyprodinil was mixed with an agricultural soil and CO2 
42 days. It was hypothesized that fungicide cyprodinil would increase soil carbon mineralization.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil Characterization
Soil samples that were not previously exposed to fungicide cyprodinil were collected from the
top layer (0-10 cm) in Research Farm of Faculty of Agriculture in Cukurova University in Adana,
             level) in June 2018.
Immediately after collection, soil samples were taken to the laboratory in dark plastic bags,
homogenized, air-d to 2 mm to remove plant tissue and subjected to
physicochemical characterization.
Soil texture was determined with a Bouyoucos hydrometer. Soil pH was measured in mud
saturated with distilled water (1:2.5) using a WTW Inolab 720 pH meter. The CaCO3 contents of
the soils were estimated with a Scheibler calcimeter. The organic carbon and total nitrogen contents
of the samples (%) were determined with the modified Walkley-Black and Kjeldahl methods,
respectively (Kacar, 2009). The field capacity (FC) of soils (%) were determined with a vacuum
pump with 1/3 atmospheric pressure (Kacar, 2009).
Incubation Experiment
Soil samples (100 g) were placed in 750 ml incubation vessels and mixed with and without
fungicide cyprodinil (300 EC) at the recommended field dose and its 2 and 4 folds [0 (Control),
10.7 (RD), 21.4 (RD x2) and 42.9 mg/ kg soil (RD x4)]. The amount used in RD treatment was the
recommended field rate for cyprodinil (300 g active ingredient/l) that was written its etiquette with
the assumption that the soil weight was 1.4 x 106 g/da at the effective soil depth of 1 mm. Three
replicates were used for each treatments and control. Empty vessels were used as blanks. The final
moisture contents of both soils were adjusted to 80% of their own field capacity before incubation
     er was added to the soil to
compensate for any water loss. CO2 derived from microbial activities was absorbed in 10 ml 1 M
NaOH solution in bechers, placed in the center of the soils in closed incubation vessels, and then
44
transferred to a dark incubator. The amount of CO2 produced was measured by titration with
hydrochloric acid in the following days of incubation: 1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 16, 23, 30, 37, 42 (Alef, 1995).
Cumulative carbon mineralization (mg C(CO2)/100 g soil) was calculated by summing up all CO2
measured days until end of incubation period while its rate was calculated by dividing cumulative
mineralized C by its soil organic C of control and all applications for 42 days.
Statistical Analysis
Tukey honestly significant difference (HSD) in analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
performed to determine the differences between treatments in soil carbon mineralization
(Kleinbaum, 1998). All of the tests were performed at the significance level of P<0.05. Statistical
analysis was carried out using the SPSS v20.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Some soil physical and chemical properties of soil sampled from Research Farm of Cukurova
University were given in Table 1. Soil was classified as loam and slightly basic. Soil organic carbon
and total nitrogen were 1.81 (%) and 0.163 (%), respectively (Table 1). Soil carbon/nitrogen ratio
was 11.20 (Table 1).
Table 1. Some physical and chemical properties of soil
Soil Characteristics
Sand (%)
41,90
0,06
Silt (%)
32,90
0,06
Clay (%)
25,20
0,10
Texture
Loam
Field Capacity (%)
24,52
0,06
pH
7,89
0,03
CaCO3 (%)
41,80
0,84
C (%)
1,81
0,01
N (%)
0,163
0,008
C/N
11,20
0,55
The effects of fungicides on microbial processes and soil microorganisms depend on many
factors. Some of major factors include physical, chemical and biological properties (such as organic
matter, pH, temperature and humidity) of soil and nature and dose of the fungicides applying and its
time (Vyas, 1988; Chen et al., 2001).
Carbon mineralization is an important parameter for determining the side effects of pesticides
(Sommerville, 1987; Alef, 1995). Soil carbon mineralizations (mg C(CO2)/100 g soil) were in the
range between 3.92 and 10.18 for control, between 4.58 and 10.18 for RD, between 3.66 and 10.99
for RD x2 and between 1.22 and 11.20 for RD x4 (Figs. 1-2). In general, all doses of cyprodinil
increased carbon mineralization in whole experiment. Significant differences between control and
RD were found on 6.day and 37.day (P<0.05) and this data were similar between control and RD x2
(Fig.1 and Fig.2). No significant differences were found between RD and RD x2 except on 42.day.
Carbon mineralization under RD x4 dose were significantly higher than control in all measured
days except on 12.day and 42.day (P<0.05, Figs 1-2).
45
Figure 1. Soil carbon mineralizations between 1.day and 12.day   
n=3, a, b and c indicate significant differences between means (P<0.05)]
Figure 2. Soil carbon mineralizations between 16.day and 42.day 
n=3, a, b and c indicate significant differences between means (P<0.05)]
Liu et al. (2011) compared the half-lives of cyprodinil (50% WG) in soil under field and
greenhouse conditions at the dosage of 1,080 g active ingredient ha-1 and reported that pesticide
cyprodinil degrades faster under greenhouse condition (6.5 days) than field condition (12.5 days)
either in soil. Same authors indicated that the temperature and humidity were at almost fixed level
(temperature of 2580% according to the experimental record) under the
greenhouse condition. These results corralete within our research data. These experiments indicated
that cyprodinil may be used as an energy source for soil microorganisms.
The previous studies about cyprodinil were mainly focused on its residues analysis, bound
residue formation, photo-degradation in aqueous solution, and biosynthesis of reference standards
by microorganisms (Munitz et al., 2013, Dec et al., 1997, Kang et al., 2002, Fenoll et al., 2011,
cb
a
b
a
bc ab
b
b
a
ab a
b
ab
a
aa
b
b
a
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 3 6 9 12
Soil C mineralization [(mg C(CO2)
100 g-1 soil)]
Days
Control
RD
RD x2
RD x4
b
b
b
ca
ab
b
ab b
a
a
b
ab b
b
a
a
ab
c
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
16 23 30 37 42
Soil C mineralization [(mg C(CO2) 100
g-1 soil)]
Days
Control
RD
RD x2
RD x4
46
Chen et al., 2016). Although biodegradation of cyprodinil has been reported by Schocken et al.
(Schocken et al., 1997), almost no literature is available about the effects of cyprodinil on soil
carbon mineralization. Results of the current study indicated that recommended field dose and its 2
and 4 folds of cyprodinil enhanced ratio of C mineralization in this agricultural soil.
Cumulative carbon mineralizations (mg C(CO2)/100 g soil) were in the range between 68.56
(Control) and 79.20 (RD x4) at the end of incubation period (Fig. 3). All doses of cyprodinil
significantly increased soil carbon mineralizations compared to control (P<0.05). In contrast, there
were found no significant differences between RD and RD x2. Increased percentage of soil carbon
mineralizations were 9.9% for RD, 10.5% for RD x2 and 15.5 for RD x4 compared to control (Fig.
3).
Incubation Period (Days)
010 20 30 40 50
Cumulative carbon mineralization (mg C(CO2) 100 g-1 soil)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Control
RD
RD x2
RD x4
Figure 3. Cumulative carbon mineralizations of control and doses of fungicide cyprod 

Carbon mineralization rates until 30.day, 37.day and 42.day were given in Figure 4. These
rates were in between 3.3% (Control) and 3.8% on 30.day, between 3.5 (Control) and 4.3% on
37.day and between 3.8% (Control) and 4.4% (RD x4) (Fig. 4). In all these days, all cyprodinil
doses significantly increased the rate of soil carbon mineralization compared to control (P<0.05,
Fig. 4).
47
Figure 4. Rate of soil carbon mineralizatiorol and doses
of fungicide cyprodinil [a, b and c represent significant differences between dosages (P<0.05)]
Application of fungicides for certain purpose on soil can kill or inhibit the target and non-
target microorganisms. This event could lead to an immediate inhibition of important reactions such
as enzyrne reactions, microbial respiration and mineralization. However, the dead microorganisms
or fungicides, might serve as a substrate for the other living microorganisms in the beginning. So,
they can be released from competition with fungi or antagonistic inhibition via substances produced
by fungi. These effects could lead to a rapid flush of microorganism activity would be likely to
increase the rates of mineralization of carbon from organic materials in the soil (Uyanoz et al.
2005). Uyanoz et al. (2005) mixed three fungicides with a silty soil at four concentrations [captan,
0, 100, 200, 400 mg active ingredient (a.i.) kg-1; quintozene 0, 36, 72, 144 mg a.i. kg-1 and
propamocarb hydrochloride 0, 144, 288, 576 mg a.i. L-1] and found that these fungicides decreased
soil respiration primarily during the first eight days, but then it started rising toward the end of the
incubation.
CONCLUSIONS
   recommended field dose of fungicide cyprodinil (300 EC) significantly
increased carbon mineralization in a loamy soil. In addition, there were generally no significant
differences between RD and RD x2 doses. Significant increase of rate of carbon mineralization in
the loamy soil was highest at the dosage of RD x4 in whole experiment. These results may give a
suggestion of reasonable and safe use of the pesticide cyprodinil. However, for further
confirmation, effects of high recommended doses of cyprodinil on soil microorganisms should be
investigated more comprehensively to eliminate its possible side effects in soil.  
suggested that the further researches require the trials with soils having different organic matter,
texture and pH and with more fungicides type, dose and incubation period under laboratory,
greenhouse and field conditions.
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49
INITIAL EVALUATION OF THE PRODUCTIVITY AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A SELECTED KYRGYZ
CASHMERE GOAT BREEDING FLOCK
Carol Kerven1, Joaquin P Mueller2 , Bruce A McGregor 3, Sabyr Toigonbaev4
1. Anthropology Department, University College London (UCL), London, UK and Odessa Centre Ltd., Great
Wolford, UK
2. National Institute for Agricultural Technology (INTA), Bariloche 8400, Argentina
3.Institute for Frontier Materials, Deakin University, Geelong, Victoria 3220, Australia
4. Tuvet Cashmere , Kyrgyzstan.
Abstract
Cashmere production offers a new source of income for remote farmers in Central Asia where goats
have long been raised. Between 2008-2018 we established a selected breeding flock to preserve, assess and
improve the economic and genetic potential of cashmere-bearing indigenous goats in Kyrgyzstan. The flock
was managed in an enhanced traditional system by a local shepherd in the mountainous region of Osh
Province. Significant effects of year, age and the sex of goats affected cashmere weight, while year and age
of goat affected cashmere length and year affected cashmere fiber diameter. The best statistical model
explained about 60% of the variation in both cashmere weight and length and about 30% of the variation in
fiber diameter. No particular measurement year trend could be detected for any trait. Between years,
cashmere weight varied between 103-150 g, fiber diameter between 15.8-17.6 m and length between 32-48
mm. Males produced more cashmere than females with no difference between sex in diameter or length.
Cashmere weight was constant between ages 1-4 years before declining progressively from about 144 g to 90
g at age 6 years. Given the harsh winter environment, remote conditions, and limited research resources, data
for some years is missing. No genetic trend could be calculated with the information currently available.
Key words: Coat color, Indigenous goats, Fiber diameter, Fiber length, Genetic improvement
INTRODUCTION
Kyrgyzstan is a mainly mountainous country in Central Asia, which was part of the Soviet Union in
the 20th century until 1991 (Anderson 2013). Raising livestock, including native goats, has long been the
principal economic activity in the rural upland regions (van Veen 1995). Kyrgyz farmers were collectivized
into state farms during the Soviet era and several new goat fiber breeds were introduced to some state
collective farms (Ajibekov and Almeyev 2008). Following the collapse of the USSR and managed state
farms, Kyrgyz farmers now keep goats mainly for home meat consumption and sale to local markets (Kerven
and Toigonbaev 2010). The production and sale of cashmere from indigenous goats has not previously been
viewed by Kyrgyz farmers as a source of income (Kerven 2011). International cashmere companies from
Europe as well as from China have been buying greasy cashmere from farmers in Kyrgyzstan at least since
the late 1990s, with almost no recording or surveillance by the Kyrgyz authorities (Kerven et al. 2005).
Producing and selling non-perishable and high value products like cashmere offers livestock-keepers in
remote locations of Kyrgyzstan a new source of sustainable recurrent income, following the loss of state
farm employment in the 1990s (Kerven 2011).
From a genetic and animal production perspective, following goat domestication some 10,000 years
before present in Iran (Colli et al 2018; Naderi et al 2008), goats were dispersed eastwards across the
Eurasian steppe to Mongolia and northern China (Amills et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2018). However, there is a
dearth of objective information on the potential production and the physical properties of cashmere from the
Kyrgyz indigenous goats. The last review of Kyrgyz goats (Ajibekov and Almeyev 2008) was based on data
recorded more than two decades earlier in USSR.
There is a great risk that the genetic resources of endemic Kyrgyz goats may disappear due to
continued uncontrolled cross-breeding with goats producing mohair-type or cashgora-type fiber (McGregor
50
2000). Loss of the prospective commercial value of the down-producing Kyrgyz indigenous goat would also
be an economic cost for the nation, given the rising interest among buyers from China, and more recently
from Europe and USA, in sourcing cashmere from Kyrgyzstan, and the ensuing economic benefit to poorer
Kyrgyz villagers.
Given this situation, the first step in conserving the Kyrgyz indigenous goats was to investigate the
sources of variation contributing to the production and quality of cashmere produced from Kyrgyz goats
raised by farmers (McGregor et al. 2009). The results from 760 goats sampled in five mountainous districts
(two different regions) of southern Kyrgyzstan showed that there were farms and cashmere goats in the
sampled districts which produce cashmere equal to the finest qualities of commercial cashmere produced in
China and Mongolia. The work indicated the scope to increase the production and commercial value of
cashmere produced by Kyrgyz goats.
The next step was to preserve and selectively breed these goats. Consequently, the decision was made
to create a development flock based on the most promising cashmere goats which had been sampled in that
study (McGregor et al. 2009). In the absence of any government-led project, a selected development flock
was established in 2008 under private management by a British anthropologist (Kerven) and a Kyrgyz
livestock scientist (Toigonbaev). This flock has been maintained privately up to the present day, under the
management of a Kyrgyz NGO.
The aim of the selected development flock is to preserve, assess and improve the economic and
genetic potential of cashmere-bearing goats raised by farmers in Osh Province in southern Kyrgyzstan. The
ultimate objective is to increase incomes for poorer Kyrgyz villagers by breeding selected elite bucks, to be
promoted and sold to local farmers. This report provides the first assessment of the cashmere.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Selection of foundation goats
Goats were selected from two districts (Alai and Chon Alai) in Osh Province with the highest
cashmere res
(McGregor et al. 2009). The first 28 goats were purchased in September 2008 at above-market prices
(around $50 USD each) from itude range 1,540 to 3,200 m.a.s.l.). The total
sampled population in the five districts had been 958 females and 65 males from 156 flocks (including
castrates) (McGregor et al 2009). The purchases were bought from 16 farh
goats had been sampled. These purchases represented 2.5% of the total tested sample of females, purchased
from 25% of sampled villages. The average cashmere MFD of goats bought from these 13 villages ranged
between 14.4 
In this first purchasing round no attention was paid to coat color. Coat colors of the 28 goats in the
foundation flock were: 13 black (46%), 9 white (32%), and the remainder red, brown or buff colored. In
comparison, the freq
was: 40% black, 29% white and the remainder grey, brown, red or buff. In spring 2009 the two original black
sire bucks bought in September 2008 were exchanged for two white sire bucks.

second cashmere goat village assessment was undertaken in 2014 for a Swiss-funded rural development
project in the same two districts of Alai and Chon Alai of Osh region in which the earlier 2008 cashmere
assessment had been carried out. The 2014 study sampled 387 village goats (364 adult females and 23 adult
males) in 81 flocks belonging to farmers in 27 villages. The sample was stratified by proportionate allocation
using a sampling fraction in each of the strata (districts) proportional to the total official population of goats
in these two districts. Between 2-4 flocks were sampled in each village with up to seven goats sampled per
flo
ranging from 15.1-
The breeding flock had a further influx of goats selected from the results of this second cashmere goat
assessment. In autumn 2014, 14 females and 2 bucks with the lowest MFD test results, and mostly white-
coated, were purchased and added to the selected flock. At the same time, 20 males and females were culled
from selected flock which had MFD    d poor body conformation or body
growth. The selected newly-purchased goats represented 4% of the sampled village goats from 20% of flocks
and 37% of villages sampled in 2014.
51
Environment descriptions
The foundation flock was first kept in Korul village in Alai district by a shepherd family, but later the
flock was moved to Joshulo village in the same district. The altitude of both these villages is around 1,600
m.a.s.l. These mountain villages consist of mixed crop and livestock small-scale farms, and are in the same
type of environment as the source villages from which the foundation flock was obtained. The nearest town
is Gulcha  , about 1.5 hours distant from the flock location.
The mountain villages where the flock was kept have cold winters, with snow from late November to
early March. The average annual temperature is          

temperature of --  -ecipitation is 501 mm.
The wettest month is May with an average of 90 mm of precipitation and the driest month is September with
an average of 16 mm of precipitation. Most days have some sunshine, averaging 8 hours in January and 15
hours in July (Weatherspark 2019).
Management of the selected flock

basic principles of Kyrgyz mountain livestock husbandry were followed, with the addition of controlled
mating, better quality (i.e. more expensive) winter feed, some barn upgrading for insulation and warmth, plus
regular supervision and record-keeping by the 2-person flock management team (Toigonbaev and Kerven).

foothills surrounding villages during spring (March to May), when new vegetation emerges after winter, and
grazed there again in autumn (September to November) after village crops were harvested in summer.
               
taken to a high mountain pasture area, above 2,000 m.a.s.l. where the shepherd family would stay in a yurt
and tend their livestock. This pattern follows the standard Kyrgyz system for livestock management in the
mountains (Van Veen 1995; Farrington 2005). However, in the case of the selected flock, the summer
              
prevented the risk of random mating of the selected females with unknown bucks. The summer alpine
vegetation at the higher altitudes provides optimal nut
Borchardt 2012). Adult females come into estrus by the end of summer and were mated in the field with the
selected bucks. After the first snow falls and temperatures drop in late November, the goats were kept inside
-
March in the barn. Over winter, the goats received daily rations of purchased hay harvested from local
meadows, and a high-protein supplement of maize, barley and sunflower or cotton seed. Routine
vaccinations were administered by local veterinarians, and the shepherds were also given anti-parasite
medicines to apply on the goats. Not all village goat-owners follow these practices.
Animal and fiber production assessments

their ears. The dam of each kid was recorded. Raw cashmere production was determined by combing the
moulting down fiber in April and weighed by the flock manager, Toigonbaev, on an electronic scale with 5 g
gradations. Coat color was subjectively assessed into 6 colors for all kids born live. All non-white males
were castrated and culled soon after weaning when they began sexual maturity. Only older, sick, weak and
non-white females were culled every year.
Fiber samples were collected from the flock for nine years (2009-2018) and analyzed by several
international animal fiber laboratories. Cashmere MFD were determined by testing raw fiber samples using
the Optimal Fibre Distribution Analyser (OFDA2000) following international guidelines (Marler and Baxter
2004) using a fiber diameter cut-            
technique MNS 4054:2007 on hand dehaired combed samples.
Data editing and statistical analyses
The analyses include data from foundation does, and all subsequent progeny. Four sires in succession
 year old. One black sire
was init
52
Undertaking pedigree recording and measurements in remote regions with limited resources was challenging.
Consequently, records for some of the main traits are missing in some years. A total of 295 animals and 477
records were available, the difference being repeated measurements over time of the same animalRepeated
measurements were assumed to be uncorrelated and treated as independent information. Age at measurement
was calculated as the difference between measurement year and birthyear. Missing age at measurement was
assumed to be 3 years (3 cases out of 295). Animals above 6 years of age (10 cases out of 295) were set to 6
years of age. Overall means and distribution statistics were calculated for fiber traits and additional
information on liveweights. Analysis of variance was performed using a mixed linear model (Mixed
Procedure of SAS 2008). Least square means were determined for cashmere weight, MFD and length with a
model including as fixed effects:
year of measurement (2009-2018); birth_type (single, twin); sex (male, female);
age (1-6); and sire (22, 47, 827, 831, 1214, unknown sire of introduced does).
Probabilities below 5% were considered to be statistically significant. Pearson correlations between traits
were calculated using the residuals of the previous model. Sire progeny color frequencies were calculated
and tested against chi-square expected values.
RESULTS
Fixed effects on physical properties
Overall measurement statistics are in Table 1 and the results of the analyses of variance in Table 2.
The statistical model explained about 60% of the variation in both cashmere weight and length and about
30% of the variation in MFD. For MFD, other unconsidered factors are therefore responsible for most of the
observed variation. Year of measurement affected all traits. Cashmere weight was also affected by sex and
age, and age also affected cashmere length. Birth_type did not affect any trait. While the significance of sire
differences was more important for cashmere weight than for MFD and length, it was still not statistically
significant (P = 0.06) (Table 2).
Table 1: Number of records, mean, standard deviation (SD) and ranges of fiber and liveweight characteristics
in the breeding flock.
Trait
N
Mean
SD
min
max
Cashmere weight, g
168
125
38
30
274

250
16.3
1.3
12.8
23.1
Length, mm
109
37.9
10.6
13.1
70.0
Male yearling MFD
Female yearling MFD
18
37
15.6
15.9
1.20
1.07
14.0
14.3
18.5
19.2
Table 2: Statistical significance (probability of F statistic) of fixed effects and variance accounted for by the
model (R2) for cashmere physical properties.
Effect
Cashmere weight
Mean fiber diameter
Length
Info_year
<0.0001
<0.0001
<0.0001
Sex
<0.0001
0.61
0.39
Age
0.0001
0.06
0.02
Sire
0.06
0.09
0.61
Birth_type
0.69
0.65
0.60
R2
0.57
0.28
0.59
Physical properties of cashmere
The results of physical properties of cashmere (Table 3) have to be considered in relation to effect
significance of Table 3. No particular measurement year trend can be detected for any trait. Between years,
53
cashmere weight varied between 103-150 g, MFD varied between 15.8-17.6 m and length between 32-48
mm. Males produced more cashmere than females with no difference between sex in diameter or length.
Cashmere weight was constant between ages 1-4 years before declining progressively from about 144 g to 90
g at age 6 years. A decline in cashmere length with age may also have occurred. MFD was finest for age 1
year and coarsest for age 6 years but the effect of age was not significant (P = 0.06). Sire 831 produced
progeny with the highest cashmere weight and with the finest cashmere. As expected, an unfavorable
correlation was found between cashmere length and MFD (r = 0.40, P < 0.0001). Correlations between
cashmere weight and MFD were not significant (r = -0.04, P = 0.68). The correlation between cashmere
weight and length were slightly positive (r = 0.25, P = 0.06).
Tabl
and length.
Effect
Level
Cashmere weight, g
Mean fiber diameter,
m
Length, mm
Measurement year
2009
150
11
15.8
0.4
2010
127
10
15.6
0.4
48
4
2012
149
10
16.5
0.3
36
3
2013
16.9
0.3
2014
17.6
0.3
2015
103
9
15.9
0.3
2016
128
9
2017
16.2
0.3
32
2
2018
16.1
0.6
42
4
Birth type
Single
128
6
16.3
0.2
39
2
Twin
134
14
16.4
0.4
40
4
Sex
Female
115
7
16.3
0.2
38
2
Male
147
11
16.4
0.3
40
3
Age
1
141
7
15.8
0.2
41
2
2
143
9
16.4
0.3
45
3
3
144
10
16.4
0.3
42
3
4
146
10
16.4
0.3
33
4
5
124
11
16.2
0.4
37
4
6
90
14
16.9
0.4
39
4
Sire
22
129
10
16.2
0.3
43
4
47
114
11
16.1
0.4
40
5
827
144
12
16.8
0.4
39
4
831
143
13
15.7
0.4
38
4
1214
115
13
16.8
0.4
38
4
unknown
141
8
16.4
0.3
40
3
54
Cashmere coat colors
Table 4 provides the color frequency of progeny from a selection of sires used in the flock. Observed
color frequencies differed from expected frequencies (Chi-squared significant at P < 0.0001) but the results
should be taken with caution since more than half the cells have less than 5 counts. For two white bucks (22,
47) about one third of offspring were white. For two white_black bucks (831, 1214) about half of the
offspring were white. All of the bucks in Table 4 except buck 831 produced brown, grey and red kids (n =
16). These results indicate a priori a rather complex pattern of coat color inheritance and a long selection
process to fix the desired white coat color in the flock.
Table 4. Coat color frequency in progeny of sires (n, % of progeny)
Sire tag (own color)
White
White_black
Black
Brown
Grey
Red
Total
22, white (n)
(%)
18
4
22
6
5
0
55
33
7
40
11
9
0
100
47, white (n)
(%)
18
5
15
5
4
3
50
36
10
30
10
8
6
100
827, white (n)
(%)
4
2
24
2
0
4
36
11
6
67
6
0
11
100
831, white_black (n)
(%)
9
2
5
0
0
0
16
56
13
31
0
0
0
100
1214, white_black (n)
(%)
38
4
7
8
6
4
67
57
6
10
12
9
6
100
Unknown sire (n)
(%)
21
7
19
3
6
9
65
32
11
29
5
9
14
100
Total (n)
108
24
92
24
21
20
289
DISCUSSION
To fulfill our aim of the breeding flock, the flock has to be genetically superior, improving over years
and disseminate its genetic superiority in the region. Economic potential will be improved if traits of
economic value are genetically improved in the desired direction. Such traits are basically meat production,
cashmere weight and quality, and white color. Meat production can be improved by increasing reproduction
rate and liveweights or growth rates. In a harsh winter environment and among poorer farmers, this is a
problem since higher prolificacy increases kid mortality and higher liveweights increase feed requirements.
Increasing cashmere weight and quality is less dependent on feed supply and are much more heritable.
Studies in Iran found heritabilities for liveweights are 0.25-0.32 whereas heritabilities for fleece weight and
diameter are 0.42 and 0.49 respectively (Mueller et al. 2015a). In other words, liveweights (and
reproduction) are more dependent on environment than fiber traits.
This is particularly true for cashmere MFD which can be improved (reduced) without needing to
change the environment. In that sense the selected breeding flock was already established with superior
goats. Foundation goats selected in 2008 from the Alai and Chon Alai districts of Osh Province had an MFD
which ranged from 14.4  while random samples in some of the same villages and in the same year
had a clean combed yield  (McGregor et al. 2009). Similarly, goats added to the breeding
flock in 2014         
initial selection differentials indicate a promising start. No genetic trend since the establishment of the flock
could be calculated with the information currently available although the phenotypic trend is rather erratic,
starting with low MFD in the early years, increasing in the period 2013- and declining
again afterwards. This result is probably mainly due to environment effects perhaps related to relative
improvements in nutrition. Management changes, diseases and feed availability may contribute to such
fluctuations as cashmere physical properties do respond to changes in pastoral conditions and nutritional
55
management (McGregor 1992). er altitude pastures experienced decreasing precipitation
between 1960-2010, but a slight decrease in inter-annual variability (UNDP 2013). Since the end of the
USSR in 1991, village veterinarians lack modern training and supplies to treat diseases, while some winters
can be particularly cold.
Continuous improvement in the breeding flock is crucial because eventual customers for bucks from
the flock would soon reach an improvement plateau similar to the supplying breeding flock. To continue
improving, selection procedures must be efficient. Basically high selection differentials need to be achieved.
This requires high numbers of selection candidates, accurate identification of superior animals and replacing
inferior bucks with highly selected ones. From our results, variability (measured as standard deviation) of
MFD is not high but sufficient to achieve a reasonable genetic improvement. For example, MFD of 1-year
 he finest young buck would
yield a selection differential of -1  (14.0-15.6) which mated to average does and assuming a
heritability of 0.5 would have progeny averaging -  below the previous generation. Consistent
recording and selection would re selection.
In addition, screening and purchase of additional village breeding stock can further reduce MFD if desired.
Other traits of interest such as cashmere weight can also be improved along with reduction in MFD since the
genetic correlation between these traits is unfavorable but not very high (Mueller et al. 2015a). In fact
phenotypic correlation in the present data set resulted insignificantly different from zero. Cashmere length
would be more difficult to improve along with reducing diameter. If sufficient data are available, selection
indices could be constructed to maximize economic benefit from selection as were implemented in an Iranian
cashmere selection program (Mueller et al. 2015a).
Evaluation of cashmere goats between and within farms in Australia has identified indices which
incorporate cashmere staple length, MFD and cashmere weight in order to select on one metric (Butler and
McGregor 2014; McGregor and Butler 2015). One serious impediment to cashmere length measurement is
the cost and time of laboratory-based methods. Any length measurement which measures cashmere fiber
after a dehairing process (which results in a significant reduction of length) provides a confounding of
effects, such as variations in actual raw length, fiber strength, MFD or variations in processing (McGregor
and Butler 2008). It is suggested that using raw cashmere staple length is a rapid, cheap and effective method
of selecting and assessing cashmere production.
Colored cashmere is generally discounted 10-15% compared with the price for white cashmere with
similar MFD and fiber length. Thus, producing colored cashmere reduces fleece value but not to a great
extent while colored goats may have adaptive advantages in rangeland situations. As the initial selected flock
was founded with colored goats, which was reflective of the local village flocks, the results would be
expected to be typical of the progress to be obtained in future breeding programs at village level. As
mentioned, fixing white coat color in the breeding flock may take time and results of progeny coat color,
instead of only own phenotype, may be a more effective selection strategy. For example, the white_black
buck 1214 produced proportionally more white progeny and less black progeny than all other white bucks
evaluated (Table 4).
A final crucial requirement for the breeding flock to fulfil its aim is the dissemination of bucks in the
region. This will occur if bucks offered are attractive to village goat farmers willing to pay at least some of
the extra cost involved in producing them. To make an impact in the region the number of such bucks should
be high and the benefit in the progeny should be notable. There are several strategies to achieve
dissemination at community level (Mueller et al. 2015b). Clearly a substantial expansion of the selected
flock would be needed, probably with separate locations in a number of villages throughout the region. This
would engage more local farmers and allow the NGO more access to animals for training and selection
activities. More rigorous control and improvement of animal nutrition would be essential to improve
confidence and reliability in determining genetic progress. More thorough assessment of fleece and
bodyweight characteristics would be important to demonstrate the superiority of the selected bucks to local
farmers and avoid the likelihood, as experienced in the present investigation, of missing data in some years.
Since 2017 as a result of external support for inputs such as: barn upgrading; improved winter feeding;
shepherding costs and management fees, this selection work is being continued by the Kyrgyz NGO Tuvet
Cashmere. The flock has been enlarged to 250 selected adult white females and 50 selected adult white
males. Interest is growing among Kyrgyz farmers to acquire selected bucks from the NGO, in response to
several European and American firms increasingly investing in obtaining high quality Kyrgyz cashmere.
56
CONCLUSION
Over a 9-year period the productivity of a selected cashmere breeding herd was assessed in the
mountainous region of Osh Province in southern Kyrgyzstan. The best statistical model explained about 60%
of the variation in both cashmere weight and length and about 30% of the variation in fiber diameter. No
particular measurement year trend could be detected for any trait. Males produced more cashmere than
females with no difference between sex in diameter or length. Cashmere weight was constant between ages
1-4 years before declining progressively to age 6 years. While selecting superior foundation breeding does
was completed, the real challenge was monitoring and selecting superior sires in difficult field conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of Helvetas (Swiss development organization) Bai Alai
project in Kyrgyzstan, Sy Belohlavek of Osh Business and Training Centre, and GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft
to the maintenance of the development breeding flock. We also express
our appreciation to Roy Behnke, Cara Kerven Loomis, Tarvis Khaliapov, Elisabeth Katz, Asylbek
Abdikarimov, Imanaly Turkbaev, Peter Turner and Dorothy Boothroyd. Funding has been provided by Dr
Kerven, Dr McGregor and Sabyr Toigonbaev.
References
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Central Asia and the Caucasus(pp. 117-166,) ICARDA, Aleppo.
Butler K. L. and McGregor B. A. (2014). Indices for cashmere fleece competition and across farm comparisons: the role of staple
length in identifying goats of higher cashmere production. Small Ruminant Research 121,131-135.
. and Borchardt P. (2012). Changing systems, changing effects. Pasture utilization in the post-soviet transition: case studies
from southwestern Kyrgyzstan. Mountain Research and Development 32(3), 313-323.
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Peoples 9(1-2), 171-197.
Kerven C. K. (2011). New opportunities for improving livelihoods by marketing livestock products from Alay and Pamirs of
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan: high value cashmere from indigenous goats. In Pastoralism and rangeland management in mountain areas
in the context of climate and global change, ed. Kreutzmann et al. (pp.147-169) GIZ, Bonn.
Kerven C. (2005). Global Livestock Collaborative Research Support Program (USAID) Research Brief 05-01-WOOL
Kerven C. and Toigonbaev S. (2010). Cashmere from the Pamirs: Helping Mountain Farmers in Kyrgyzstan. In Adding value to
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McGregor B. A. (1992). The effect of supplementary feeding, seasonal pastoral conditions and live weight on cashmere production
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McGregor B. A. (2000). Recent advances in marketing and product development of mohair and cashmere. In Proceedings of the 7th
International Conference on Goats, eds. Tour. Gruner, L. and Chabert, Y. (pp. 631637). INRA Paris.
McGregor B. A. and Butler K. L. (2008). The effects of cashmere attributes on the efficiency of dehairing and dehaired cashmere
length. Textile Research Journal 78, 486-496.
McGregor B. A, Kerven C. and Toigonbaev S. (2009). Sources of variation contributing to production and quality attributes of
Kyrgyz cashmere in Osh and Naryn provinces. Small Ruminant Research 84, 89-99.
McGregor B. A. and Butler K. L. (2015). Indices for the identification of biologically productive cashmere goats within farms. Small
Ruminant Research 129, 11-17.
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Part 1: Accuracy and Precision Trials, IWTO CTF 01 May 2004, Evian.
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Research 129, 69-76.
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Mueller J. P. et al. (2015b). Community based livestock breeding programs: Essentials and examples. Journal of Animal Breeding
and Genetics 132, 155-168.
SAS (2008). 
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58
MAPPING ANATOLIAN STEPPE REGION AND ECOSYSTEM
TYPES BY USING EARTH OBSERVATION AND GIS
E. Aksoy1, S. Keskin2, C. Aktuz2, F. Bozdemir3, D. Muchoney1, A.K. Ozbek2
1 Geospatial Unit, NSL, FAO-UN, Rome, Italy
2 Ministry of Agriculture, Ankara, Turkey
3FAO-UN, Ankara, Turkey
_
Abstract
   y
rich flora and fauna composition; and they are extremely vulnerable ecosystems. Although there are
some preliminary studies about the steppe region, there was not sufficiently detailed map showing
the actual delineation of Anatolian steppe region and the different steppe types. Anatolian Steppe
map was produced mainly based on the Earth Observation data interpretation and was produced by
analyzing satellite imagery with the help of GIS technologies based on existing data (Forest stand
map, surface temperature, aridity/drought index, soil information, elevation, Geological formations,
vegetation indices (NDVI, EVI)) and interpretation of other sources. The mapping activity based
on convergence of the evidences approach which provided by the cost-effective, scientifically
sound and robust mapping techniques with the help of remote sensing technologies and GIS. The
signatures of the steppe region were analyzed and the final border of Anatolian steppe region was
predicted. The map both reveals the delineated border, including information about the different
dynamics of the homogeneous clusters, and also ecosystem types. Moreover, the impacts of land
cover changes between 2006 and 2012 and hot-spot analysis that considers several different aspects
of the threats and vulnerable areas of region were also analyzed and discussed in this study.
Therefore this study should be considered very important key output for the policy makers to build
the specific agricultural planning strategies for each of the regions by pointing out the exact
locations and to secure integrated management of natural resources in Anatolian steppe.
Keywords: Anatolian Steppe, Remote Sensing, GIS, Mapping, Ecosystem Types
INTRODUCTION
Although steppe ecosystems can provide invaluable ecosystem services to human being, as they
59
have not been perceived as a natural system with its own economic, social and ecological value,
these resources cannot be used in a sustainable and effective means. 
globally significant and uni          
known that the steppes are one of the most ecologically important systems in Turkey, they are also
extremely vulnerable ecosystems.
The Anatolian steppes are part of a larger Palearctic steppe biome that stretches from China to the
Mediterranean in more or less fragmented temperate grassland and forests (Wesche et al., 2
steppe ecosystems include pastures, meadows, grasslands and agriculture land. Steppe ecosystems are
prevalent in Eastern and Central Anatolia as well as the high mountains of the Aegean and Mediterranean
Regions. According to Werger (2012), there are four types of steppe in Turkey: the rare Gramineae steppes;
Malacophyll steppes; Tragaganthic steppes; Salty steppe. In central Turkey, patches of grasslands make up
the Central Anatolian Steppe ecoregion. On a high plateau surrounded by rugged mountains, the landscape
here is dotted with low plants, stunted bushes, and short grasses such as bunchgrass and other tuft-forming
grasses. The landscape surrounding this plateau is open and park-like, with grasslands interspersed with
scattered trees of 
 ding salt pans, salt lakes, and other wetlands. (WWF report, 2005). At the
broad level the steppe ecosystem of Central and Eastern Anatolia are important as areas for biodiversity, with
high levels of endemic species (Werger, 2012) in the upland plateaus and mountain areas and basins. The
Anatolian Steppes ecosystems may be characterized at differing levels of complexity and as semi-natural and
agro-ecosystems which have converted natural ecosystems at global, national and regional levels (Loveland
et. al. 2016). Within Turkey the biomes can be sub-divided into semi-natural and anthropogenic biomes
(Cureball et. al. (2015) and further divided into ecosystems. The steppe ecosystems range from the mountain
steppe, plain steppe, salt steppe of the mixed oak forest and savannah steppes. The Central Anatolian region
is classified predominantly as a dry steppe and to the north temperate broadleaf forest biomes (Kurschener
and Parolly (2012).
According to the available literature on Anatolian steppe region, different aspects are considered by
different articles (vegetation and land use (Senkul&Doga, 2013); flora-fauna (steppe-dependent
species (Ambarli et al., 2016) soil type (Aydogdu et al., 2004)). The existing steppe communities
have also been mapped by Gokcen et al (2011) on the basis of their moisture status, by lifeform and
morphological condition at a broad scale and original vegetation communities (Sekercioglu et al
2011), actually shows the major biomes rather than vegetation cover.
However, there was no common definition for the Anatolian steppe characteristics. Therefore, we
described the steppe area and describe the characteristics of Anatolian steppe in this definition
60
together with the experts and based on the literature survey. According to our definition; the
Anatolian steppe cover the secondary step formations resulting from anthropogenic effects with
primary step formations in the natural conditions dominated by the Mediterranean type continental
climate in the Iran-Turan plant belt. Primary steppe formations are more drought-prone, dry in
summer, rest in winter, with herbaceous plants, annual or perennial grains / grains, and in the form
of pillows, the main material is the marn-gypsum, which is composed of alkaline and saline soils;
and plain steppes are developed between 800-1200 meters in arid areas with an average annual
rainfall of less than 300 mm. Secondary steppe formations are mainly composed as a result of
anthropogenic effects mainly due to the destruction of the forest less than 10% tree cover of the
inner surface of the Anatolia; main geological materials are calcareous, siliceous (serpentine, dazite,
andesite, trachyte, basalt); at the forest rainfall zone; having the average annual rainfall between
300-500 mm semi-arid; and having the average annual rainfall between 500 -700 mm semi-arid and
semi-temperate areas; High mountain steppes at altitudes above 1200 m. Anatolian steppe
ecosystems are mainly agricultural ecosystems (dry and irrigated farming), meadow ecosystems
(grassland, pasture, pasture and irrigable meadows) and damaged forests that are outside the forest
borders and with less than 10% tree cover.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Anatolian Steppe map is produced by analyzing satellite imagery with the help of GIS technologies
based on existing data and also analyzes and interpretation of other new sources. The mapping
activity totally based on convergence of the evidences approach which provided by the cost-
effective, scientifically sound and robust mapping techniques with the help of remote sensing
technologies and GIS. The signatures of the steppe region that are based on several indicators are
analyzed and the final border that delineates the Anatolian steppe region is predicted.
Material
The material that are used in the study was prepared mainly based on the Earth Observation data
interpretation and was produced by analyzing satellite imagery with the help of GIS technologies
based on existing data, namely forest stand map, surface temperature (night and daytime), annual
rainfall, aridity/drought index, soil properties, elevation, geological formations, vegetation indices
(NDVI, EVI)) and interpretation of other sources such as soil biomass productivity potential, bio-
geographical regions, eco-regions, etc.. There are two kind of data set; primary variables and
auxiliary variables, and the detail information about the dataset can be find in the Table 1
(resolution, date and resource).
61
Table 1. Metadata information of the variables that are used in this study
Variable
Resolution
Date
Resource
Primary Variables
Aridity Index(P/ETP)
1 km raster;
1km raster;
Point data
1970-2000;
1975-2007;
2003-2018
WorldClim2 dataset;
Data from Meteorological
stations in Turkey;
National Geospatial Soil
Fertility and Soil Organic
Carbon Information System
Project, FAO
Forest mask
20 m raster
2015
EEA- Copernicus Product
EVI July-August vegetation
reflectance (MODIS 16-days
composites and Landsat7 32-
days composites)
500 m raster;
30 m raster
2003;
2004-2013
and 2017
Google Earth Engine
NDVI July-August
vegetation reflectance
(MODIS 16-days composites
and Landsat7 32-days
composites)
500 m raster;
30 m raster
2011;
2017
Google Earth Engine
Long-term averaged mean
annual surface temperature
(nighttime and daytime)
1 km raster
2003
SoilGrid250
Annual rainfall
1 km raster
1970-2000;
2003-2018;
1975-2007.
WorldClim2 dataset;
Data from Meteorological
stations in Turkey;
National Soil Organic Carbon
Project , FAO
Elevation
50 m raster
2015
National Soil Organic Carbon
Project , FAO
Auxiliary Variables
Soil properties
50 m raster;
Polygon
2015
1966-1971;
1982-1984
National Soil Organic Carbon
Project , FAO; and;
Salinity layer from BTG maps
by Sebahattin Keskin (MoAF)
Geological formations
50 m raster
2015
National Soil Organic Carbon
Project , FAO
Soil Biomass Productivity
Potential (croplands and
grasslands)
1 km
2013
ESDAC, JRC, 2016; Original
study of Toth et al., 2013
Bio-geographical regions
Polygon
2016
EEA
Eco-regions2017
Polygon
2017
UNBiodivesity Lab,
RESOLVE
62
Methodology
The general methodological approach to identify and characterize the Anatolian steppes can be find
in Figure 1 and the main layers that are used in this assessment have already given in the material
section. The delineation of the Anatolian steppe border was developed by mainly following below
steps;
1. All the layers that were used in the study were prepared for the analysis; raster remote
sensing images are downloaded, stored, projected, units are unified, and analyzed. Some of
the important applications are;
a. Up-to-date climatic data (point) coming from the meteorological stations is
interpolated and then integrated with the other raster layers.
b. Aridity index is calculated by using the integrated climatic data in raster format
c. MODIS and Landsat EVI layers are downloaded for July and August periods for
each year from the Google Earth Engine and the final layer is calculated by taking
the average of the raster layers
2. Raster layers were simplified by reclassifying into the certain thresholds and ranges as
described in the material section
3. All of the layers were overlaid by using Weighted Overlay in ArcGIS
4. The final raster layer obtained by overlaying analysis of the remote sensing images given in
the material section were converted to the final border polygon layer.
Figure 1. General methodology of Anatolian Steppe Map and Characterization
63
Figure 2. Some of the final layers which are ready to be overlaid
All analysis are performed in the GIS environment by using several tools and extension of the
ArcGIS 10.3 software. For downloading the remote sensing images, Google Earth Engine was used.
RESULTS
The areal coverage of Anatolian steppe is found as 32,101,226 hectare and %72 of the area has
300-500 mm average rainfall (Table 3) but %46 of the area has high soil biomass productivity
potential. Moreover, 68% of the area (21.795.338 ha) is found as semi-arid and 30% is dry-
subhumid (9.615.921 ha) while %51 of the land is dominated by agriculture and %39 of the land is
covered by herbaceous vegetation (pastures, grasslands, moors, sparsely vegetated areas, etc.)
according to the CORINE classification.
 out the delineated border,
but also it reveals the information about the different dynamics of the homogeneous clusters. There
are 20 different types of combinations, in another word, homogeneous clusters are found and the
biggest areal coverages are codes 222 (300-500mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 800-1200m
elevation), 223 (300-500mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 1200-5100m elevation) and 233 (300-
500mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 1200-5100m elevation) (Table 2)
64
Figure 3. The output of the overlaid raster layers (blue) and the final border (red)
The codes are explained as the combination of the three indicators consecutively; rainfall, climate
and elevation. For example; Code 121 has less than 300mm average rainfall, semi-arid region and
plain elevation mainly agriculture and grasslands, having salinity and overgrazing problem, but the
land has a high soil biomass productivity potential.
Figure 4. Anatolian steppe type map (3-digit codes integrate the 3 different characteristics
consecutively; rainfall, aridity and elevation)
65
Table 2. Description of the codes in Anatolian steppe map
Code
Areal
coverage
(ha)
Description of the Codes
Area
%
121
212,541
Less than 300mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 0-800m
elevation
0.66
122
1,063,903
Less than 300mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 800-1200m
elevation
3.31
221
3,176,744
300-500mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 0-800m elevation
9.90
222
8,552,119
300-500mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 800-1200m elevation
26.64
223
7,110,676
300-500mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 1200-5100m elevation
22.15
232
452,595
300-500mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 800-1200m
elevation
1.41
233
3,946,846
300-500mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 1200-5100m
elevation
12.30
321
853,124
500-700mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 0-800m elevation
2.66
322
755,834
500-700mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 800-1200m elevation
2.35
323
46,362
500-700mm average rainfall; semi-arid; 1200-5100m elevation
0.14
331
791,541
500-700mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 0-800m elevation
2.47
332
1,300,562
500-700mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 800-1200m
elevation
4.05
333
2,869,315
500-700mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 1200-5100m
elevation
8.94
342
11,423
500-700mm average rainfall; Humid; 800-1200m elevation
0.04
343
509,487
500-700mm average rainfall; Humid; 1200-5100m elevation
1.59
431
25,673
More than 700mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 0-800m
elevation
0.08
432
205,982
More than 700mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 800-1200m
elevation
0.64
433
9,953
More than 700mm average rainfall; Dry-subhumid; 1200-
5100m elevation
0.03
442
116,276
More than 700mm average rainfall; Humid; 800-1200m
elevation
0.36
443
90,271
More than 700mm average rainfall; Humid; 1200-5100m
elevation
0.28
32,101,226
DISCUSSION
With this study, the Anatolian steppe is characterized and the border of it delineated and different
steppe types are mapped successfully by using Earth Observation data interpretation and by
analyzing satellite imagery with the help of GIS technologies based on existing data ( Forest stand
map, surface temperature, aridity/drought index, soil information, elevation, Geological formations,
vegetation indices (NDVI, EVI)) and interpretation of other sources.
66
The mapping activity totally based on convergence of the evidences approach which provided by
the cost-effective, scientifically sound and robust mapping techniques with the help of remote
sensing technologies and GIS. The signatures of the steppe region that are based on several
indicators are analyzed and the final border that delineates the Anatolian steppe region is predicted.
on about the delineated border, but also it reveals
the information about the different dynamics of the homogeneous clusters. Therefore this output
should be considered very important key output to build the specific strategies for each of the
regions with the exact locations. Additionally, the outputs of this study can be a baseline to monitor
the changes in the region.
Importance of the scientifically sound layers, such as aridity index and climate data modelling, are
recognized very well in this study because the delineation of the steppe border changes with the
       -on climate. The findings are based on the
vegetation characteristics derived from the satellite images and climate conditions (aridity index).
These two indicators are strongly interrelated each other.
The effects of the human-related activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, land cover changes
(agricultural intensification, conversion to croplands, afforestation of bare lands (Ambarli et al.,
2016), etc.) on steppe ecosystems should be well analyzed, identified and quantified. Moreover, the
all drivers, pressures, impacts and the current conditions of the steppe ecosystem in Turkey should
also be well analyzed, identified and quantified. (Vulnerable areas, the most impacted regions).
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68
DETERMINATION OF CATALASE ACTIVITY IN SALT
AFFECTED SOILS

Igdır University, Igdır, Turkey.
Abstract
Soil salinity and alkalinity is an important problem that causes degradation in soils caused by
the effect of climatic, topographic or anthropogenic factors. Approximately 955 million hectares of
land in the world were affected by salt and approximately 20 million hectares were out of
agriculture. In our country, there are salinity and alkalinity problems in 1.5 million ha area, 74% of
these areas have salinity, 25.5% salinity-alkalinity and 0.5% alkalinity. There are salinity and
alkalinity problems due to the high ground water in  plain, low rainfall (254.2 mm) and high
evaporation (1094.9 mm), and human activities accelerate this process. In the region; saline,
alkaline, saline-alkali and boron lands are 36,476 ha. This study was established to determine the
catalase enzyme activity in soils affected by different levels of salt. For this purpose, soil samples
were taken from 3 different points from 0-30 cm depth, 3 samples from each land with different
salinity and alkalinity levels, and analyzes were carried out on these samples. Catalase enzyme
activity of soil samples was determined with 3 replicates according to Beck (1971). Results showed
that catalase activity was 37.25 mlO2 3min-1gr soil-1 in highly saline alkaline soils, 68.23 mlO2
3min-1gr soil-1 in alkaline soils, 169.23 mlO2 3min-1gr soil-1 in soils without salinity and moderately
alkaline. As a result of the experiment, it was determined that soil salinity decreases the catalase
activity.
Keywords: Catalase activity, Soil salinity, Soil alkalinity.
TUZDAN ETKİLENMİŞ TOPRAKLARDA KATALAZ AKTİVİTESİNİN
BELİRLENMESİ
Özet           
          
    
ise 1,5 milyon ha alanda tuzluluk ve alkalilik sorunu bulunmakta, 
     -   nde alkalilik (sodyumlu)
  Ovada taban suyunun       
uk ve alkalilik sorunu mevcut olup, insan
de ki tuzdan etkilenen (tuzlu, alkali, tuzlu-
alkali ve borlu   36.476 ha      
           
der-30 cm derinlikten aziden toprak
          
 
37,25 mlO2 3 min-1gr soil-1, alkali
topraklarda 68,23 mlO2 3 min-1gr soil-1, tuzsuz ve orta derecede alkalin topraklarda ise 169,23 mlO2
3 min-1gr soil-1 olara       
.
Keywords: 
69
1. INTRODUCTION
There are different factors that limits crop production in agricultural lands where agricultural
production is intensely made. Soil salinity and alkalinity, mostly occur in arid and semi-arid
climates, are among these factors. According to the World Soil Map data, it is reported that there
are 954 million ha of salt-affected lands with restricted productivity worldwide (FAO, 1988;
Szabolcs 1991).
This type of problem soils have spread over 80.5 million ha in Africa, 50.8 million ha in
Europe, 357.3 million ha in Australia, 146.9 million ha in America, and 319.3 million ha in the

 Salinity problems are encountered
in 1.7% of the land in our country (1.518.746 ha) and in 3.8% of the agricultural lands (837.405 ha).
In other words, these lands are equivalent to 2% of our country's surface area and 5.48%
(27.699.003 ha) of the total cultivated land. 74% of the total arid lands are salty, 25.5% saline-
alkaline and 0.5% alkaline (sodium) soils (Anonymous 1980).
              
Eastern Anatolia region, where agricultural production is intensely carried out (two products per
year). There are salinity and alkalinity problems due to the high ground water in the plain, low
rainfall (254.2 mm) and high evaporation (1094.9 mm), and human activities accelerate this
process. In the region; saline, alkaline, saline-alkali and boron lands are 36,476 ha. More than 1/3 of


Enzymes are complex organic substances that catalyze (increase the speed) chemical reactions
of biological events in living plant and animal cells and are synthesized by living cells and are
almost protein-based compounds. Enzymes in soils are of plant, animal and microbial origin, and
collectively their activities express the metabolic status of soils at a given time. By means of soil
enzyme activity, soil biological properties and fertility properties can be determined. Soil enzymes
have a close relationship with other biological properties of the soil and play an important role in
the mineralization process in the soil.
Catalase, one of the soil enzymes, is a protective enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of
hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen, thus preventing hydrogen peroxide from damaging
cellular compounds. Catalytic activity of catalyse enzyme is present in high concentration in all
aerobic microorganisms, plant and animal cells (Jones ve Masters, 1976; Nicholls ve ark., 2000).
Physico-chemical properties such as pH, soil moisture, temperature, and organic matter
greatly affect the enzyme activities of soils (Aliev etal. 1981;Tabatabai, 1982; Mikayilov, 2018). In
this study, different pH and electrical conductivity values were investigated on soil catalase activity
and the aim of the study is to determine the effects of salinity and alkalinity on catalase activity in
soil.
70
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1. Study site

Application Center (Figure 1).

mountains in the Eastern Anatolia Region. The altitude of the plain is 850 m and summers are hot
and winters are mild. In the region, the annual average rainfall is 254.2 mm and the evaporation is
1094,9 mm. The highest rainfall in the region falls in May and the lowest falls in August
(Anonymous 2018).
Some physical and chemical soil properties have indicated in Table 1.
Figure 1. Experiment area and sampling points.
Table 1
Soil properties at the experiment site.
Soil properties
Results
Soil A
Soil B
Soil C
Clay, %
38,2
37
35
Silt, %
35,4
34,4
31,4
Sand, %
26,4
28,6
33,6
Texture
Clay Loam
Clay Loam
Clay Loam
Organic matter, %
1,06
1,11
1,34
Bulk density, g cm-3
1,47
1,56
1,16
pH (1:2,5)
9,0
9,09
8,22
Electrical
conductivity,
dS/m
15,32
2,47
1,2
71
According to soil electrical conductivity and ph analyses; soil A is saline and strong alkaline,
soil B is non saline and strong alkaline and soil C is non saline and moderately alkaline (Table 1).
2.2. Soil sampling and analysis
For soil physical and chemical analysis, disturbed and undisturbed soil samples were taken at
the beginning of the research from the depth of 0-30 cm. After taken to the laboratory, the samples
were sieved from 2mm sieve without air dried and then stored in the refrigerator at 4 Co.
Bulk density determined in the undisturbed soil samples and soil texture, organic matter, soil
pH, electrical conductivity and catalase activity were determined in disturbed soil samples. Soil
texture, soil organic matter, bulk density, electrical conductivity and catalase activity were
determined according to Gee and Bauder (1986), Walkley and Black (1934), Blake (1965),
Demiralay (1993), Beck (1971) respectively. Soil pH was tested with a soil/water ratio of 1:2.5
using a compound electrode in reference to McLean (1982).
2.3. Data analysis
The data were analyzed using the SPSS statistical software program (SPSS 2008).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. Effects of salinity and alkalinity on soil catalase activity
In the study, catalase activity significantly affected salinity and alkalinity (p<0,05). While the
catalase activity means of soil C is 169.23 mlO2 3min-1gr soil-1, soil A and soil B are 37.25 mlO2
3min-1gr soil-1 , 68.23 mlO2 3min-1gr soil-1 , respectively. By the average values of the catalase
activity, it was found higher under soil C than soil B and soil A (Figure 2). Between soil A and soil
B, catalase activity was higher in soil B. It means that alkaline soils have higher catalase activity
than saline-alkaline. Consistent with several prior observations, salinity greatly reduced soil enzyme
activity (Liang et al., 2005; Shi et al., 2019). The decrease in catalase activity may be caused by the
decrease of microbial activity in saline soils. With increasing soil salinity; osmotic stress limits,
microbial growth and activity and the microorganisms tend to dehydrate (Galinski 1995, Oren
1999). Some researchers found that, the small increases in electrical conductivity values higly
detrimental effected microbial activity in soils (Rietz and Haynes 2003). The decrease in alkaline
soils may be caused by toxicities of Na and other accompanying ions (e.g. Cl and HCO3) along
with the very high pH may also inhibit microbial growth (Zahran 1997).
72
Figure 2. Results of soil catalase activity
CONCLUSION
It is known that soil salinity and alkalinity has many negative effects on soil properties and
decreases crop production. In the study, the effect of salinity and alkalinity on catalase enzyme
activity in soil was investigated. Results showed that, soil salinity and alkalinity decreased catalase
activity and catalase activity in alkaline soils was higher than saline soils.
Adding organic matter which is generally in low amounts especially in arid and semi-arid
regions because of high rates of decomposing and is one of the parameters affecting enzyme
activity in soils, will cause an increase in enzyme activity in soils besides having positive effects on
other soil properties.
Acknowledgements
This research is    Projects Coordination Unit
with project no 2018 FBE A13.
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Zahran, H. H. (1997). Diversity, adaptation and activity of the bacterial flora in saline environments. Biology and Fertility of
Soils, 25(3), 211-223.
74
In silico CHARACTERIZATION OF SUCROSE SYNTHASE (SUS)
GENES IN HIGHER PLANT SPECIES
 *
*Mus Alparslan University, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Department of Plant Production and Technologies, Mus,
Turkey
*Corresponding author: firat.kurt.usa@gmail.com
Abstract
Sucrose synthase (SUS) is widely expressed in plants and plays vital roles in plant metabolism and
growth. In this study, a total of 50 plant SUS protein sequences were collected from the NCBI
protein database and were subjected to homology search, physico-chemical motif, and domain
analyses. The domain analysis revealed that sucrose synthase (PF00862) and glycosyl transferase
(PF00534) are domain structures in all SUSs. Also, all SUSs are acidic in character and contain a
greater number of negatively charged residues (Asp+Glu). Analysis of 10 commonly distributed
motifs in the SUSs showed that 6 of 10 motifs are related to sucrose synthase domain, whereas 3 of
10 motifs are associated with glycosyl transferase domain. Predicted N-glycosylation sites showed
variations in a species-specific manner, suggesting functional diversities. It was observed that the
3D structure of sucrose synthases domain of Zea mays, Gossypium raimondii, Triticum aestivum,
and Pinus taeda had the structural divergences. The findings may help for laboratory studies aiming
at understanding of SUS genes in plants.
Keywords: Sucrose synthase, SUS, in silico analysis, sequence analysis, 3D model.
Introduction
Sucrose synthase (SUS) is an essential enzyme (E.C. 2.4.1.13) in carbohydrate metabolism of plants
converting sucrose and uridine diphosphate (UDP) into fructose and UDPglucose (Kleczkowski et
al., 2010). SUS activities are observed in different intracellular structures, including cell membranes
(Matic et al., 2004), cytoskeleton (Winter et al., 1998), and tonoplast (Etxeberria and Gonzalez,
2003). Also, SUS plays an important key role in metabolic processes, such as sugar import (Klotz et

maturation (Baier et al., 2010). SUS proteins are also reported to be involved in cellulose synthesis
by providing UDP-glucose for cell wall thickening and cotton fiber cell development (Nolte et al.,
1995; Albrecht et al., 2003).SUS enzymes take part in providing photosynthetic assimilate supplies
75
necessary for the sink strength of the sink organs such as potato tubers, carrot roots, maize kernels,
and pea embryos (Zou et al., 2013).
Many studies indicate that SUS isozymes are encoded by multigene family in the most plant species
with at least three SUS genes (Zou et al., 2013). Arabidopsis and rice include six distinct active SUS
genes (Barratt et al., 2001; Hirose et al., 2008). AtSUS1 and AtSUS2 are regulated heavily under
environmental stresses in Arabidopsis (Dejardin et al., 1997). AtSUS5 and AtSUS6are expressed in
almost all plant organs but no report has been made so farfor stressresponses (Baud et al., 2004). A
total of five sucrose synthase genes (ScSUSy1, ScSUSy2, ScSUSy3, ScSUSy4, and ScSUSy5) were
identified in three Saccharum species, including S. officinarum, S. spontanuem, S. robustom (Zhang
et al., 2013). In rice, SUS1 is generallytranscribed in elongating tissues, whilstSUS2 is expressed in
germinating seedlings and in seedlings grown under hypoxic conditions. SUS3 and SUS4 also are
predominantly expressed in the caryopsis (Hirose et al., 2008). Three non-allelic SUS genes
(CitSUS1, CitSUSA, and CitSUS2) were identified in Citrus unshiu. Of these genes, CitSUS1 and
CitSUSA are reported to be differentially expressed in several tissues of leaf, flower, and fruit
(Komatsu et al., 2002). In all plants, the differential expressions of SUS genes prove that each SUS
isoform diverged into specific functions in different tissues (Chen et al., 2012). In the present study,
in silico analysis of 50 sucrose synthase (SUS) protein sequences from different higher plant species
were performed. The physico-chemical features, homology search, motif analysis, and N-
glycosylation siteswere analyzed by using various bioinformatics tools.
Materials and Methods
All the sequences of sucrose synthase (SUS) were retrieved from different plant species on
Genbank database (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/protein/).The accession numbers of SUS protein
sequences are listed in Table 1(Table 1).Nostoc azollae (YP_003719961) was selected as outgroup
andthe SUSs sequences were retrieved asfasta format for further analyses.The conserved protein
motifs were determined by using MEME server (http://meme.sdsc.edu/meme/meme.html) (Bailey
et al., 2009).Physico-chemical data (molecular weight, pI, and amino acid composition) were
generated by ProtParam (Gasteiger et al., 2005).N-glycosylation sites of the SUS proteins were
predicted by using the NetNglyc 1.0 (http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/ services/NetNGlyc/) server. The
subcellular distribution of SUS proteins were analyzed by using CELLO v.2.5 (subCELlular
LOcalization predictor) (Yu et al., 2006) and WoLF PSORT servers (Horton et al., 2007),
respectively.
76
Table 1. Features of SUS protein sequences in higher plant species
Serial no.
Plant Species
Accession no.
Pfam domain
Subcellular
prediction by
PSORT
Subcellular
prediction
by CELLO
1
Alnus glutinosa
CAA63122
SS, GT
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
2
Arabidopsis thaliana
CAA50317
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
3
Arachis hypogaea var.
vulgaris
AEF56625
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
4
Bambusa oldhamii
AAL50572
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
5
Beta vulgaris
AAR19769
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
6
Cichorium intybus
ABD61653
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
7
Citrus unshiu
BAA89049
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
8
Coffea arabica
CAJ32598
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
9
Coffea canephora
ABI17891
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
10
Craterostigma plantagineum
CAB38022
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
11
Cucumis sativus
AEN83999
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
12
Daucus carota
CAA53081
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
13
Dendrobium officinale
ADY02961
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
14
Eucalyptus grandis
ABB53601
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
15
Glycine max
NP_001237525
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
16
Gossypium barbadense
ADY68845
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
17
Gossypium herbaceum
AEV40896
SS, GT
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
18
Gossypium herbaceum subsp.
africanum
ADY68846
SS, GT
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
19
Gossypium hirsutum
AEV40894
SS, GT
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
20
Gossypium raimondii
AEV40895
SS, GT
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
21
Hordeum vulgare supsp.
vulgare
CAA46701
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
22
Ipomoea batatas
ACL00957
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
23
Jatropha curcas
AGH29112
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
24
Lilium davidii
AGW23638
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
25
Litchi chinensis
AFP23359
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
26
Lolium perenne
BAE79815
SS, GT
Chloroplast
Cytoplasm
27
Malus domestica
AFU56881
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
28
Mangifera indica
BAM68528
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
29
Manihot esculenta
ABD96570
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
30
Medicago falcata
ABP88869
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
31
Medicago sativa
AAC17867
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
32
Medicago truncatula
CAB40795
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
33
Musa acuminata
AEO09338
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
34
Oryza sativa
CAA46017
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
35
Oxybasis rubra
CAA57881
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
36
Phaseolus vulgaris
AAN76498
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
37
Pinus taeda
ABR15470
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
38
Pisum sativum
CAA09910
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
39
Populus tomentosa
AFZ78659
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
40
Populus tremuloides
AAR03498
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
41
Prunus persica
AFI57908
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
42
Saccharum officinarum
AAM68126
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
43
Solanum lycopersicum
NP_001234655
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
44
Solanum tuberosum
AAA97572
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
45
Sorghum bicolor
ACM69042
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
46
Triticum aestivum
CAA03935
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
47
Triticum urartu
EMS66266
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
48
Vicia faba
CAA49428
SS, GT
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
49
Vigna angularis
BAH56282
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
50
Zea mays
CAA26229
SS, GT
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm
SS: sucrose synthase domain (PF00862), GT: glycosyl transferases domain (PF00534)
77
Model building and evaluation
Four SUS protein sequences were used for homologymodelling of G. raimondii, Z. mays, T.
aestivum, and P. taeda.Homology modelling of SUS proteins were predicted by using Swiss-Pdb
Viewer (Guex et al., 2009). After modelling, the quality and validation of the model was evaluated
by Rampage Ramachandran plot analysis (http://mordred.bioc.cam.ac.uk) (Lovell et al. 2003).
Results and discussion
Sequence analysis
A total of 50 sucrose synthase (SUS) protein sequences were analyzed by using various
bioinformatics tools and physico-chemical data of SUS protein sequences are shown in Table 2.
Molecular weights and sequence lengths ofSUSs range from 83.265 to 100.389 kDa and from 727
to 885 amino acids, respectively.The computed pI valuesare between 5.63- 6.34 showing
thattheyare acidic in character. Also, total number of negatively charged residues (Asp+Glu) are
higher than in total number of positively charged residues (Arg+Lys) in all SUS protein sequences.
Predicted N-glycosylation sites analysis showed that all SUSs containN-glycosylation sites ranging
between 2 and 7.
Asparagine (N)-linked glycosylation is basic post-translational modificationsites serving for
covalent attachment of an oligosaccharide onasparagine residues in proteins. N-X-S/T consensus
sequence is accepted as a general recognition element (Schwarz and Aebi, 2011). Tonoplast-
associated SuSy (sucrose synthase) is phosphorylated in the presence of sucrose, but not
plasmalemma-associated SuSy in Acer pseudoplatanus(Pozueta-Romero et al., 2004). In N-terminal
regulatory domain of AtSUS1, two serine residues play important roles as sites for phosphorylation
(Zheng et al., 2011). In maize, serine 15 (S15) is probable phosphorylation sites in SUS1 protein
(Huber et al., 1996). Multiple phosphorylation, N-glycosylation and leucine zipper motifs are
identified as SUS3 in maize (Carlson et al., 2002). Consecutively, it can be suggested that SUS
function and enzymatic activity are regulated heavily in plant metabolic pathways.
SuSy can be soluble or insoluble due to binding to different subcellular structuresin the cell
(Pozueta-Romero et al., 2004). SUS enzymes can be associated with the plasma membrane, actin
cytoskeleton, amyloplasts, golgi, and tonoplast (Duncan et al., 2006).
Changes in sucrose synthase (SuSy) activity are associated with cellular location and different
isoforms (Komatsu et al., 2002; Pozueta-Romero et al., 2004). Subcellular localizations of all SUSs
in this study were predicted to be in cytoplasm. Of these proteins, 30 of 50 SUSs were also
78
predicted to be localized in mitochondrion (13 members), followed by chloroplast (7 members)
according to computations on the WoLF PSORT server (Table 1). With parallel to this prediction,
the distributions of SUS proteins were determined not only in cytoplasm but also inmitochondrion
and chloroplast in the laboratory studies. In this respect, it is reported thatone of maize SUS
isoforms SH1 protein was found to have a putative mitochondrial targeting peptide (mTP)(Subbaiah
et al., 2006). By and large, some SUS proteins, as indicated in previous studies,seems toplay
important roles in mitochondrion and many SUSs may contribute to cytoplasmic sucrose
metabolism.
All SUS sequences contain sucrose synthase (PF00862) and glycosyl transferase (PF00534)
domains based on Pfam database searches (Table 1). A search of the Pfam database revealed that
126 sequences have the sucrose synthase and glycosyl transferase domain whereas 34 sequences
contain only sucrose synthase domain in various organisms (Jayashree et al., 2008). In Arabidopsis,
the analysis of six AtSUS genes displayed that sucrose synthase and glycosyl transferase domains
are present in all genes (Baud et al., 2004). The sucrose synthase and the glucosyl-transferase
domains are accepted as typical signatures of SUS proteins in cotton (Chen et al., 2012).
When all SUS sequences were provided to MEME server, a total of 10 common motifs were
observed (Table 3). 6 of 10 motifs were related with sucrose synthase domain, whilst 3 motifs were
related to glycosyl transferases group 1 domain.Whereasonly the motif five was not found in
Ipomoea batatas, all motifs (motif 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10) were detectedin the other plant
species. In protein evolution, motifs with short amino acid residues (5-25 amino acids) are being
related with biological functions or protein structures (Saito et al., 2007). Conserved sequence
regions inproteinsare important for understanding functionally and structurally distinct regions
(Sitbon and Pietrokovski, 2007). Overall, the conserved regions inSUS genes may shape SUS
domain architecture determining catalytic activity andstructural flexibility of SUS proteins in plants.
79
Table 2. Biochemical characteristics and predicted N-glycosylation sites of SUS protein sequences
in higher plants
Source
organisms
Number
of
amino
acids
Molecular
weight
(kDa)
Theoretical
pI
Total
number of
negatively
charged
residues
(Asp+Glu)
Total
number
of
positively
charged
residues
(Arg+Lys)
Predicted N-
glycosylation sites
Alnus
glutinosa
803
91.630
6.34
104
95
141 NASF, 410 NYSD, 469 NHTD,
581 NITG
Arabidopsis
thaliana
807
92.924
5.66
120
99
19 NETL, 132 NFTL, 143 NASI,
414 NYSD , 474 NHTD , 587 NLSG
Arachis
hypogaea var.
vulgaris
806
92.419
5.93
113
95
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD ,
584 NITG
Bambusa
oldhamii
808
92.124
5.98
105
91
98 NVSE, 138 NASF, 409 NYSD ,
468 NHTD , 581 NMTG
Beta vulgaris
805
92.227
5.90
112
95
409 NYSD , 468 NHTD, 530 NYTE,
581 NMTG , 735 NISK
Cichorium
intybus
806
92.055
5.95
111
93
411 NYSE, 470 NHTD , 584 NLTG
Citrus unshiu
805
92.173
5.90
112
96
141 NASF, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NLTG
Coffea
arabica
811
92.818
5.89
110
94
143 NATF, 329 NVTP, 414 NYSD,
473 NHSD, 490 NNTV, 586 NITG
Coffea
canephora
806
92.606
6.03
114
99
412 NYSE, 471 NHTD, 584 NLTG
Craterostigma
plantagineum
811
92.526
5.90
110
93
143 NASF, 414 NYSD, 473 NNSD,
586 NITG
Cucumis
sativus
806
92.627
5.67
116
96
141 NASF, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Daucus
carota
808
92.474
6.21
107
95
414 NYSE, 473 NHTD, 586 NLTG
Dendrobium
officinale
807
91.990
5.83
111
90
103 NVSE , 143 NASF, 414 NYSD,
586 NITG
Eucalyptus
grandis
805
92.685
6.05
113
98
412 NYSD, 471 NHTD, 499 NFTL,
584 NLTG, 762 NLTA
Glycine max
805
92.243
6.04
111
95
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Gossypium
barbadense
805
92.643
6.10
113
99
141 NSSF, 327 NITP, 412 NYSD,
471 NHTD, 584 NLTG
Gossypium
herbaceum
809
92.073
5.99
109
94
143 NASF, 150 NRSS, 414 NYSD,
586 NMTG
Gossypium
herbaceum
subsp.
africanum
805
92.673
6.17
114
101
141 NSSF, 327 NITP, 412 NYSD,
471 NHTD, 584 NLTG
Gossypium
hirsutum
809
91.988
5.99
109
94
143 NASF, 150 NRSS, 414 NYSD
Gossypium
raimondii
809
92.218
5.99
110
95
143 NASF, 150 NRSS, 414 NYSD,
586 NMTG
Hordeum
vulgare
807
92.211
5.94
108
92
98 NVSE, 138 NASF, 408 NYSD,
467 NHTD, 580 NMTG
Ipomoea
batatas
727
83.265
5.63
103
80
471 NHTD, 584 NLTG
Jatropha
curcas
805
92.686
6.00
112
96
141 NASF, 412 NYSD, 471 NHSD,
584 NLSG
Lilium davidii
846
96.049
6.02
110
95
12 NHTF, 134 NFTL, 145 NASF,
192 NGTS, 416 NYSD, 588 NITG,
829 NGSV, 843 NGTK
Litchi
chinensis
819
93.454
6.01
106
91
143 NATF, 150 NRSS, 414 NYSD,
586 NMTG.
80
Table 2. (Continued)
Source
organisms
Number
of
amino
acids
Molecular
weight
(kDa)
Theoretical
pI
Total
number of
negatively
charged
residues
(Asp+Glu)
Total
number
of
positively
charged
residues
(Arg+Lys)
Predicted N-
glycosylation sites
Lolium
perenne
885
100.389
6.53
108
102
98 NVSD, 138 NASA, 408 NYSD,
467 NHTD, 580 NMTG
Malus
domestica
812
92.891
5.77
110
92
415 NYSD, 587 NMTG
Mangifera
indica
800
91.522
6.02
105
93
167 NSSM, 180 NFSE, 407 NYSD,
466 NHTD, 579 NLTG
Manihot
esculenta
806
92.783
5.98
114
97
141 NASF, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NLTG
Medicago
falcata
804
92.428
6.03
113
98
149 NKSI, 411 NYSD, 470 NHTD,
583 NITG
Medicago
sativa
805
92.333
5.85
114
95
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Medicago
truncatula
805
92.335
5.86
113
95
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Musa
acuminata
816
92.996
5.94
106
90
102 NISE, 143 NASF, 414 NYSD,
568 NDTK, 586 NLTG
Oryza sativa
808
92.129
5.96
103
88
98 NVSE, 138 NASF, 409 NYSD,
468 NHTD, 581 NMTG, 610 NQSK,
735 NISQ
Oxybasis
rubra
803
92.066
5.88
112
95
139 NASF, 409 NYSD, 468 NHTD,
581 NMTG, 729 NPSH.
Phaseolus
vulgaris
805
92.024
5.82
110
90
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD
Pinus taeda
833
95.273
6.02
112
96
126 NGSV, 143 NASF, 415 NYSD,
587 NMTG, 826 NGTL
Pisum
sativum
806
92.502
5.84
114
95
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Populus
tomentosa
803
92.156
6.00
109
94
410 NYSD, 469 NHTD, 582 NLTG
Populus
tremuloides
805
92.523
6.02
111
96
141 NASF, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NLTG
Prunus
persica
806
92.605
5.95
113
97
141 NASF, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Saccharum
officinarum
822
91.723
5.77
105
88
98 NVSE, 138 NASF, 409 NYSD,
468 NHTD, 581 NMTG
Solanum
lycopersicum
805
92.446
5.90
114
95
412 NYSE, 471 NHTD, 584 NLTG
Solanum
tuberosum
805
92.577
5.98
113
97
124 NGTS, 412 NYSE, 471 NHTD,
584 NLTG
Sorghum
bicolor
802
91.712
5.82
104
88
98 NVSE, 138 NASF, 409 NYSD,
468 NHTD, 581 NMTG
Triticum
aestivum
815
92.608
6.17
101
88
106 NVSE, 129 NGSI, 146 NASF,
417 NYSD, 588 NMTG
Triticum
urartu
815
92.639
5.85
104
85
106 NVSE, 145 NASF, 416 NYSD,
588 NLTG, 617 NPSK
Vicia faba
806
92.521
5.78
115
95
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Vigna
angularis
805
92.093
6.02
110
94
150 NKSI, 412 NYSD, 471 NHTD,
584 NITG
Zea mays
802
91.732
5.96
104
90
98 NVSE, 138 NASF, 409 NYSD,
468 NHTD, 581 NMTG
81
Table 3. Ten different motifs commonly observed in sucrose synthase protein sequences
Motifnumber
Width
Sequence
Protein sequences
Pfam
Domain
1
50
YHFSCQFTADLIAMNHTDFIITSTFQEIAGSKDTVGQYESHTAFTLPGLY
Sucrose
synthase
2
41
AFGLTVVEAMTCGLPTFATCHGGPAEIIVHGKSGFHIDPYH
Glycosyl
transferases
3
3
50
APDPCTLETFLGRIPMVFNVVILSPHGYFAQDNVLGYPDTGGQVVYILDQ
Sucrose
synthase
4
50
EMKKMYSLIETYNLNGQFRWISSQMNRVRNGELYRYICDTKGAFVQPAFY
Glycosyl
transferases
5
50
DFFEKCKADPSHWDKISQGGLQRIYEKYTWQIYSQRLMTLTGVYGFWKHV
Not found
6
50
FPRPTMSKSIGNGVQFLNRHLSAKMFHDKESMHPLLNFLRAHCYKGKTMM
Sucrose
synthase
7
31
EMQGKPDLIIGNYSDGNIVASLLAHKLGVTQ
Sucrose
synthase
8
41
VRALENEMLHRIKQQGLDITPRILIVTRLLPDAVGTTCGQR
Glycosyl
transferases
9
50
HICVLKDRNKPIIFTMARLDRVKNMTGLVEWYGKNAKLRELVNLVVVAGD
Sucrose
synthase
10
50
QEAIVLPPWVALAVRPRPGVWEYIRVNVHALVVEELQVSEYLHFKEELVD
Sucrose
synthase
Three-dimensional model of SUS proteins
Proteins consist of domains with distinct structure, function and/or evolutionary history. Domain
rearrangements and sequence differentiation are very important to understand the development of
new functions of prot-dimensional structuresare more
conserved than protein sequences or functions (Kinch and Grishin, 2002). For domain modelling,
four divergent SUS proteins were selected by including two monocots (Z. mays and T. aestivum )
and two dicots (G. raimondiiand P. taeda) (Figure 1A, B, C, and D). It was observed that 3D
structures of these proteins (monocots and dicots species)contained some structural divergences.
SUS isoforms play important roles in both cytosolic and membrane-associated sucrose degradation
but their vital effect is observed in isoform-specific functional roles (Duncan et al., 2006). These
structural divergences may be explained by isoform-specific functional roles of SUSs in sucrose
metabolism.
82
Figure 1. Predicted 3D structureof sucrose synthase domain ofG. raimondii (A),Z. mays (B), T.
aestivum (C), and P. taeda (D). The yellow circles show structural divergences in SUS domains.
The stereo-chemical qualities of the modelled proteins were evaluated by RAMPAGE server.
According to Ramachandran plot,2.4%, 2.2%, 3.4%, and 3.2% were in allowed region, and 97.1%,
96.2%, 95.6%, and 95.9% in favored regionin G. raimondii (A), Z. mays (B), T. aestivum (C), and
P. taeda (D),respectively. Only 0.5%, 1.5%, 1%, and 0.8% residues werefound in outlier region,
indicating the predicted 3D protein models were reliable and good quality.
Conclusion
In conclusion, in silico characterization of plant sucrose synthases has revealed the sequence
similarity along with similar physico-chemical properties and conserved motif structures. The
findings may help for laboratory studies aiming at understanding of SUS genes in plants.
83
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86
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND VEGETATIVE DEVELOPMENT
RESPONSES OF GRAPEVINE ROOTSTOCK SAPLINGS TO
GRAPE POMACE, SPENT MUSHROOM COMPOST AND
FARMYARD MANURE APPLICATIONS
A. SABIR1, Y. GAYRETLI2, S. A. A. ABDULHADI2
1 Horticulture Department, Agriculture Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
2Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Agricultural production has been pressurized by multiple environmental stress factors
aggravated by climatic extremes. Precision agricultural techniques have therefore gained particular
prominence to maintain the food demand of global population with sustainable principles. Grape
pomace as juice process residue, spent mushroom compost, farmyard manure and control (no
supplement) were tested on the physiological and vegetative development saplings of 41 B, 44-53
M and Rupestris du Lot rootstocks. The general growth medium was obtained with the equal
mixture of vineyard soil and sand. Four different growth media were obtained by supplementing the
each substance in 25% solid volume, while the control group has not received any of them. The
rooted cuttings of each rootstock were transplanted into the plastic pots filled with the mixture of
the growth media.Spent mushroom compost resulted in the highest shoot length in 41 B and
Rupestris du Lot rootstock saplings. Certain physiological activities of the rootstocks were also
affected by the applications, indicating the significance of growth media in nursery practices. The
uses of spent mushroom compost and fermented pomace have been recommended to use in nursery
production to harden the grapevine saplings against the stress factors for a sustainable viticulture.
Keywords: Grapevine nursery, sustainable viticulture, cultural practices, sapling hardening.
INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the use of high-yielding crop cultivars, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides in
combination with mechanization have remarkably increased worldwide agricultural production.
However, the overuse of agrochemicals has caused the eutrophication
and contamination of agricultural soil and water. Organic farming and/or sustainable agriculture
have been proposed as essential strategies to reconcile food production, biodiversity conservation
and environmental sustainability. Agricultural soil amendment practices are vital for the success of
sustainable food production and for the functioning of agroecosystems in general. The soils around
the Konya Closed Basin has been characterized by having low water retention, low levels of organic
matter and nutrient availability which correspond to inceptisol soils with low organic matter
contents and high pH. The use of organic amendments has been strongly recommended as the
concept of integrated nutrient management to improve plant and soil quality.
The grape pomace is an abundant by-product (solid organic waste) composed of the
remaining cluster stalks, berry skins and seeds representing around 25% of the total grape weight
used in the juice process depending on the variety and process (Oliveira and Duarte, 2016). The
material is characterized by C:N ratio ranges from 40 to 45:1 and pH ranges from 3 to 6, low
electrical conductivity, and high organic matter content and organic forms of micro and macro-
      -Lomillo and Gonzalez- ;
Salgado et al. 2019). Therefore, the products generated by the composting of grape pomace can
have a great positive impact in response toapplied quality organic amendments in the same grape
87
crops, considering the necessity to improve the inceptisol soil quality. Therefore, recent attention
has been focused on the effective use of grape pomace as a secondary byproduct of grape process
for the production of organic fertilizer through the composting.Similarly spent mushroom compost,
remaining from the mushroom production, is a bulky waste product and a type of slow-release
organic plant fertilizer. After pasteurization process to reduce hygiene problems, it is an ideal soil
enrichment substance with its nutrients.
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of farmyard manure, spent mushroom
compost and grape pomace on growth medium pH and plant development in grapevine rootstocks
(41 B, 44-53 M and Rupestris du Lot). Spent mushroom compost and grape pomace, as good
organic materials for soil amendment, were evaluated for their effects on grapevine growth in
comparison to both untreated control and farmyard manure commonly applied by farmers.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present study was performed at the Research and ImplementationGlasshouse
 laboratories of Selcuk University Agriculture
Faculty Horticulture Department.
Experimental Description
Experimental plants consisted of three worldwide grapevine rootstocks originating from
different genetic background; 41 B (Vitis vinifera x V. berlandieri), 44-53 M (V. riparia x V.
rupestris) and Rupestris du Lot (V. rupestris).Four different growth media were prepared to
compare for their effects on plant development.
For this purpose, farmyard manure, spent mushroom compost and grape pomace were
supplemented into the growth medium used in the pots. Before their uses, the substances were kept
for one year to let them proper composting and decreasing the salinity level. Such maintenance
would also reduce the risk of possible NH4-N toxic effectof fresh compost. The main growth
medium was prepared with equal mixture of vineyard soil and sand. Each of the organic substances
in 25% solid volume was added into the growth medium, while none of them was used for the
control medium. The cuttings of each rootstock genotypes were rooted in perlite medium for three
months in controlled glasshouse. At the beginning of the vegetation period, the rooted cuttings with
equal development about ten cm shoot were transplanted into plastic pots.The plants were placed in
east-westoriented rows in controlled glasshouse w       
plant was tied withthread to wires 2.2 m above the ground to let plants grow on a
perpendicularposition to ensure equally benefiting from the sunlight. Thevines received the same
cultivation conditions and were dripirrigated using one line for per plant row, single emitter per
vine. Irrigation amount and intervals were regulated according to daily climatic conditions.
Measurements and Analyses
For pH quantification, soil samples in the middle of growth period were collected from the
root zone of the pots. The pH of each growth medium was measured in de-ionized water
electrometrically (pH meter, Seven Easy, Switzerland) on a 1:5 (w/v) dry soil:water suspension
after2 h stirring using a glass membrane electrode at 
To investigate the physiological response of the plants to organic substances, leaf
temperature (Tleaf) and stomatal conductance (gs) investigations were carried out in the middle of
the vegetation. Tleaf and gs were recorded at around 10 a. m. (Sabir and Yazar 2015) using a
portable porometer (SC-1 Leaf Porometer). Measurements were performed on a total of nine south-
facing, sun-exposed mature but not senescence leaves born at thetop 5th to the 7th nodes per
treatments (Stavrinides et al.2010).
88
Leaf chlorophyll density (SPAD meter value mean, expressed asSPAD units) of 3rd and 4th
nodes of each shoot was estimatedby SPAD readings using a portable chlorophyllmeter (SPAD-
502; Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc., Japan).
Leaf (node) number per shoot, leafarea (LA, cm2), leaf fresh mass (FM, g) and leaf dry mass
(DM, g) were determined on fully expanded leaves of of each treatment (Tramontini et al. 2013).
Two groups of mature leaves, consistingof nine leaves per treatment, were collected from themid-
shoot area of each plant (OIV 1997). The first group was scanned to determine single LA using Win
Folia computer software program, while the second was immediatelyweighed to determine FM.
After weighing, they dried to the constant weight to record dry mass (DM).
At the end of the summer, shoot length was measured with a sensitivity of 1 mm. Shoot
diameter was measured by digital calipers at 1 cm above the second node.
Statistical Analysis
Numerical data were subjected to statistical analysis usinga factorial design. Each treatment
was designed withthree replicates consisting of nine plants. As the rootstockshave different
physiological response to environmentalfactors, the mean values of parameters were compared
separately for each rootstock separately using the least significant difference (LSD) test. Statistical
tests were performed at P <0.05 using SPSS 13.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All the organic matters supplied into the soil significantly decreased the pH (Fig. 1). The
highest decrease was obtained from grape pomace (7.3) application in comparison to the control
soil (7.7). Farmyard manure (7.5) and spent mushroom compost (7.6) were also effective on
decreasing the soil pH. The microbial activity in cultivated soil is more efficient around the neutral
pH (Rousk and Baath, 2011). Therefore, the organic substances used in the study would also
improve the biological feature of the growth medium with the highest benefit of pomace.
Figure 1. Changes in soil pH in response to organic matter supplementation growth medium.
Shoot length is one of the reliable parameters indicating the degree of plant vegetative
development. Shoot growths of the rootstocks displayed significant differences in response to
organic matter applications (Fig. 2). In 41 B, all of the applications resulted in significant increases
in shoot length, ranging from 96.8 cm (control) to 122.0 cm (grape pomace). In 44-53 M rootstock,
pomace application (195.5 cm) also led to significant increase in shoot growth although other
substances did not affect the shoot elongation. Pomace addition into the soil provided 17% increase
in shoot development in this rootstock. On the other hand, the spent mushroom compost was the
only effective substance in Rupestris du Lot rootstock with 13% growth enhancement. The grape
6,5
6,7
6,9
7,1
7,3
7,5
7,7
7,9
Control F. manure M. compost G. pomace
pH
89
pomace is an abundant by-product consisting of the remaining berry skins, seeds and cluster
stalksrepresenting around 25% of the total grape weight used in the must process (Oliveira and
Duarte, 2016). Themoisture after pressing is around 20-30% w/w, and the material ischaracterized
by C:N ratio ranges from 40 to 45:1, low electrical conductivity, and high organic substance content
and organic micro and macro-nutrients, which aremineralized t  -Lomillo and
Gonzalez-San Jose, 2017).Therefore, the plant nutrients generated by the presence of grape pomace
in growth medium could have a great positive impact on shoot development of the grapevine
rootstocks.
Figure 2. Changes in shoot length of the rootstocks in response to organic matter supplementation
into the growth medium.
The gs was also affected by organic matters used in the growth medium (Fig. 3). In general,
farmyard manure tended to decrease the gs. In Rupestris du Lot, the effect of spent mushroom
compost on gs was obvious. In plants stomatal regulation is a complex physiology involving
feedback controls which interact with a wide range of environmental stimuli (Zweifel et al. 2007),
and the plant responses to various stimuli are integrated into a system of regulation of stomatal
conductance for harvesting as much carbon as possible. Mushroom compost may have affected the
stomatal behavior through the amending the growth medium physical features including water
holding capacity. Water deficit, due to limitations of soil available water, usually impacts on leaf gs.
Figure 3. Changes in stomatal conductance of the rootstocks in response to organic matter
supplementation into the growth medium.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
41 B 44-53 M R. du Lot
Shoot length (cm)
Control F. manure M. compost G. pomace
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
41 B 44-53 M Rupestris du Lot
Stomatal conductance
Control F. manure M. compost G. pomace
90
As depicted in Fig. 4, Tleaf did not show significant difference in response to organic matter
supplementation into the growth media across the rootstocks.
Figure 4. Changes in leaf temperature of the rootstocks in response to organic matter
supplementation into the growth medium.
Leaf chlorophyll content, estimated as SPAD readings, showed differences between the
applications (Fig. 5). Grape pomace application resulted in the highest chlorophyll content in
leaves, although the only significant affect was found in Rupestris du Lot when compared with
control.
Figure 5. Changes in leaf chlorophyll content of the rootstocks in response to organic matter
supplementation into the growth medium.
Leaf area displayed a wide variation in response to organic matter applications (Fig. 6).
Grape pomace applied let to higher leaf area than untreated control grapes across the grapevine
rootstocks.The elevation in the leaf surface area may provide better rates of photosynthesis, which
were based on a large photosynthetic area and high levels of photosynthetic pigments (Dineshkumar
et al., 2018).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
41 B 44-53 M Rupestris du Lot
Leaf temperature
Control F. manure M. compost G. pomace
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
41 B 44-53 M R. du Lot
Chlorophyll content
Control F. manure M. compost G. pomace
91
Figure 6. Changes in leaf area of the rootstocks in response to organic matter supplementation into
the growth medium.
Similar to leaf area findings, the highest leaf fresh and dry mass values were obtained from
the pomace application (Table 2). Spent mushroom compost also let to remarkable increases in leaf
mass. Improvements in vegetative development of tomato plants were also reposted by 
(2017) who investigated the effects of spent mushroom compost utilization with the mixture of
different growing media on the seedling quality.
Table 1. Changes in leaf fresh and dry masses of the rootstocks in response to organic matter
supplementation into the growth medium.
Rootstocks
Treatment
Leaf fresh
mass (g)
Leaf fresh
mass (g)
41 B
Control


F.manure


M. compost


G. pomace


44-53 M
Control


F. manure


M. compost


G. pomace


Rupestris du Lot
Control


F. manure


M. compost


G. pomace


Means of triplicate measurements are presented with standard
deviations. Data with different letters are significantly different
(P<0.05)
CONCLUSION
Multiple environmental stress factors accompanying with climate changes should be
managed through the use of precision techniques in agriculture to sustain the global food demand.
Organic residues have great potential for sustainable agricultural production. Grape pomace, spent
mushroom compost, farmyard manure were tested on the physiological and vegetative development
of grapevine rootstocks cultivated in equal mixture of vineyard soil and sand media in pots. All of
0
20
40
60
80
100
41 B 44-53 M Rupestris du Lot
Leaf area
Control F. manure M. compost G. pomace
92
the organic substance, added with 25% solid volume, decreased the pH of the growth medium with
the highest effect of pomace. Shoot length and leaf development features such as chlorophyll
content, area and mass were considerably enhanced by pomace application. Spent mushroom
compost also let to remarkable enhances in several growth parameters in comparison to control.
Therefore, the uses of spent mushroom compost and fermented pomace could be recommended to
add into the nursery growth medium to harden the grapevine saplings against the stress factors for a
sustainable viticulture.
REFERENCES
Dineshkumar, R., Subramanian, J., Arumugam, A., Rasheeq, A.A., Sampathkumar, P. (2018). Exploring the microalgae biofertilizer
effect on onion cultivation by field experiment. Waste Biomass Valorization, 11, 7787.
-Lomillo, J. & Gonzalez-San Jose (2017). Applications of wine pomace in the food industry: approaches and functions.
Compr.Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf., 16, 3-22.
OIV (1997). Descriptors for Grapevine (Vitis spp.).International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome.
Oliveira, M. & Duarte, E. (2016). Integrated approach to winery waste: waste generation and data consolidation. Front. Environ. Sci.
Eng., 10 (1), 168-176.
Richards, L.A. (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils. USDA Agric. Handbook 60. USDA, Washington D. C.
Rousk, J. & Baath, E. (2011). Growth of saprotrophic fungi and bacteria in soil. FEMSMicrobiol. Ecol., 78 (1), 17-30.
r, A. & Yazar, K. (2015). Diurnal dynamics of stomatal conductanceand leaf temperature of grapevines (Vitis vinifera L.) in
responseto daily climatic variables. Acta Sci. Pol. Hortorum Cultus, 14, 315.
Salgado, M.M.M., Blu, R.O., Janssens, M., Fincheir, P. (2019). Grape pomace compost as a source of organic matter: Evolution of
quality parameters to evaluate maturity and stability. Journal of Cleaner Production, 216, 56-63.
 Determination of the effects on growth and nutrient content of tomato seedlings of spent mushroom compost.
Mediterranean Agricultural Sciences, 30(1), 59-6.
Stavrinides, M.C., Daane, K.M., Lampinen, B.D., Mills, N.J. (2010). Plantwater stress, leaf temperature and spider mite (Acari:
Tatranychidae) outbreaks in California vineyards. Environ Entomol., 39, 12321241.
Tramontini, S., van Leuwen, C., Domec, J.C., Irvine, A.D., Basteau, C., Vitali, M., Schulz, O.M., Lovisolo, C. (2013) Impact of soil
texture and wateravailability on the hydraulic control of plant and grape-berry development. Plant Soil, 368, 215230.
Zweifel, R., Steppe, K., Sterck, F.J. (2007). Stomatal regulation by microclimate and tree waterrelations: interpreting eco-
physiological field data with a hydraulic plant model. J. Exp. Bot., 58, 21132131.
93
BICARBONATE INDUCED CALCIUM STRESS IMPAIRS THE
PHYSIOLOGY OF GRAFTED AND NONGRAFTED ‘PRIMA’
GRAPEVINES IN NURSERY
Y. GAYRETLI1, S.A.A. ABDULHADI1, A. SABIR2
1Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
2 Horticulture Department, Agriculture Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
ABSTRACT
Calcareous soil conditions frequently cause significant decreases in agricultural productivity
worldwide. Therefore, investigations on the physiological responses of grapevine genotypes to
calcium stress would yield invaluable knowledge to recover growth imbalances in nursery. This
study was conducted on the evaluation bicarbonate (NaHCO3) induced calcium stress on the
nes in nursery. One year old saplings cultivated
individually in plastic pots under glasshouse condition were subjected to two different doses (50
and 100 mL per plant) of 1 NNaHCO3 solution. The application of NaHCO3 solutions was
replicated three times to understand the detrimental effect of calcium stress on grapevine
physiology. Findings revealed remarkable negative effects of calcium stress on grapevine
physiology depending of the doses and the use of rootstock.
Keywords: Rootstock use, chlorosis, vine physiology, calcium stress, soil pH.
INTRODUCTION
Environmental stress factors as drought, salinity, and temperature extremes reduce the yield
and quality of horticultural plants across the world. Thus, the studies on developing sustainable
methods to alleviate the adverse effects of such stress factors should be performed with priority.
Under stress conditions, agricultural production should also be enhanced in order to sustain the food
necessities of rapidly growing world population. To supply the food demands of increasing
population, protected cultivation has gained particular significance to protect plans and
commodities against u multiple stress factors. Though, the majority of crops in protected cultivation
are grown in soil, there has been an increasing interest in the use of soilless culture techniques to
reduce soil-specific problems (Gayretli et al., 2019). However, experimental studies on the impacts
of macro- and micro-element deficiencies on grapvines are still inadequate to match necessity of
clear knowledge to sort out the problems regarding to vineyard nutrition applications under stress
conditions.
Roughly 30% of total land area of the world is calcareous soils resulting from high calcium
    -       
micronutrients in these soils is low because the high pH limits the solubility of the nutrients.
Particularly, the restrictive effect of high pH on grapevine nutrient acquisition physiology also
causes lime stress in vineyards worldwide. Hence, nutrient deficiency in plants is a worldwide
trouble that impact many crops cultivated in calcareous soils. Many cultivated perennial plants,
including some Vitis spp., shows low degree of lime tolerance. It has been well-known that high
bicarbonate degrees in the soil induce iron chlorosis and increase soil pH.
Iron chlorosis, in calcareous soils and water deficit are prevalent environmental stresses in
the Mediterranean Region. Therefore, in this region, they engender critical economic losses in
grapevine production. Within non-irrigated vineyards, local differentness in soil conditions, such as
94
texture, pH or active limestone content, can generate a wide variability in vine-to-vine water and/or

While there are many literature data on growth and development of vine, we still do not
have enough knowledge with regard to lime-induced chlorosis because lime-induced chlorosis is a
sophisticated phenomenon. Lime-induced chlorosis impacts major annual crops and perennial
plants growing on calcareous soils. Many woody crop plants such as grapevine are traditionally
grown with scion varieties grafted onto rootstocks. The selection of an appropriate rootstock is
essential to be managed the growth and yield of the scion. After European vineyards were destroyed
by the phylloxera in the second half of the 19th century, the use of rootstocks obtained a new
dimension.
Vitis vinifera L. itself shows symptoms of iron (Fe) deficiency when grafted on some lime-
susceptible American rootstocks, which have been made use of following phylloxera invasion at the
end of 19th century in European viticulture. Breeding efforts made to obtain lime-tolerant
rootstocks included successfully crossing between wild grape species, and some chlorosis-resistant
genotypes are now available for the grape growers of the many calcareous areas worldwide
(Bavaresco et al. 2003). Despite the fact that knowledge about the interactive relations among the
cultivar, the rootstock, and nutrient content in grapevines is decreased, many studies have indicated
that rootstocks vary in their effect on the nutrient levels in the grafted cultivar (Nikolaou et al.,
2000; Garcia et al., 2001; Bavaresco et al., 2003; Fisarakis et al., 2004; Robinson, 2005).
Lime-tolerant grapevine rootstocks possess some specific physiological mechanisms to
come through chlorosis when grown on lime soils, consisting of improvement of root Fe uptake
(Fregoni, 1980; Pouget, 1980) the root response mechanisms to Fe deficiency of grapevine are
c et al. 2000;Varanini and Maggioni 1982). The growth rate of sink
tissues and organs such as the roots, shoot apex, fruits, and storage organs can be restricted by
procuration of photosynthates from the source leaves or by a limited capacity of the sink to benefit
from the photosynthates (Marschner 1995). Studies on grapevines grown on calcareous soil
indicated that the high content and reactivity of high calcium carbonate in soil adversely affected
the leaf mineral content (Bavaresco and Poni 2003) and led to important chlorosis (Sabir et al.
2010), deriving from disturbed Fe metabolism due to elevated pH in rhizosphere. To mitigate
negative impacts of high pH are progressively adopted soil and foliar fertilizations to various crops.
The soil stress response of plants involves chemical signals originating in the root system
that are carried to the foliage in the transpiration stream where they induce stomatal closure.
Stomatal conductance (gs) is responsive to changes in the hydraulic conductance of the soil to leaf
pathway. Under environmental stress conditions, stomata operate to enhance photosynthesis on the
one hand, while avoiding dehydration induced damage on the other. Therefore stomatal regulation
plays essential role in plants to cope with environmental constrains. In the present study, certain
physiological responses, such as stomatal conductance, leaf temperature and chlorophyll content, of
           
investigated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study description
The experiment was carried out in the research and implementation glasshouse of Selcuk
University (Konya, Turkey) in 2020. The experimental layout was a two factors randomized
complete block design with two plant materials [own-     
-treated control, 50 and 100 mL 1 N NaHCO3solution per
plant. Each treatment has three replications consisted of three healthy plants. For the study, two
95
years old healthy vines were chosen according to homogeneity in vegetative development. The
experimental vines were individually grown in cylinder pots (approx. 8 L in solid volume)
containing sterile peat and perlite mixture in equal volume. The vines were pruned to leave only the
single main shoot per plant and cultivated in a controlled glasshouse under ambient light and
 
respectively (Data logger, Ebro EBI 20 TH1). The vines were watered daily with equal amount of
tap water (0.4 to 1.0 L per pot depending on weather conditions) to maintain the moisture at
approximately 60-70% water holding capacity of the cultivation medium. The same annual amount
of was applied to the vines during the vegetation period. The shoots were tied with thread to the
wires 2.2 m above the pots to let plants grow on a perpendicular position to ensure equally
benefiting from the sunlight (Sabir 2013).
Measurements and Analyses
Early responses of grapevines were investigated through certain physiological reactions such
as leaf temperature (Tleaf) and stomatal conductance (gs). Investigations were carried out with daily
monitoring after each application during three consecutive days. Tleaf and gs were recorded at
around 10 a. m. with a portable porometer (SC-1 Leaf Porometer) on each plant (Sabir and Yazar
2015), using sun-exposed mature leaves born at the top 5th to the 7th nodes per treatments
(Stavrinides et al. 2010).
Investigations on other leaf characteristics such as chlorophyll content, surface area, fresh
mass and dry mass were performed one month after the last bicarbonate application when the shoots
elongation was approaching cessation. Leaf chlorophyll content was estimated with SPAD meter
(SPAD-502; Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc., Japan) readings of 3rd and 4th nodes of each shoot. Leaf
(node) number per shoot, leaf area (LA, cm2), leaf fresh mass (FM, g) and leaf dry mass (DM, g)
analyses were performed on fully expanded leaves of representative grapevines of each treatment
(Tramontini et al. 2013). Three groups of mature leaves, consisting of nine leaves per treatment,
were collected from the mid-shoot area of each plant (OIV 1997). The first group was scanned to
determine single LA using Win       
Canada), while the second was immediately weighed to determine FM.
Statistical Analysis
Data were subjected to statistical analysis using a factorial design. Each treatment was
designed with three replicates consisting of a total of nine plants (pots). Mean values of parameters
were compared separately for grafted and nongrafted vines separately using the least significant
difference (LSD) test. Statistical tests were performed at P < 0.05 using SPSS 13.0 for Windows
(SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
pH and EC values of the experimental growth medium underwent a significant gradual
increases during the study (Fig. 1). The initial pH value of the medium was 7.6 and displayed
significant increase in response to NaHCO3 application depending on the solution concentration.
The pH values ranged from 7.8 to 8.5 at the end of the study. Similar increases in EC values were
also detected as influenced by different doses of NaHCO3 solution.
96
Figure 1. Variation in pH and EC values of growth medium as influenced by NaHCO3 applications.
Tleaf responses of grapevines were quite similar after the first and second NaHCO3
applications (Fig. 2). Therefore, the investigations after the third application were used to compare
the effects of NaHCO3 applications on temperatures of the mature leaves. As can be seen in Fig. 2,
100 mL NaHCO3 applications resulted in obvious decrease in Tleaf. The changes in Tleaf were
statistically insignificant for the vines grafted on 41 B rootstock. However, Tleaf underwent
significant decrease after the 2nd treatment in own rooted grapevines, depending on the doses. Tleaf
may be precursor for early detection of plant response to environmental adversities (Acosta-Motos
et al. 2016) although it may not completely determine the stress tolerance capacity of plant (Sabir
and Yazar 2015). After the third application, Tleaf values of both grafted and nongrafted grapevines
the values for optimum photosynthesis (25
Figure 2. Variation in leaf temperature of grafted and nonas influenced
by NaHCO3 applications.
Stomatal gas exchange was investigated with three consecutive days following each
NaHCO3 applications. The gs immediately decreased just after the 1stNaHCO3 application at higher
dose as depicted in Fig. 3. In grafted vines, 50 mL NaHCO3 applications was ineffective on gs,
while the 100 mL dose led to significant decrease for both three days. Responses of the own rooted
vines were quite different from the grafted vines in that the lower dose (50 mL) was also effective
on the gs after the second and third days of the first NaHCO3 application. Stomatal conductance is a
physiological process related to transpiration efficiency of plants (Johnson et al. 2009). NaHCO3
application negatively affected the transpiration efficiency of grapevines with greater effects on

7,8
8,4
7,9
8,3 8,5
7,4
7,8
8,2
8,6
1st 2nd 3rd
pH
Application replications
Control 50 mL 100 mL
220
816
1520
0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
1st 2nd 3rd
EC
Application replications
Control 50 mL 100 mL
22
25
28
31
34
1 2 3
Leaf temperature
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL 100 mL
'Prima'/41 B
22
25
28
31
34
1 2 3
Leaf temperature
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL 100 mL
'Prima'/own
97
Figure 3. Variation in stomatal conductance of grafted     as
influenced by the first NaHCO3 applications.
The gs values after the 2nd NaHCO3 application also displayed significant variations
depending on the dose and grafting (Fig. 4). In grafted vines, 100 mL NaHCO3 application
significantly decreased the gs although 50 mL did not result in remarkable change in gs. In own
rooted vines, dose depended decrease was detected following the NaHCO3 applications. It should
be underlined that the gs values of the vines of 100 mL application at 3rd day were not as far below
as those of the first and second days. This may indicate the adaptive strategies of the grapevines
during the prolonged period.
Figure 4. Variation in stomatal conductance of grafted and no   as
influenced by the second NaHCO3 applications.
After the 3rd NaHCO3 application, dose depended decrease in gs observed in both grafted
and nongrafted vines (Fig. 5). But the negative effect magnitude of 100 mL NaHCO3 application in
grafted vines was not as high as those of nongrafted vines. This may be due to the high tolerance
feature of 41 B rootstock to high pH condition.
Figure 5. Variation in stomatal cond       as
influenced by the third NaHCO3 applications.
50
80
110
140
170
123
Stomatal conductance
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL 100 mL
'Prima'/41 B
50
80
110
140
170
1 2 3
Stomatal conductance
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL
'Prima' own
50
80
110
140
170
123
Stomatal conductance
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL 100 mL
'Prima'/41 B
50
80
110
140
170
1 2 3
Stomatal conductance
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL 100 mL
'Prima' own
0
50
100
150
200
1 2 3
Stomatal conductance
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL 100 mL
'Prima'/41 B
50
80
110
140
170
1 2 3
Stomatal conductance
Days after application
0 mL 50 mL 100 mL
'Prima' own
98
As illustrated in Fig. 6, leaf chlorophyll contents determined after the third application
decreased in response to the gradual increase in pH due to NaHCO3 application. High pH value in
the soil restricts the availability of certain nutrients among which the Fe deficiency is widespread
across the world (Bertamini and Nedunchezhian, 2005). Decrease in the leaf chlorophyll
concentration is accompanied by the increase in pH level. In a previous study, high calcium
carbonate in cultivation medium resulted in considerable chlorosis emerging from disturbed Fe
metabolism due to elevated pH in rhizosphere (Sabir et al. 2010).
Figure 6.            as
influenced by first NaHCO3 applications.
CONCLUSION
Experimental knowledge on the physiological responses of grapevine to calcium stress
would aid the growers to recover growth imbalances in nursery. NaHCO3 induced high pH in
growth mediumadversely affected        
nursery, depending on doses (50 and 100 mL 1 N NaHCO3 solution per plant). Decrease in stomatal
conductance was more apparent than those of leaf temperature, indicating the sensitivity of gas
exchange of stomatal aperture. In certain cases, physiological constrains were slighter in grafted
vines than nongrafted ones. This proves the convenience of the use of 41 B rootstock for calcareous
conditions.
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Gayretli, Y., Jawshle A.I.M., Kus, A.D., Demiray, M.B., Zengin, H., A. (2019). Changes in Certain Agronomic Characteristics
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with spatiotemporal distribution of soil water content. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 68, 369-377.
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nutrient uptake and growth patterns of grapevine Vitis vinifera L. cv. Thompson Seedless. Agronomie, 20, 363-373.
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induced iron deficiency. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research, 8(3), 823-829.
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100
ESTIMATION OF WHEAT WATER FOOTPRINT BASED ON
CRU AND AgMERRA GRIDDED DATASETS
Faraz GORGIN PAVEH1*, Hadi RAMEZANI ETEDALI2, Parisa KAKVAND1
1:TEHRAN UNIVERSITY
2:IMAM KHOMEINI INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
Corresponding author: Gorgin.faraz@gmail.com
Abstract
There is always a huge lack of data in space and time scale, especially when there is no synoptic
station near a specified location. In this paper, the 30 years data from two datasets, CRU and AgMERRA,
were used to estimate wheat's water footprint. Wheat is the main cereal of the Qazvin Plain, the largest plain
in the Salt Lake basin. The AquaCrop model was used to estimate the water footprint (WF) parameters.
Then, the synoptic station in the province evaluated data. According to the results, the CRU dataset was
much more efficient than the AgMERRA dataset. The amount of R2, RMSE, NRMSE, and ME in estimating
the blue WF were 0.414, 94.93, 22.3%, and 171.51 with the CRU dataset, and 0.326, 189.66, 38.43%, and
402.66 with the AgMERRA dataset, respectively. These results were 0.463, 94.93, 22.32%, and 171.51 to
estimate the green WF with the CRU dataset, while the same index was 0.253, 145.23, 34.35%, and 243.6
with the AgMERRA dataset, respectively. According to the results, using the CRU dataset to estimate the
blue and the green WF of wheat in the Qazvin province is suggested. This study suggests more studies on
datasets in estimating the WF of crops.
Keywords: Wheat, CRU, AgMERRA, Dataset, AquaCrop.
1. Introduction
The lack of data in space and time scale is always a challenge to agricultural managers worldwide. The
number and the accuracy of synoptic stations may not be acceptable in some places. The accurate estimate in
weather parameters can reduce water usage and increase agriculture production. It also helps water resources
managers to more efficient using lands.
As satellites and remote sensing techniques progress, a wide range of projects can be done locally,
regionally, nationally, and globally. Agricultural and natural resource management, flood degradation,
drought, climate change, soil and air pollution, crop's water requirement, etc. are examples in which satellite
data can be used. These devices also take less time and cost, and they can be very effective.
Hoekstra (2003) introduced the concept of 'water footprint' (WF), which is an indicator of the allocation
of freshwater resources to different sections of the production of the process (Ababaei and Ramezani Etedali, 2014,
2017). This term facilitates water resources management, especially in water-scarce areas. This concept has
been adopted in numerous studies (e.g., Ramezani Etedali et al., (2019) and Ababaei and Ramezani Etedali, (2016);
Bazrafshan et al., (2020); Mojtabavi et al., (2018); and Nazari et al., (2020)).
Estimating the water requirement of crops, yield and other crop parameters can be done by simulation
models. But each model have several issues such as the highly requirement of input data and the information
about the crop growth of specified locations. FAO developed AquaCrop in 2009 to address these limitations.
101
AquaCrop is a multi-crop model that simulates the water-limited yield of the herbaceous crop under different
biophysical and management conditions and provides a good balance between robustness, simplicity, and
output accuracy, which can be used for a large number of crops (Raes et al., 2009; Steduto et al., 2009).
The lack of data is an undeniable issue that so many regions are dealing with it. On the other hand, there
are so many datasets worldwide, which suggest free data in vast quantities. But their accuracy in estimating
the weather and climate parameters, are not specified enough. In this paper, the accuracy of two datasets is
used to estimate the water footprint of wheat in Iran's provinces, the Qazvin Province. The AquaCrop model
was used to convert weather variables to water footprint parameters.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
The Qazvin province, which is located between 48 45' 50 50' E and 35 37'-36 45' N has an area of 15
821 km2. In the Salt Lake basin, the largest plain is the Qazvin Plain. This plain has the largest cultivation
area of various crops of all plains. The location of the province in the country is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1 The location of the Qazvin Province in Iran.
The climate of the Qazvin province is arid to semi-arid with relatively warm summers and cold winters
with 14 C mean annual temperature and 300 mm precipitation. The main irrigated crops in this plain are
wheat, barley, corn, maize, alfalfa, tomato and canola. According to Agricultural Jihad Ministry (2015)
144000 ha of land under cultivation is dedicated to wheat, which leads to 315000 ton production per year.
102
2.2. Water Footprint
The water footprint (WF) is consisted of two elements, the blue WF and the green WF. The volume of
the water which is used in the production of crops, and is known as net water requirement, is called the blue
WF. The green WF is related to the effective rainfall which is stored in the soil and supplies crop water
demand (Hoekstra and Chapagin, 2008; Hoekstra et al., 2009). These two elements can be determined by the
following equations:
( ) 10
ce
Blue ET P
WF
−
=
10
e
Green P
WF
=
Which WFBlue and WFGreen are the blue WF and the green WF, respectively, in m3 t-1, Pe is the total effective
rainfall during the crop-growing season (mm), ETc    
yield (t ha-1). In this model, the ETc calculated by the FAO Penman-Montieth method by the CROPWAT
model (Allen et al., 1998), and the meteorological data from the Qazvin synoptic station (Table 1), and the Pe
values were calculated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Table 1 Water footprint components for irrigated and rainfed wheat.
Crop
Yield
(kg h-1)
Water use (mm)
WF
(m3 t-1)
ETc
Peff
Green
Blue
Total
Irrigated
Wheat
3939
475
303
769
437
1206
Rainfed
Wheat
805
-
303
376
-
376
2.3. Datasets
In this paper, data from the 30 years of two datasets were used to estimate the WF parameters. These two
datasets are CRU and AgMERRA.
The CRU TS dataset which was developed by the UK's Natural Environment Research Council (NERC)
and the US Department of Energy, is one the reliable and popular available gridded datasets. This dataset
contains data on ten weather variables from over 5000 individual weather stations which interpolated into
 This gridded time-series dataset covers the period 1901-2019, and its coverage include
all land areas.
The AgMERRA and AgCFSR climate forcing datasets were created as an element of the Agricultural
Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP), which provide consistent, daily time series over
the period of 1980-2010. These two datasets cover global variables that require for agricultural models. Data
interpolated into  grids. In this study, data from only AgMERRA dataset were used.
103
2.4. AquaCrop
The AquaCrop model, version5, is used in this study to compute the actual evapotranspiration. This
model was introduced by the FAO (Raes et al., 2012). The AquaCrop model simulates yield and biomass in
relation to the water available to plants, which were introduced by Doorenbos and Kassam empirical relation
(1979). The model estimates the values of water productivity index (transpiration), and the yield of the crop
in a daily time step through separation transpiration and evaporation from evapotranspiration, and the
amount of biomass produced by the harvest index (Steduto et al., 2009). It also uses green cover on the ground
instead of the leaf surface index. In this model, the growth rate index does have great importance, and it
examines the productivity index, instead of the ratio of the relative decrease in performance.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. The CRU dataset results
The amount of indexes and the proposed model for the CRU dataset for both the blue and the green WF
are presented in Table 2. According to Table 2, the R2 for the blue WF is 0.414, while the RMSE is 131.03,
and the NRMSE is 26.55 %. The ME in this model is 249.03. Also, for the green WF, the amount of R2 is
0.463, while the RMSE is 94.93, and the NRMSE is 22.32 %. In this model, the ME is 171.51. At this table,
y in the proposed model, represent the CRU dataset and x represent the synoptic station, and according to the
table, a linear relation is proposed.
Table 2 The proposed model, R, RMSE, NRMSE and ME of the CRU dataset and the synoptic station
for the blue WF and the green WF.
The WF component
The proposed model
R2
RMSE
(m3 t-1)
NRMSE
(%)
ME
(m3 t-1)
Blue WF
y = 0.4399x + 356.42
0.414
131.03
26.55
249.03
Green WF
y = 0.5676x + 112.22
0.463
94.93
22.32
171.51
According to the results, the proposed model for the green WF is more efficient than the blue WF.
3.2. The AgMERRA dataset results
Similarly, the amount of indexes and the proposed model for the AgMERRA dataset for both blue and
the green WF are presented. According to this table, the R2 for the blue WF is 0.326, while the RMSE is
189.66, and the NRMSE is 38.43 %. The ME in this model is 402.66. Also, for the green WF, the amount of
R2 is 0.253, while the RMSE is 145.23, and the NRMSE is 34.35 %. In this model, the ME is 243.6. The
proposed model is also a linear regression between the CRU data and the synoptic data.
104
Table 3 The proposed model, R, RMSE, NRMSE and ME of the AgMERRA dataset and the synoptic
station for the blue WF and the green WF
The WF component
The proposed model
R2
RMSE
(m3 t-1)
NRMSE
(%)
ME
(m3 t-1)
Blue WF
y = 0.318x + 182.91
0.326
189.663
38.432
402.66
Green WF
y = 0.4059x + 128.95
0.253
145.23
34.35
243.6
According to the table, the AgMERRA is more efficient for the green WF than the blue WF.
4. Conclusion
In this study, two datasets, the CRU, and the AgMERRA datasets, were used to estimate the blue and the
green WF for wheat in Iran's provinces, the Qazvin Province. These data were used as input data in the
AquaCrop model to calculate the WF parameters. Then data were evaluated by the nearest synoptic station.
Results indicate that the CRU dataset is much more efficient in estimating the WF than the AgMERRA
dataset. The amount of R2, RMSE, NRMSE, and ME in estimating the blue WF were 0.414, 94.93, 22.3%,
and 171.51 with CRU dataset, and 0.326, 189.66, 38.43%, and 402.66 with AgMERRA dataset, respectively.
These results were 0.463, 94.93, 22.32%, and 171.51 for estimating the green WF with the CRU dataset,
while the same index were 0.253, 145.23, 34.35%, and 243.6 with the AgMERRA dataset, respectively.
Datasets can be a good alternative to synoptic stations, especially in places far from synoptic stations. More
studies on them may find a good relationship between them.
References
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Bazrafshan, O., Zamani, H., Etedali, H. R., Moshizi, Z. G., Shamili, M., Ismaelpour, Y., & Gholami, H. (2020). Improving water
management in date palms using economic value of water footprint and virtual water trade concepts in Iran. Agricultural Water
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Hoekstra AY. 2003. Virtual Water Trade. Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade, Delft, the
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             
Oxford, UK.
Hoekstra AY, Chapagain AK, Aldaya MM, Mekonnen MM. 2009. Water Footprint Manual: State of the Art 2009. Water Footprint
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accounting for optimizing crop patterns to mitigate water crises in dry regions. Irrigation and Drainage, 67(2), 295-305.
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of rainfed wheat and barley in the Qazvin province of Iran. Irrigation and Drainage.
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105
ESTIMATION OF MAIZE WATER FOOTPRINT BASED ON
GPCC AND AgCFSR GRIDDED DATASETS
Parisa KAKVAND1, Hadi RAMEZANI ETEDALI2, Faraz GORGIN PAVEH1*
1:TEHRAN UNIVERSITY
2:IMAM KHOMEINI INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY
*Corresponding author: Gorgin.faraz@gmail.com
Abstract
Because of the huge lack of data in space and time scale, especially in places far from synoptic
stations, datasets can be good alternatives. In this study, the GPCC and the AgCFSR datasets were used to
estimate the water footprint (WF) of maize in the Qazvin Plain, Iran. The 30 years of data from datasets were
used as input for the AquaCrop model. The model calculated the WF parameters. Then the closest synoptic
station in the province was used to evaluate data. Results showed the ability and efficiency of both datasets.
The GPCC dataset was more efficient in estimating the WF than the AgCFSR dataset. Results showed that
the GPCC dataset is more efficient in estimating the green WF, but the AgCFSR is better in estimating the
blue WF. According to the results, datasets are efficient in estimating the WF of maize in the province. With
more studies, the best dataset in estimating the WF of each crop in other places can be found.
Keywords: Maize, AquaCrop, AgCFSR, GPCC, Dataset.
1. Introduction
The lack of data in space and time scale may be a great challenge to water resources managers. The
number of synoptic stations and their accuracy may not always be acceptable, especially in some regions
there are no close synoptic stations. By the accurate estimation of weather and climate parameters, land use
plan can be more efficient.
On the other hand, satellites and subsequently, remote sensing techniques, provide a wide range of
locally, regionally, nationally, and globally data, with the minimum time and price. These data can be used in
many fields such as agricultural and natural resource management, flood degradation, drought, climate
change, soil, and air pollution.
The first time, the concept of 'water footprint' (WF) was introduced by Hoekstra (2003) as an indicator of
the allocation of freshwater resources to different sections of the production of a process (Ababaei and Ramezani
Etedali, 2014, 2017). Water resources management, especially in water-scarce areas, can be facilitated. Many
studies was focused on this concept (e.g., Ramezani Etedali et al., (2019) and Ababaei and Ramezani Etedali, (2016);
Bazrafshan et al., (2020); Mojtabavi et al., (2018); and Nazari et al., (2020)).
Simulations models have been developed in recent years, especially in estimating the water requirement
of crops, yield, and other crop parameters. Despite huge progress on them, they have several issues, such as
the high requirement of input data and the information about the crop growth of each crop's specified
locations. In 2009, AquaCrop developed by FAO, which addressed these limitations. This model is a multi-
crop model that simulates the water-limited yield of the herbaceous crop under different biophysical and
106
management conditions, which provides a good balance between robustness, simplicity, and output accuracy,
which can be used for a large number of crops (Raes et al., 2009; Steduto et al., 2009).
As mentioned, many regions are facing several issues of lack of data. Using worldwide datasets that
suggest free data and simulation models can be an effective solution to this issue. In this research, two
datasets were used to estimate the WF of maize in the Qazvin Province, Iran. Results were evaluated by the
synoptic station in the province. Data from datasets and the synoptic station were used to calculate the WF's
parameters.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
The Qazvin province, with 15 821 km2 area, is located between 48 45' 50 50' E and 35 37-36 45' N.
The Qazvin Plain, is located in this province, which is the largest plain in the Salt Lake basin, with the
largest cultivation area of various crops (Figure 1).
The climate of this province is arid to semi-arid. It has relatively warm summers and cold winters with
14 C and 300 mm mean annual temperature and precipitation, respectively. In the Qazvin Plain, wheat,
barley, corn, maize, alfalfa, tomato, and canola are the main irrigated crops. Maize is responsible for 42% of
the production in the plain (Agricultural Jihad Ministry, 2015).
Figure 2 The Qazvin Province in Iran.
2.2. Water Footprint
The concept of WF is consists of two elements, which are the blue WF and the green WF. The blue WF
is the volume of the water, which is used in the production of crops. It is also known as the net water
requirement. The effective rainfall which is stored in the soil and supplies crop water demand is the green
WF demand (Hoekstra and Chapagin, 2008; Hoekstra et al., 2009). These two elements are determined as below:
107
( ) 10
ce
Blue ET P
WF
−
=
10
e
Green P
WF
=
which WFBlue is the blue WF (m3 t-1), and WFGreen is the green WF (m3 t-1), Pe is the total effective rainfall
during the crop-growing season (mm), ETc a-
1). The ETc is calculated by the CROPWAT model and the FAO Penman-Montieth method (Allen et al., 1998),
and the meteorological data from the Qazvin synoptic station, as Table 1. Finally, the Pe values were
calculated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).
Table 4 Water footprint components for irrigated maize.
Crop
Yield
(kg h-1)
Water use (mm)
WF
(m3 t-1)
ETc
Peff
Green
Blue
Total
Maize
55594
695
29
5
120
125
2.3. Datasets
For estimating the WF parameters, two datasets, GPCC, and AgCFSR, were used in this paper.
The GPCC, which is short of Global Precipitation Climatology Center is operated by DWD under the
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). This dataset provides global precipitation analyses to monitor
and research the earth's climate, at monthly and daily precipitation datasets. The GPCC products are
                 
composed of observed monthly totals from more than 80000 stations worldwide.
The AgCFSR and AgMERRA climate forcing datasets were created as an element of the Agricultural
Model Intercomparison and Improvement Project (AgMIP), which provide consistent, daily time series from
1980 to 2010. These two datasets cover global variables that require agricultural models. Data interpolated
into  grids. In this paper, data from only AgCFSR dataset were used.
2.4. AquaCrop
In this study, the AquaCrop model, version 5 were used. This model, which was introduced by the FAO
(Raes et al., 2012), simulates yield and biomass to the water available to plants, introduced by Doorenbos
and Kassam empirical relation (1979). According to Steduto et al. (2009), the AquaCrop model estimates the
values of water productivity index, which is the transpiration, the yield of the crop in a daily time step
through separation transpiration and evaporation from evapotranspiration, and the amount of biomass
produced by the harvest index. Also, the green cover on the ground is used instead of the leaf surface index.
Finally, the growth rate index has great importance, and the model examines the productivity index, instead
of the ratio of the relative decrease in performance.
108
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. The GPCC dataset results
The green WF and the blue WF of maize estimated by the synoptic station and the GPCC dataset from
1980 to 2009 are demonstrated in Figure 2 and Figure 3, respectively. According to the figures, the
estimates are close together, and in most years, the GPCC dataset underestimates the green and the blue WF.
Also, RMSE for the blue and the green WF are 43/05 and 18/22, respectively, with 101/54 and 47/05 ME,
respectively. According to the results, the GPCC dataset is more efficient in estimating the green WF than
the blue WF.
Figure 3 The Green WF of maize estimated by the synoptic station and the GPCC dataset
Figure 4 The Blue WF of maize estimated by the synoptic station and the GPCC dataset
109
3.2. The AgCFSR dataset results
Similarly, the green WF and the blue WF of maize estimated by the synoptic station and the AgCFSR
dataset from 1980 to 2009 are demonstrated in Figure 4 and Figure 5. According to the figures, in most
years, the AgCFSR dataset underestimates the green and the blue WF. Also, RMSE for the blue and the
green WF are 39/72 and 120/31, respectively, with 82/72 and 167/05 ME, respectively. According to the
results, the AgCFSR is more efficient in estimating the blue WF than the green WF.
Figure 5 The Green WF of maize estimated by the synoptic station and the AgCFSR dataset
Figure 6 The Blue WF of maize estimated by the synoptic station and the AgCFSR dataset
4. Conclusion
In this study, two datasets, the GPCC, and the AgCFSR datasets were used to estimate the blue and the
green WF for maize in one of Iran's provinces, the Qazvin Province. First, data from the closest synoptic
station and the GPCC dataset, and the AgCFSR datasets were used as input data in the AquaCrop model.
Then the WF parameters were calculated from the AquaCrop model. Results showed that the GPCC dataset
110
was more efficient in estimating the green WF than the blue WF. But the AgCFSR is more efficient in
estimating the blue WF than the green WF. In total, the GPCC is more efficient than the AgCFSR dataset in
estimating the WF. This study suggests using datasets instead of synoptic stations. However, more studies
are needed to evaluate their ability to estimate the WF parameters.
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Oxford, UK.
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111
CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID IN MEAT AND MEAT
PRODUCTS AND ITS EFFECTS ON HEALTH
111
1Selcuk University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Konya, Turkey
* Corresponding author: ilky.clk.26@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a term used for the mixture of positional and geometric
isomers of linoleic acid (C18:2), an essential omega-6 fatty acid, containing double bonds in the cis-
9 and cis-12 arrangement. The double bonds contained in the CLA are found in the form of cis or
trans. CLA has 28 different isomers, but only biological properties of cis9-trans11 and trans10-
cis12 isomers have been determined. The main source of CLA is milk and meat products. Cooking
time-method, storage and fermentation process do not cause to any changes, while the level of CLA
in meat varies with various factors such as season, type of animal, diet, age, individual
physiological characteristics and environmental conditions. Meats from ruminant have more CLA
amount than meats from non-ruminant. In several studies, it has been determined that CLA has
quite significant and positive effects on human health. It has been stated that CLA has antioxidative
impact and positive effect on the immune system. It was reported that it protects against various
diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases and some types of cancer as well as
increases muscle development. In this review, the structure of CLA, its presence in meat and meat
products, and the effects of its consumption on human health will be discussed.
Keywords: Conjugated linoleic acid, essential fatty acid, meat, ruminant, health
1.INTRODUCTION
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers are functional lipids obtained from ruminant
animals and whose substantial effects on the body have been determined in studies on humans and
animals . CLA is a term used for 28 different positional and geometric isomers
of linoleic acid (c9, c12) with 18 carbon atom, an essential -6 fatty acid. Double bonds are located
at 7,9; 8,10; 9,11; 10,12 or 11,13 positions and in different cis-trans configurations (cis/cis;
trans/trans; cis/trans or trans/cis) in the carbon chain .
112
Figure 1. Graphical representation linoleic acid and its most biologically active isomers (Bessa et al., 2000)
The double bonds of the CLA can be found in cis or trans form. The presence of one of
these bonds in trans form indicates that this compound is biologically active  and Kaya,
2008). Among the conjugated linoleic acid isomers, cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12 isomers are
known to have biological activity (Pariza et al., 2001) and they constitute 80-90% and 3-5% of the
total CLA, respectively    2019). cis-9, trans-11 octadecadienoic acid is the
predominant natural isomer in humans and animals. The term rumenic acid was suggested as the
common name for this isomer. Rumenic acid is considered the most biologically active CLA isomer
because it has the ability to incorporated with phospholipids in the membrane (Bessa et al., 2000).
Figure 2. Structures of linoleic acid and its two CLA isomers; linoleic acid (cis-9, cis-12 octadecadienoic
acid) (left); cis-9, trans-11 CLA (middle); trans-10, cis-12 CLA (right) ik, 2006)
2.BIOSYNTHESIS OF CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID
CLA isomers are intermediates formed during the biohydrogenation of polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA) such as linoleic and linolenic to stearic acid (C18:0) by Butyrivibrio fibrosolvens
bacteria in the rumen and Kaya, 2008). The linoleate c12, t11 isomerase enzyme, which this
bacterium has, carries the double bond at the 12th carbon atom of linoleic acid to the 11th carbon
113
atom and converts the c/c configuration to the c/t configuration. At this stage, the c9, t11 isomer is
synthesized as an intermediate product and some of it is transported to the tissues. (Demirok and
 . Isomers that are not transported to tissues are reduced by the CLA reductase
enzyme to form trans-vaccenic acid (t11-octadecenoic acid C18: 1). Some of this compound is
transported to the tissues. The non-transportable trans-vaccenic acid is hydrogenated by another
rumen bacteria to form stearic acid. Also --linolenic and oleic acid are converted first to
trans-vaccenic acid and then to stearic acid in the rumen of ruminants. The c-9, t-11 isomer is not
synthesized from these fatty acids as an intermediate product . In the
second metabolic pathway, the synthesis of CLA isomers occurs in adipose tissues and the
mammary gland        . The part that does not
undergo rumen biohydrogenation is absorbed from the intestines and transforms into conjugated
octadecadienoic (C18: 2, c-9, t-11) acid through the 9-desaturase enzyme in the tissues 
Kaya, 2008; Wang and Jones, 2004). The adipose tissue and mammary gland of ruminants have
considerable 9-desaturase activity (Griinari et al., 2000).
c-6, c-9, c-12 c-9, c-12 c-9, c-12, c-15
(gamma linolonic acid) (linoloenic acid) (alpha linoloenic acid)
c-6, c-9, t-11 c-9, t-11 c-9, t-11, c-15
(conj. octadecatrienoic acid) (conj. octadecadienoic acid) (conj. octadecatrienoic acid)
c-6, t-11 t-11, c-15
(octadecadienoic acid) (octadecadienoic acid)
t-11
(vaccenic acid)
C 18:0
(stearic acid)
Figure 3. Predominant pathway of biohydrogenation of unsaturated C18 fatty acids (Aydin, 2005)
114
3.CLA CONCENTRATIONS IN FOODS
CLA is naturally found in limited amounts in many foods but cannot be synthesized in the
human body . The main food source of CLA for humans is ruminant meats
(lamb, beef etc.) and dairy products such as milk and cheese. The main CLA isomer in natural foods
is cis-9, trans-11 (c9t11) (Wang and Jones, 2004). The concentration of CLA in dairy products
varies depending on the concentration of CLA in unprocessed milk. CLA concentration of
slaughtered meat is quite high compared to poultry and fish. The level of CLA in ruminants is much
higher than in non-ruminants . The highest CLA amounts were found in lambs. It has
been determined that the CLA content of seafood and poultry, except for turkey, is low (Gnadig et
al., 2003). The amounts of CLA obtained from meat and dairy products vary between 2.9 and 5.6
mg per gram of fat, while these amounts are around 0.6 and 0.9 mg in egg and chicken meat,
respectively .
Table 1. CLA contents of various foods, g/100 g of total fatty acids (Gnadig et al., 2003)
CLA content
Butter
0.63-2.02
Milk
0.46-1.78
Beef
0.67-0.99
Lamb
1.62-2.02
Fish
0.04-0.28
Yoghurt
0.43-1.12
Cheese
0.50-1.70
Pork
0.15
Turkey
0.96
Plant oils
not determined
Table 2. CLA content in meat products (in mg/g fatty acid methyl ester) (Schmidet al., 2006)
Meat product
CLA content
Salami
4.2
Knackwurst
3.7
Black pudding
3.0
Mortadella
2.9
Wiener
1.5-3.6
Liver sausage
3.3
Cooked ham
2.7
Beef frank
3.3
Turkey frank
1.6
Beef smoked sausage
3.8
Smoked bacon
0.8-2.6
Smoked bratwurst
2.4
Smoked German sausage for spreading
4.4
Smoked ham
2.9
Smoked turkey
2.4
Minced meat
3.5
Corned beef
6.6
Potted meat
3.0
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4.BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID
Although there are various data in the literature about the daily consumption of CLA in
order to show its beneficial effects on humans, many researchers recommend that the daily
consumption should be at least 3 g . Interest in CLA started with the discovery
that CLA has anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic effect in cooked beef in 1979 . In
addition to these effects, the effect of reducing fat accumulation in the body, reducing the risk of
arteriosclerosis, antidiabetic effects, strengthening effects of the immune function, increasing bone
mineralization has been explored and has taken attention with its use in functional food production
recently ainer and Heiss, 2004). It is known that the c9-t11
and t10-c12 isomers of CLA have different and similar metabolic effects. It is stated that the c9-t11
isomer induces growth, while the t10-c12 isomer is effective in changing body composition. It is
also reported that these two isomers have an anticarcinogenic effect . In
various studies, it has been determined that CLA has an anticarcinogenic effect at various stages of
cancer development (Rainer and Heiss, 2004). There is no precise information about CLA's
mechanism of preventing cancer formation. However, there are some hypotheses regarding this
issue. One of them is that antioxidants have an anticarcinogenic effect by preventing the formation
of some carcinogenic compounds such as nitrous compounds. CLA has been reported to reduce the
amount of residual nitrite thanks to its antioxidant properties and prevent cancer formation (Hah et
al., 2006). Many studies in animals have revealed that CLA can reduce fat accumulation and
increase lean body mass (Wildman, 2002). CLA has the effect of reducing body fat, especially
abdominal fat, chaniging serum total lipids and reducing whole body glucose uptake in the human
body (Huang et al., 2008). In animal studies, CLA has also been found to increase growth efficiency
ve lean body mass, reduce body fat, and prevent diabetes (Mulvihill, 2001). Conjugated linoleic
acid has also been found to have antiatherosclerotic properties as well as antidiabetic properties in
animal studies. (Dhiman et al., 2005).
5.FACTORS AFFECTING CLA CONTENT OF MEAT AND MEAT PRODUCTS
CLA content in beef is influenced by a various of factors such as seasonal variations, animal
genetics and production practices (Ma et al., 1999). Differences in the CLA content between
different animal tissues, between animals of different breeds or upbringing, or between individual
animals of the same breed are reported. Raes et al., (2004) reported that higher CLA concentrations
in muscles are generally associated with a higher intramuscular fat content. The diet is the most
important factor because of providing the substrates for the CLA formation. Pasture feeding led to
significantly higher CLA concentrations. Using oilseeds to the diet has been seen to be an efficient
method to increase the CLA content in the muscle lipids. Sunflower seed, linseed and safflower
seed increased the CLA content of lambs (Schmid et al., 2006). In another study, extruded full-fat
soybeans were also shown to increase the CLA content in muscle fatty acids of crossbred Angus
steers (Madron et al., 2002). Priolo et al., (2003) found that chickpeas to replace soybean meal and
corn in the diet of lambs also resulted in higher CLA concentrations in the longissimus dorsi
muscle. Feeding vegetable oils and fish oil supplements are another way to increase CLA content
(Schmid et al., 2006). Except these factors, cooking and storing does not negatively affect the CLA
concentration of the meat and meat products. In ground beef patties cooked with frying, baking,
116
broiling or microwaving, CLA concentrations did not show large differences. Shantha et al., (1994)
reported that cooking methods did not cause any major changes in the CLA. Maranesi et al. (2005)
indicated that both broiling and microwave cooking did not alter total CLA in in lamb rib-loins.
There are limited number of studies about cooking and storage on CLA formation. The number of
studies needs to be increased.
6. CONCLUSION
Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is used for positional and geometric isomers of linoleic acid.
Meat and meat products are important foods for CLA. Especially meats obtained from ruminants
are quite rich in terms of CLA amount compared to those obtained from non-ruminants. Several
studies show that CLA has beneficial effects on health such as antioxidative, antidiabetes,
anticarcinogenic impact. For this reason, with the use of CLA in meat and meat products, it is
thought that both healthy and quality products will be obtained.
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THE APPLICATION AREAS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY IN FOOD
INDUSTRY
1*, Hatice Sena Olcay21, Alime Yaldiz Cabi11
1Selcuk University, Agriculture Faculty, Department of Food Engineering, Konya, Turkey
2Department of Food Engineering, Istanbul,
Turkey
* Corresponding author: ilky.clk.26@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The term 'nanotechnology' comes from the term 'nanometer', which is one billionth of a
meter. Nanotechnology is a field of science and technology that deals with the production,
characterization and modification of atomic, molecular or colloidal level of materials. New products
can be developed by applying nanotechnology in many fields such as food, medicine,
biotechnology, agriculture, pharmacology, electronics, defense, textile, machinery and construction
industries. In the food industry, nanotechnology has applications in many areas such as the
development of nutrient-enriched foods, preservation, packaging, reduction of agricultural inputs,
new product development, increasing food safety, and the development of nano-additives and
nanosensors. The nanoparticles produced by nanotechnology applications provide the desired
properties to foods such as texture and aroma. Food packaging is the most applied area of
nanotechnology and its applications in this area are gradually increasing. Food safety and shelf life
can be secured by developing active and intelligent packaging systems instead of traditional
packaging systems. With nanosensors and intelligent packaging, indication of spoilage occurring in
foods can be determined in advance. Although the applications of nanotechnology in foods are
becoming crucial all over the world, there is no definite information about its effects on human
health. This situation causes consumers to be cautious about nanotechnology applications. In this
review, nanotechnology and its usage areas
in food industry are discussed.
Keywords: Nanotechnology, food industry, food safety, intelligent packaging system, nanosensor
1.INTRODUCTION
              (Momin et al.,
2013). A nanometer is one billionth of a meter. Generally, word of nano mentions a size scale
between 1 to 100 nm (Mousavi and Rezaei, 2011).
Nanotechnology is a branch of science and technology that involves the characterization and
production of structures or materials that have at least one dimension that is smaller than 100 nm in
length. When particle size of the material reduces below 100 nm, material demonstrates different
physical and chemical properties from macroscale materials constituted of the same substance
(Duncan, 2011).
Nanotechnology can apply in many fields such as food, medicine, biotechnology,
agriculture, pharmacology, electronics, defense, textile, machinery and construction industries.
Nanotechnology applications have recently started in the food field compared to other fields.
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However, studies in the food sector are of great importance for the future, such as the production of
new functional food products  . Nanotechnology in the food industry is a rapidly
developing field with various applications in food analysis, food processing and food packaging
(Patel et al., 2018).
In this review, application areas of nanotechnology in food industry such as development of
functional products, transport of bioactive substances, improving food safety, some packaging
systems were discussed. Also, potential adverse effects of nanotechnology were mentioned.
2.NANOTECHNOLOGY IN THE FOOD INDUSTRY
Figure 1. Benefits of nanotechnology applications in the food industry (Lamabam and Thangjam,
2018)
The term nanofood expresses the foods that have been raised, manufactured, processed or
packaged using nanotechnology techniques (Momin et al., 2013). Nanotechnology has been
successfully applied directly into food or packaged food products for food fortification (vitamins,
minerals, essential oils and antioxidants), food quality and food safety (detection of toxic
metabolites or foodborne pathogens), sensory improvement (enhancement of flavor or color),
extension of shelf life and production of antimicrobial food packaging. In fact, there is very limited
information on nanoscience applications in the food sector and scarce research has been performed,
however the results of the studies are promising. (Patel et al., 2018).
Nanotechnology applications in the food field can be grouped under four topic titles (Tarhan
et al., 2010):
-Food processing and development of functional products
-Transport and controlled release of bioactive substances and nutraceuticals
-Detection of pathogens and improving food safety
-Development of packaging systems.
Food processing and development of functional products
A main focus of nanotechnology applications in food is the development of nanostructured
food ingredients and also delivery systems for supplements and nutrients (Chaudhry et al., 2008).
The principles of nanoscience are to develop encapsulation systems that improve the stability of
food and also protect sensitive bioactive substances from the environment and prevent undesirable
Nanotechnology
in food industry
Enhanced nutritional value
Improved tastes, flavors
and textures of food
products
Reduction in the amount
of fat, salt, sugar and
preservatives
Maintenance of food
quality
Enhanced uptake and
bioavailability of
nutrients and other
additives
Better traceability and
safety of food products
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interactions during food processing and prevent food quality degradation during storage
(Sanguansri and Augustin, 2006). Nanotechnology enables antioxidants, nutrients and proteins to
reach specific parts of the body and cells more effectively and efficiently, thereby increasing
efficacy and bioavailability. Therefore, nanotechnology makes possible the enrichment of food
products and the development of new products and El, 2010).
Emulsions are heterogeneous systems in which at least two unmixable liquids are suspended
in droplets inside each other. These systems consist of two phases, hydrophilic and lipophilic. These
phases are called the continuous and dispersed phase of the emulsion. The continuous phase carries
the dispersed phase as droplets. The droplet size in nanoemulsions varies between 20 to 200 nm.
Nanoemulsions exhibit different physical properties than those of microscale emulsions. For
instance, microscale emulsions often have a white appearance because they cause a strong multiple
scatter of visible light. Structures in nanoemulsions are smaller than visible wavelengths, so
nanoemulsions appear optically transparent and El, 2010).
Nanoemulsions have more potential advantages than conventional emulsions for special
applications in food and beverage products. One of the most important advantages of
nanoemulsions is that they can be incorporated into clear or slightly turbid products without
changing their visual appearance. Nanoemulsions also generally have better stability against particle
aggregation and gravitational segregation. Oil-in-water nanoemulsions consisting of oil droplets
dispersed in an aqueous phase have the greatest potential for application in commercial products.
(McClements and Rao, 2011).
Nanoemulsions are not thermodynamically stable by contrast with microemulsions,
However, they can have high kinetic stability thanks to have small droplet size that makes them
stable against sedimentation or creaming (Velikov and Pelan, 2008). Nanoemulsions are an
important system developed for the transport of bioactive products by preventing sedimentation and
creaming thanks to nano-droplets that make them appear transparent (Saka and , 2015).
Nanoemulsions are often used as delivery systems to encapsulate lipophilic components,
such as carotenoids, oil- -3 oils and phytosterols (McClements and Rao, 2011).
Nanoemulsions increase the accessibility of substrates for surfactants such as lipase. Nanoemulsions
increase the bioavailability of oils and digestion of fat soluble nutrients by nanocapsulation as well
as they improve product appearance (Saka and , 2015).
The bioavailability of nanoemulsified forms of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), which has very
low bioavailability, increases significantly (Saka and ,2015).
Transport and controlled release of bioactive substances and nutraceuticals
The controlled- release process of bioactive compounds is divided into 3 categories: wet
(liquid) process, drying / coating and solid process. wet (liquid) phase processing used for water-
based systems, organic solvents and hot melt systems. In the drying process, pressure is applied to
the suspension containing the active ingredient and it is atomized and dried by spray drying method
to create a "mist" in the drying chamber. Some of the other drying methods are centrifugal
atomizers and extruders (Garti, 2008).
The use of nanocapsules as a carrier for nutrients such as essential oils, proteins,
antioxidants, minerals and vitamins, and their release in the appropriate part of the body by
protecting them from adverse environmental conditions, and thus increasing their bioavailability
can be achieved  . With the nanoparticles produced through nanotechnology
applications, the desired texture and aroma can be given to the food. Thanks to the edible film,
antimicrobial packaging, biodegradable materials, the safety and shelf life of foods can be secured.
With intelligent packages and nanosensors, indication of spoilage in foods can be detected in
and and , 2015).
121
Hydrophilic substances become fat-soluble and lipophilic substances become water-soluble
because of nanotechnology, so some functional components such as carotenoids, phytosterols and
antioxidants disperse within water or juices and develop bioavailability of nanoparticles (Chau et
al., 2007).
When vitamin E, which is quite beneficial for health, is added to fruit juices, it causes
turbidity in the beverage and negatively affects the appearance. This problem has been overcome by
the design of vitamin E nanoparticles (Chen and Wagner, 2004).
The bioavailability of carotenoids is quite low. Because of their high hydrophobicity,
carotenoids are insoluble in aqueous systems and therefore have a poor uptake in the body. Micro
and nanodispersions have been developed to improve their water dispersibility, coloring strength
potential and also increase their bioavailability. Because of their high bioavailability, they have
attained interest as delivery systems for bioactive substances such as carotenoids, polyunsaturated
fatty acids, phytostetol and lipophilic vitamins (Ribeiro et al., 2008).
In studies in the food sector, it is aimed to increase the quality of the products, shorten the
fermentation period and protect against chemicals by using encapsulated enzymes (Saka and ,
2015).
Detection of pathogens and improving food safety
The one of main applications of nanotechnology in food engineering is food nanosensors
(Lamabam and Thangjam, 2018). During food processing, nano-based sensors are used to track
products and detect pathogens or chemical contaminants that cause food spoilage. For this purpose,
simple, recyclable, low cost and highly sensitive carbon nanotube based biosensors that do not
require labels have been developed (Saka and , 2015).
QDs, CNTs, gold nanostructures and other active nanostructures have been used in the development
of nano biyo-sensors for the detection of contaminants and microorganisims for food safety
(Lamabam and Thangjam, 2018).
Nanosensors are placed directly into the packaging material, where they detect metabolites
released during food spoilage in a short time and provide information about whether the food is safe
to consume or not. The working principle of the portable, low-cost and non-specialized nanosensors
is to place a specific protein of the microorganism (bacteria), which is characterized as a bioagent,
on a chip and the target microorganism in the food sample binds to
this protein (Uyarcan et al., 2019).
Development of packaging systems
Packaging has an important place in meeting the food industry and consumer needs.
Consumers expectations from food packaging have increased in parallel with technological
developments. Therefore, in recent years, researchers have developed new technologies to increase
the functional properties of packages. Nanotechnology has also found use among these new
technologies (Karagoz and Demirdoven, 2017).
Packaging designs have been made using nanomaterials and nanocomposites in food
packaging (Uyarcan et al., 2019). Nanomaterials are divided into three categories: nanoparticles,
nanofibers and nanoplates (Mihindukulasuriya and Lim, 2014). Nanoparticles consist of equi-sized
particles of different shapes such as nanogranules, nanocrystals, nanospheres and nanoclusters
(Ntim and Noonan, 2017). Nanoparticles stand out with their mechanical, optical and antimicrobial
properties as well as important barrier properties. Silver nanoparticles and nanoclay constitute the
majority of nanotechnological packages in the market (Bumbudsanpharoke et al., 2015). Nanofibers
are nanomaterials of nanometric thickness and width but of micro or millimeter length, examples of
which are nanotubes, nanorods and nanowires. Nanoplates are disc, sheet or plate-like materials
with only one dimension nanometric and the other two dimensions quite large (Ntim and Noonan,
122
2017). Today, these nanomaterials are used in food packaging to preserve the freshness of the
packaged food and to extend its shelf life (Bumbudsanpharoke et al., 2015).
Nanomaterials are combined with various materials to create larger particle size
nanocomposites. These nanocomposites with high surface:volume ratio have superior
physicochemical properties such as solubility, optical and transmittance (Bajpai et al., 2018; Kalita
and Baruah, 2019). Nanocomposites can be used as an alternative to existing polymer and polymer
alloys. Nanocomposites used in food packaging are expected to be resistant to various stresses
during processing, distribution and storage (Bajpai, 2019). Active, smart and biodegradable
packaging designs are realized with nanocomposites. Active nanomaterials with antimicrobial,
oxygen scavenging properties in nanocomposite active packaging; nanocomposite devices such as
nanosensors, time-temperature indicators in nanocomposite smart packaging; current studies are
carried out using nanocomposite biopolymers obtained as a result of combination with
polysaccharide, protein and lipid-based biopolymers in biodegradable nanocomposite packaging
(Uyarcan et al., 2019).
Since nanotechnology is a very new technology in the food packaging industry, there is a
need for both the development of packaging designs and the detection of migration from
packaging to food (Uyarcan et al., 2019).
3.POTENTIAL ADVERSE EFFECTS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS ON
THE HEALTH
It is quite difficult to predict the long-term effect of any technology such as nanotechnology
(Moraru et al., 2009). Although the potential benefits of foods produced by nanotechnology are
highlighted, there is no knowledge of the safety of these products. Therefore, there are concerns
about its effects on health. Recently, some researchers have carried out studies on the toxic effects
of nanotechnology on biological systems and determined some potential effects. Nanomaterials
such as silver, zinc-oxide, and magnesium integrated into packaging materials can contaminate
foodstuffs by direct contact, and when these products are consumed, they can pose a risk to human
health. It has been stated that nanoparticles may have harmful effects on human health, but there are
many uncertainties in this regard. The large surface areas of nanoparticles enable the binding and
transport of toxic chemical pollutants. It is stated that because of the ability of nanoparticles to
penetrate into cells, toxic substances can also spread inside the body and cause disorders in the cell
and defense mechanism. It is also stated that inhalation of nanosized substances can also cause lung
diseases .
More studies should be performed on the applications of nanotechnology in food processing,
packaging, regulation, nanotoxicity and risk-benefit analysis in order to overcome information gaps,
maintain the development of the nano food industry and avoid unpredictable
health hazards (Chau et al., 2007).
4.CONCLUSION
Nanotechnology can be applied in many fields and is considered as the most important
technological application of our age. The applications of this technology in the food industry
provide many benefits such as developing new products, increasing the nutritional value of foods,
detecting pathogens, using smart packaging instead of traditional packaging methods, encapsulating
some functional ingredients and adding in beverages and increasing bioavailability. Food safety can
also be guaranteed with these applications. However, there is not enough scientific data on the risks
of consuming foods enriched with nanoparticles, and this situation causes concerns for consumers.
For this reason, it is thought that the researches can be increased and these concerns can be
overcome by scientific regulations.
123
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IN-OVO FEEDING WITH PROPOLIS EXTRACT IN POULTRY
1*, Ergin OZTURK2
1Ordu University, Ulubey Vocational School, Department of Veterinary, 52850, Ordu, Turkey
2Ondokuz Mayis University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, 55139,
Samsun, Turkey
*Corresponding author: kalbiye-serdaroglu@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Live vaccination applications requires both costly and labor-intensive work. For this reason,
research continues on both easier and more reliable methods that can reduce the workforce to
minimum. In addition, vaccines can minimize the need for vaccination by improving immune
systems of animals in the embryonal period. In this context, the in-ovo injection system was
launched in 1985 as new application. In-ovo injection, which was previously developed as a
vaccination system, has recently been continuing with in-ovo feeding studies aimed at feeding the
embryo. During the embryonic period, the feeding of the creature inside the egg (in-ovo) is carried
out in order to prevent the deficiency of the nutrients that creatures need at hatching. During the
period when the chicks of the embryonic period take the amniotic fluid orally, the additional
nutrient injection can accelerate the enteric development and increase the digestion capacity and
digestion of the food. During the embryonic period, isotonic fluid and nutrients are injected in-ovo
into the amniotic fluid, allowing the embryo to ingest the nutrients supplied to the amniotic fluid
before hatching. Chicks can be fed in-ovo before hatching, so they can develop earlier than desired.
In addition to its use in vaccination, it has also been used in last 10 years to improve the immune
systems of poultry and increase their performance values with the in-ovo injection system. In this
article, the usability of special growth factors and immune supportive nutrients such as propolis in
poultry production with in-ovo injection system was discussed.
Keywords: Embryonic feeding, In-ovo injection, Poultry, Immune system, Digestive capacity,
Special growth factors
IN-OVO FEEDING
All the nutrients required for normal embryonic growth and development should be present in
the egg. The nutritional source is primarily from the mother's ration and this starts with the
consumption of well-prepared rations. The accumulation of nutrients in eggs depends on greater
125
storage efficiency (Hossain et al., 1998). It is estimated that low brooding efficiency and poor chick
quality in young broiler breeders are generally due to malnutrition. For fast growing commercial
lines such as broilers, chick quality is important in terms of their weight in slaughter. For a
profitable business, the quality of the chicks coming and feeding the animals with balanced rations
should be a priority.
It has been reported that feeding chicks in solid, liquid or semi-solid form immediately after
hatching will have a positive effect on live weight and carcass yield at slaughter age.(Noy and
Sklan, 1999). In the late stages of hatching, the growth of chicks depends on the nutrients remaining
in the egg yolk. Late delivery of feed and water to chicks has resulted in death and slow
development over 5%, and a decrease in resistance to diseases and slowing muscle development
(Uni and Ferket, 2004; Ferket, 2006). When feed consumption begins immediately after hatching,
nutrients from the feed complement the nutrients provided from the egg. In-ovo feeding, that is,
feeding the creature inside the egg during the embryonic period is carried out in order to prevent the
deficiency of the nutrients that creatures need at the hatch of the egg. It has been reported that in the
embryonic period chicks take the amniotic fluid orally, the additional nutrient injection will
accelerate the enteric development, increase the digestion capacity and the digestion of food. It has
also been reported that with in-ovo feeding, chicks can develop earlier than desired immediately
after hatching (Ferket, 2006).
The in-ovo injection system is realized by opening the shell with a thin injector into the air
gap on the egg shell. Success in in-ovo injection depends on the embryo period, the injection time
and the injection site (Moosanezhad et al., 2011; Salahi et al., 2011, Kop Bozbay et al., 2016). The
effects of vaccines or therapeutic agents to be applied to various regions can increase or limit the
response of the embryo depending on the region. With the in-ovo method, many advantages can be
obtained such as feeding the embryo, the rate of feed utilization, post-hatching deaths and diseases,
immunity against enteric antigens, disorders in the skeletal system, increasing the yield of breast
meat by increasing muscle development, and improving the immune system by reducing many
factors that suppress the growth of broilers. It has also been reported that it can reduce production
costs (Ferket, 2006).
WHY PROPOLIS?
Propolis is a bee product that has antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-
oxidative effects as well as biologically enhancing the immune system by stimulating the immune
126
system. Propolis is rich in biochemical compounds. It has been found to contain more than 300
compounds, including phenolic acid, terpenes, cinnamic acid, caffeic acid, many esters and
flavonoids (Bankova vd, 2000).
Generally, ethanol is the best solvent for propolis preparation, and other solvents such as ethyl
ether, water, methanol, acetone, dichloromethane and chloroform may be used for extraction and

In terms of immune system, flavonoids in propolis increase natural killer activities against recurrent
tumor cells (Sforcin et al., 2002), regulate in vitro and in vivo nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide
production by peritoneal macrophages (Orsi et al., 2000) and increase fungicidal activities of these
cells (Murad et al., 2002) were observed.
Due to these effects of propolis and the flavonoids it contains, it has managed to be among the
subjects that have been extensively researched in recent years. (Banskota et al., 2001, Wagh, 2013).
BEE PRODUCTS USED IN-OVO FEEDING
Bakhshayesh, 2016 planned to investigate the effects of injection of propolis extract and zinc
oxide nanoparticles on the broiler breeder eggs on embryonic development, growth performance,
hatchability, weight broiler hatching eggs and hatched safety.
The results of this experiment showed that infusion solution into the amniotic tested on 15.5
incubation on hatchability, hatching chicks in egg weight, feed intake, immune system, feed
conversion, daily gain and carcass traits were significantly affected. But there was no significant
difference on the weight of hatching chicks.
In-ovo injection of propolis water extract
Aygun (2016) determines the effects of in-ovo injection of a propolis water extract on
hatchability, embryonic mortality, starter live performance, and livability of Japanese quails.
Hatchability and embryonic mortality in the 2% propolis and 3% propolis treatment groups were
significantly lower compared with the control group, but no significant differences were observed
between the 1% propolis and control groups. There were no significant bodyweight gain, feed
intake, feed conversion ratio, or livability differences among treatments.
In-ovo propolis ethanol extract
Two trials were conducted by Kop Bozbay et al. (2016) in order to evaluate the effects of in-
ovo propolis injection and injection site on hatchability, hatching weight and viability in two
different slowly growing broiler lines. As a result, in this study in which propolis extract was
127
applied in-ovo to the air sac on the 18th day of incubation, they reported that the propolis extract
injection increased the hatching rate, but decreased the hatching weight.
In-ovo polen extract
on the 16th
day of incubation increased the chick weight ratio. At the end of the study, when the incubation
ability is controlled; 89.1%, 82.3% and 73.1% values were recorded for the negative control and
pollen extract injected groups, respectively. While there was no statistically significant difference in
hatching between the control and pollen extract-injected groups, hatching was decreased in the
negative control group (P <0.05). After hatching, chick weight / first egg weight was 70.1%, 71.1%,
and 73.5% in the control group, negative control and pollen extract injected groups, respectively. It
was determined that the injection of pollen extract into the egg amnion statistically increased chick
weight / initial egg weight compared to the control and negative control groups (P <0.05). At the
end of the study, it was concluded that pollen extracts can be used as feed ingredients to obtain
heavier chicks after hatching, but different extraction methods or different pollen extracts should be
investigated.
In-ovo oil-extracted propolis
The purpose of their studies were to determine the effects of in-ovo injection of oil-extracted
propolis on the growth performance and immune status of broiler chicks (Ross 308) after hatching.
The results showed that propolis extract injected into eggs at day 15 of incubation did not show
effect on hatchability, body weight and weight of the hatched chicks hatched egg weight (p>0.05).
In-ovo injection levels of oil-extracted propolis were no significant on feed intake, body weight,
average daily gain and feed conversion ratio in total rearing periods among treatments
(Bakhshayesh and et al., 2017).
In-ovo injection of honey
Memon et al., (2019) evaluated the effect of honey administration in pre- and post-hatch
sessions on the immunity and intestinal microflora of growing broilers. It was shown that the pre-
hatch honey administration significantly (P < 0.05) improved feed intake, final body weight,
relative weight of spleen and anti-NDV antibody titer.
Post-hatch honey supplementation (in drinking water) significantly (P < 0.05) increased feed
intake, FCR, final body weight, anti-NDV titer, relative weight of spleen and Lactobacilli count,
while decreased (P < 0.05) the counts of Escherichia coli and Salmonella on day 21. The interaction
128
of both the pre- and post-hatch honey administrations also significantly affected (P < 0.05)
performance and immunity parameters, as well as the intestinal microflora.
So, in ovo and post-hatch administration of honey had positive impacts on performance,
immune organ indices, gut microbiota and anti-NDV titer in growing broiler chickens.
In-ovo Royal Jelly
The influence of in ovo royal jelly (RJ) injection on hatching, growth and blood parameters in
two chicken strains (Dokki-4 and El-Salam as example for different strains) was evaluated on the
seventh day of incubation. Injection with 0.5 mL RJ/egg significantly (p < 0.05) improved chicken
body weight and daily weight gain compared to the control treatment. RJ injection decreased blood
lipid profile parameters and the numbers of monocytes and eosinophils and increased total protein,
globulin, haemoglobin (Hb) and lymphocyte levels compared to the control treatment. The Dokki-4
strain was superior to the El-Salam strain for the tested parameters and injection with 0.5 mL
RJ/egg produced the best hatching parameters, growth performance and health-related traits. RJ in
ovo injection was much more effective in the Dokki-4 strain than in the El-Salam strain, which
supported the hypothesis of the study that varying the chicken strain could alter the response to the
in ovo injection with RJ (Ayman et al., 2019).
Moghaddam et al. (2013), who used royal jelly in-ovo on the 7th day of incubation to
investigate chick body and organ weights and gonadotropin levels, reported that the hatching
weight, heart and liver weight and FSH and LH levels increased compared to the control group.
Again, according to the results of the in-ovo royal jelly application on the 7th day by Jafari
Ahangari et al. (2013), the body weight, feed consumption and feed conversion rate determined on
the 21st day were found to be higher than the control group.
CONCLUSIONS
In-ovo and post-hatch administration of bee products had a positive impact on performance,
immune organ indices and anti-Newcastle disease virus antibody titer in growing broilers.
Moreover, some bee products administration positively influenced the population of gut
microbiota in growing animals. Nonetheless, further studies are needed to examine the effect of
different doses of bee products on gut microbiota and immunity in immunologically challenged
broilers.
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Also injection into the different sites of eggs and different incubation days, elicited significant
positive effects on hatching parameters, growth performance, blood chemistry, haematology and
immunological parameters.
REFERENCES
Aygun, A. (2016). The Effects of In-Ovo Injection of Propolis on Egg Hatchability and
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131
USE OF PROPOLIS AS A DIGESTIVE SYSTEM REGULATOR IN
POULTRY
1*, Ergin OZTURK2
1Ordu University, Ulubey Vocational School, Department of Veterinary, 52850, Ordu, Turkey
2Ondokuz Mayis University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, 55139,
Samsun, Turkey
*Corresponding author: kalbiye-serdaroglu@hotmail.com
ABSTRACT
Intestinal microflora is one of the most important factors affecting performance in poultry.
Increasing the rate of conversion of feed to meat by keeping the disease factor microorganisms in
general microflora relatively low and keeping the immunity levels of animals. It is essential to know
the types and amounts of microorganisms present in order to know the effect of plants and plant
extracts on the digestive system. Medicinal and aromatic plants, both remove pathogenic microflora
in monogastric and increase the concentration of microorganisms that will assist in the digestion
and absorption of nutrients. In particular, birds are more susceptible to pathogenic microorganisms
such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp. Microorganisms in the digestive system of poultry live
symbiotically with the host and are very important for the host's nutrition, metabolism and
immunity. Propolis, as a resinous, natural and strong adhesive substance, is collected by honey bees
from buds, tree and plant leaves and used to protect the hive from natural events such as rain or to
prevent bacterial invasion of the hive. The most important active components of propolis are
aromatic acids, phenolic compounds and especially flavonoids (flavones, flavonols and flavones)
and phenolic acids. Flavones and flavonoids are the components that give to propolis; antifungal,
antiviral and antibacterial properties. Another mechanism is to prevent bacterial growth by
destroying the bacterial cell, especially the cytoplasm, cell membrane and cell wall. In this article,
the possibilities of using propolis as a digestive system regulator in poultry were evaluated.
Keywords: Flavonoids, Phenolic acid, Antibacterial, Poultry, Intestinal microflora
INTRODUCTION
The presence of infections that cause the integrity of the poultry digestive system in the ration
or diseases experienced in the early period may result in impaired micro-absorption of nutrients.
Poultry diets are generally based on the need of healthy animals under ideal management.
Therefore, in order to protect the health of the poultry and to strengthen the immune system,
especially in the presence of epidemic diseases, there is a need to support poultry diets in terms of
both macro and micronutrient values.
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Intestinal microflora is one of the most important factors affecting performance in poultry,
especially broiler chickens. Increasing the rate of conversion of feed to meat is vital for the
profitability of the poultry sector, as the disease factor microorganisms are proportionally less in the
general microflora and the immunity levels of the animals are kept high for the increase in
performance in poultry.
Plant extracts, which have been frequently emphasized in poultry feeding in recent years, are
traditionally used in the treatment of diseases and are an alternative to prohibited antibiotics.
Studies on the benefits of plant extracts and the use of viable alternatives in the future are ongoing.
With the addition of propolis to poultry rations, it is aimed to reduce the risk of developing diseases
by improving the immune systems of animals, reducing excess losses when infectious diseases are
observed in the herd and spending on drug treatments. Thanks to the flavonoids it contains, propolis
positively supports the intestinal microflora and plays an active role in the immune system.
PROPOLIS
Propolis is a bee product; that is sticky, aromatic and pungent odor, non-soluble in water and
-black to
yellow depending on the source. Its composition slightly varies between regions and among seasons
as a result of flora variation, propolis is generally composed of 50% resin and balsams, 30% wax,
10% essential and aromatic oils, 5% pollen grains a -Caravaca et al.,
2006).
Propolis is collected from buds, tree and plant leaves by honey bees as a resinous, natural and
strong adhesive substance and mixed with substances such as pollen with enzymes secreted by bees.
It is used to protect the hive from natural events such as rain or to prevent bacterial invasion of the
hive (Benkovic et al., 2007). It has also been reported to have a wide range of biological activities.
It has been reported that propolis, which has different pharmacological properties, is used as an
antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory, and also improves its hepatoprotective, anti-oxidative effects
and biologically stimulating the immune system (Bankova, 2000). Propolis is very rich in
biochemical components and more than 300 compounds have been identified, including phenolic
acid, terpenes, cinnamic acid, kaffeic acid, many esters and flavonoids (Bankova et al., 2000).
Pinosembrin, an active ingredient in propolis; antimicrobial and antifungal, galangin; antiviral
and antioxidant, caffeic acid and caemferol; antifungal, antiviral, antimicrobial, antioxidant,
anticarcinogenic, antihepatotoxic and immunostimulant, quercetin; antifungal, antiviral,
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antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic, chrysin; antifungal, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic and
antihepatotoxic and fisetin and apigenin components; They show antiviral, anticarcinogenic and
antioxidant effects (Banskota et al., 2001).
INTESTINAL MICROFLORA
Infectious diseases, particularly enteric diseases, constitute a major problem for commercial
poultry farmers mainly because of the associated production losses, increased mortality rates and
subsequent contamination of poultry products intended for human consumption. Therefore, the
manipulation of gut microbiota and immunity of poultry chickens using feed additives has been
known as an important strategy for improving the growth performance and reducing losses caused
by diseases (Kamboh et al., 2016). In addition, a growing concern related to anti-microbial
resistance of pathogens isolated from humans and food animals, together with the ban of the use of
antibiotics as feed additives, have enhanced the focus of research on natural alternatives for the
production of food animals (Raheema et al., 2016).
Feeding probiotics in post-hatch period helps to maintain a beneficial intestinal microflora,
augments  with an
enhanced gut function and feed conversion that results in improved weight gain and performance of
 Subsequent to banning of use of antibiotics as
growth promoters in poultry nutrition, numerous studies turned to finding of alternative solutions,
i.e. other, natural substances, which would have positive effect on chicken growth and feed
conversion. The most often additives evaluated in poultry nutrition were probiotics, prebiotics,
antioxidants, ac
The gut microflora provided a natural barrier against the harmful bacteria, which subsequently
prevented the growth of exogenous and pathogenic bacteria, as well as produced bacteriocins and
other substances that augmented the immune system, thus increased the helpful microorganisms in
the intestine (Tannock and Savage, 1974). Memon et al., 2019 has reported, the in-ovo
administration of honey acted as a prebiotic that served as feed for the endogenous probiotics, hence
suppressed the growth of exogenous pathogenic microbes. Kumar et al. (2008) resaerched that, the
antimicrobial property of propolis collected from Gujarat by agar diffusion method against
Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Candida
albicans, and Asparagus nigar. Ethanolic extracts of sample (conc. 200 mg/mL) showed high
antibacterial activity against Gram-positive, that is, Bacillus subtilis, but least activity against
134
Gram-negative bacteria (P. aeruginosa and E. coli). The yeast C. albicans showed the moderate
zone of inhibition whereas A. niger did not show any activity. However, the least was in the 40%
methanolic extracts. Selvan et al. (2011) collected propolis from different places in Bangalore, they
observed that bee propolis in combination with chlorhexidine possesses high antimicrobial activity
against Streptococcus mutans.
Propolis extract has been studied in vitro as well as pathogenic microorganisms that can be
found in poultry microflora including; Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., Enterobacter cloaca,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus
epidermis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, Enterecoccus faecalis and
Enterecoccus faecium. Data from studies concerning antibacterial properties of propolis support the
fact that propolis is active mainly against Gram-positive bacteria in and shows lower activity
against the Gram-negative ones at small quantity or is inactive at all.
The focus of alternative strategies has been to prevent proliferation of pathogenic bacteria
and modulation of indigenous bacteria so that the health, immune status and performance are
improved. Gut microflora has significant effects on host nutrition, health, and growth performance

the host. This interaction is very complex and, depending on the can have either positive or negative
effects on the health and growth of the chickens. For example, when pathogens attach to the
mucosa, gut integrity and function are severely affected and immune system threatened (Neish et
al., 2002). Gut microflora is a nutritional responsibility in fast-growing broiler chickens (Dibner and
Richards, 2005; Lan et al., 2005) since an active microflora component may have an increased
energy requirement for maintenance and a reduced efficiency of nutrient utilization.
ALTERNATIVE FOR THE IMPROVING OF THE BROILER CHICKEN HEALTH
One alternative for the improving of the broiler chicken health and performance may be
 s found that
occurrence of both beneficial and pathogen microorganisms in gastrointestinal tract of broiler
chickens was affected by nutrition with propolis and bee pollen supplement.
The bacteria colonization pattern in gastrointestinal tract of broiler chickens can be affected also by
combination of nutrition supplements and pH value which can provide the advantage to some
bacteria and influenced their competitiveness.
135
Mahmoud et al. (2014) and Abdel-Mohsein et al. (2014) clarified that supplementation of
propolis (100, 250, 500 or 750 mg/kg diet) had a significant stimulating effect on the numbers of
Lactobacillus spp. and Bifidobacteria spp. in the broiler gut under both recommended temperature
and chronic heat stress conditions. Conversely, dietary supplementation of propolis at 1000 mg/kg
diet (Tekeli et al., 2010) o
to influence the numbers of intestinal lactic acid bacteria. Supplementation of propolis has not been
shown to affect caecal numbers of total Coliforms, E. coli and Enterococcus spp. in chickens
(Tekeli et al., 2010; Mahmoud et al., 2014). On the contrary, Abdel-Mohsein et al. (2014) reported
that diets mixed with propolis (250, 500 or 750mg/kg diet) significantly reduced total anaerobes and
coliform bacteria within the gut of broilers reared under heat stress.
CONCLUSIONS
Previous studies have indicated that the effects of propolis on poultry performance, health and
welfare are affected by multiple factors, such as its type and dosage, active component levels,
feeding duration and physiological factors (i.e. age, weight and/or breed) and animal species.
The available literature, and its varying results with propolis suggests its efficiency is affected
by trial conditions (stressed or unstressed and the types of stressors). However, the positive findings
for propolis on performance and health of poultry support its stated biological functions as an
antioxidant, antibacterial, immunostimulant and growth promoter; and indicate that the use of
propolis as a natural feed additive is promising.
Plant extracts, which have been frequently emphasized in poultry feeding in recent years, are
traditionally used in the treatment of diseases and are an alternative to prohibited antibiotics.
Studies on the benefits of plant extracts and the use of viable alternatives in the future are ongoing.
With the addition of propolis to poultry diets, it should be aimed to reduce the risk of developing
diseases by improving the immune systems of the animals, reducing the excess losses when
infectious diseases are observed in the herd and the expenses for drug treatments.
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-  -    -Carretero, A.,
         ounds in products
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 Plants Research, vol. 2, no. 12,
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138
THROUGH A PARTNERSHIP TO SAFETY OF VALUABLES
Murataliev Bolot Anarbekovich, Mamatov Nurlan Elebesovich, Karabaev Aibek Nurudinovich
Murataliev Bolot Anarbekovich, Head of Project n".
Kyrgyz Republic, e-mail: pfr_bam11@yahoo.com
Mamatov Nurlan Elebesovich, Department of animal science, Faculty of Agriculture,
Kyrgyz-Turkish University of Manas, doctor of Agricultural Sciences .
Kyrgyz Republic, e-mail: nurmamatov1965@mail.ru
Karabaev Aibek Nurudinovich, Ph. D agriculture sciences, NGO “Central Asian Partnership”,
Kyrgyz Republic. e-mail: aibekusa@mail.ru
There are many cases when individual animals occupy a special place among the
national values of the peoples of the world, especially neutered and raised to a high
level, as the pride of the entire nation. In many countries, there are cases when some
animal proudly points to the eyes and sanctifies it. For example: in Kazakhstan the
snow leopard, Spain the heat in Thailand the elephant in India tiger in Turkey
kangal in the UK a lion, Australian kangaroo, Finland deer in Germany bear,
Italy wolf, Hungary dog breed mosquitoes in the United Arab Emirates poultry,
in Azerbaijan is the Karabakh horse, in Bolivia, llama, Albania eagle, in Algeria a
view of a Fox named the Fennec Fox.b.
The Kyrgyz people highly appreciated the Taigan dog breed and have
preserved it to this day. We can say that this animal with its critical, special properties
and currently obtains respect among the peoples of other countries, finds its fans and
finds its place under the name "Kyrgyz taigan". It is one of the symbols of the Kyrgyz
people. It has good qualities such as laughter, intelligence, dexterity, courage, and
spice. The breed of this dog, mentioned in the epic Manas, is also found in oral and
cultural sources about the Kyrgyz. For thousands of years, the taigan dog has
accompanied Kyrgyz heroes, hunters, and manaps. Taigan-a special animal, it needs
freedom, it was used in hunting, military campaigns, was given as a gift with honor
and respect.
The famous scientist-biologist L. p. Sabaneyev considered the turning of the tip
of the dog's tail as a sign that it was included in the number of domestic animals.
Previously, he gave evidence of 3400 thousand years before our era, found in the
Egyptian pyramids. [1]
139
In the Kyrgyz Republic,
since 2018, a number of works
have been carried out within the
    n
project.
For wide dissemination of
information at the international
level with the Association of heads
of state bodies, public
organizations, educational
institutions, practices engaged in scouting www.kgtaigan.com implemented, books
are published in English, French, Russian, and Kyrgyz through mass media (mass
media). Cooperation in this direction with scientific institutions, universities, and
foreign partners gives good results. Thus, at the Kyrgyz-Turkish University "Manas"
with the participation of scientists, specialists working in the field of archaeology,
entography, anthropology and
Ethnology, scientific work has
begun to determine the genotype of
the taigan.
In 2019, measures were taken
to determine the number of Taigans on
the territory of our country. As a
result, it was found that 2316 Taigans
are officially registered in the country,
and if clarified, their number may be
even greater. This situation suggests that there is enough genetic material in our country to
ensure the purity of the taigan.
The number of Taigans in Kyrgyzstan as of June 2019.
№
Regions
Number of Taigans


-





-





Total
2316
140



141


• 

• 

• 

-          

• 2019 on October 11, the Public Association "KYRGYZ TAIGAN CLUB"
was established and registered. A unified database of dog breeds began to
form under the club. This organization is responsible for resolving issues
related to the split, and favorable conditions are created in the Republic for
uniform work.
Diagram distribution of taigans by region.
References
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
801
433
386
372
242
66 16
Distribution of taygans by region
Issik Kyl Talas Cuy-Bishkek Calal Abad Osh Batken
142
5. L. P. Sabaneyev. An essay on the history of greyhounds. Hunting dogs... - Moscow, 1987.
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Compilers: B.A. Murataliev, Z. Zh. Mambetova, R.K. Sultangazieva. - 

7. N. ygan

Turkey (25- 2019).
8. N. Mama
 / KYRGYZSTAN.
9. - U
Dergisi 1(37), 2016. 84-86. Bishkek / KYRGYZSTAN.
10. 

-18 Ekim 2019).
11. N. Mamat
TURKISH FOLKS TRADITIONAL SPORT GAMES SEMPOZYUM. KYRGYZSTAN-
TURKEY MANAS UNIVERSITY 22-23 November 2018, Bishkek / KYRGYZSTAN.
12. -

13. Taigan. Collected papers. Composition of B. A. Murataliev. - Bishkek, 2020.
14. 
143
HISTORICAL INFORMATION REMAINING ON THE STONE
Kubatbek Tabaldiev, Taalaybek Abdiev, Mamatov Nurlan Elebesovich, Aibek Karabaev
Kubatbek Tabaldiev, Ph.D, Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University Professor, Archaeologist,
Kyrgyz Republic
Taalaybek Abdiev, Ph.D, Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University, Associate Professor, Turkologist
Kyrgyz Republic
Mamatov Nurlan Elebesovich, Department of animal science, Faculte of agriculture, Kyrgyz-
Turkish University of Manas, doctor of agricultural Sciences. Kyrgyz Republic.e-
mail: nurlan.mamatov@manas.edu.kg nurlan.mamatov19645@mail.ru
4, Aibek Karabaev, Ph. D agriculture sciences, Mercy Corps Kyrgyzstan, SIBELIUs project
officer
Abstract: The good side of the Son of Man's hunting is that he is interested in dog and bird
hunting. Or it has been noted that hunters were photographed in Bronze Age paintings. Hunting
with eagles is mentioned in pictures drawn on stones 2000-2500 years ago, starting from the Early
Iron Age. Hunting with a dog may have originated in the Middle Stone Age. As a result of old
research, people began to protect their dogs in the Middle Stone Age 12-7 years BC. According to
the latest information, the human dog is known to have been bred nearly 30,000 years before the
Upper Stone Age. According to medieval pictures, dog and bird hunting turned into games like
fun. The hunting of Kagan and heads of state is said in written sources. In general, the images of
hunters riding horses and hunting with birds were taken by different researchers. At that time, it was
found not only in beautiful statues, objects and shades made of bronze, but also in shadows. For
thousands of years, the dog has interfered with the spiritual life and traditions of the human race in
its duty to protect our lives next to old hunters. Sometimes they buried him next to the body of the
deceased. According to other world beliefs, the dog is responsible for protection. Now there are
reports of more than 50 dead and buried dogs in the highlands of Eurasia.
Keywords: Mankind, dog, bird hunting, kagan
One aspect of hunting involves hunting dogs and birds. Bronze Age paintings depict foot
hunters. Harpy hunt with a bird on a stone paintings after the Early Iron Age , namely, 2000-2500,
from the year-ago period to pull nity started. The earliest dog hunting dates back to the
Middle Stone Age. According to ancient studies, humans used the dog in the Middle Stone Age -
BC. Began to adopt in 12-7 thousand years. Concluding endowments, human dog, stone age, almost
30 years ago to get started to be aware tightly.
According to medieval paintings, dogfighting and bird-watching became a form of
entertainment. The hunting of Kakans and leaders is also described in written sources. In general,
the involvement of hunters on horseback and birds has become a multi-faceted interpretation. He
points to the surface of the stone, bronze and impunity bottles of beauty products, the grass here.
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For thousands of years, the dog has been involved in the spiritual life and customs of mankind,
guarding the livelihoods of ancient hunters. Sometimes it's late line laid down. According to the
beliefs of the "other world", the dog must have performed the function of guarding a corpse. Now
Euroasia is over the strip of menstruation and mountain steppes over 50 late buried dog with
information on the narrow.
Kyrgyzstan archaeologist Chan Slade Abetekov from Chuy belonging to the Bronze age in the
cemetery watched the dog in normal condition and hospitalized 1973 found. According to the
excavation, the deceased was placed in the excavated grave, covered and covered with three
dogs. According to the photos, the dogs have long bodies and long legs.
In 1991, we are in the eastern part of the ram, the five-Tash Courtyard Stock century VII-IX on a
monumental archaeological research information. A soldier's body was dug "favorite pick "
head tilted east, is located. After covering the grave with flat rocks, the horse was buried with his
horse and equipment at the entrance. Then the dog was put to bed while the soil was being
filled. Bones of shepherd dogs, preposition, "he is the world as a" driver capable of laying
watched Isa cushy.
Every burial tradition is an attempt to treat the body of the deceased with respect, to provide him
with the necessary things as he was alive, and to create conditions for a peaceful coffin . Efforts to
"create the necessary conditions for the deceased" are diverse. They are invented in different
environments and then become a permanent folk tradition.
What are the archaeological excavations of the information found in the sample analysis, the dog is
dead and put in a cool burying habits are not widespread. It is seldom buried together when it is
adapted to the personality of the deceased during his lifetime. Probably because of the friendly
relationship between the dog during his lifetime, the service given to the dog's owner.
Because dog bones are so rare, it is difficult to identify their offspring. And if involved in the only
on-line , is not easy. Most of the images of the dog on the rock are associated with hunting
scenes. The dog was photographed chasing mountain goats, argali-kuljas, or fleeing in front of
them. Often scenes of archers shooting deer fleeing are complemented by pictures of dogs.
The tradition of hunting photography continues from one epoch to another . It's just that
their weapons have changed . From the Bronze Age to the late Middle Ages, bows were hunted,
and later rifles were used.
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Running mountain goats are depicted on a rocky outcrop in Kochkor's Kyrgyzbai-Bulu. At the top
of the stone is a man holding a short-handled ax. Next to it, the image of a dog with long legs,
bones, skinny, tall, long neck, short white slave, and short tail is carefully drawn . The long, short-
stemmed Bronze Age ax and the dark black color of the painting are probably Bronze Age
paintings.
Long-tailed dogs are depicted in lines drawn from the
Early Iron Age and the Saka period. Some taygans
comet. The legs are not always drawn long . Judging by the
pictures, the slippery dogs that went hunting were
different. Dogs' ears are sometimes pointed. It was not
possible to permanently depict the image of a leopard with
long, slender ears or a feather hanging down from its
back . In the pictures, the dog's tail is raised like a slide.
A medieval painting was found in Kok-Sai, Kochkor
district. Unfortunately, the image has not been fully preserved. The large-scale paintings painted
here in the same way are accompanied by runic inscriptions belonging to the Turkic peoples,
including the Kyrgyz . Therefore, this greyhounds shots feasibility believe that part of the VIII
century. At the same time, their h d p involved in the gang, as usual. The two slippery mountain
goats in the picture are chasing each other. At first glance, it seems that one large and one small
animal is demanding another small animal (rabbit, fox?).
We can say that this breed of dogs was called taigan in Turkic languages, including Kyrgyz,
because in the 11th century dictionary of our ancestor Mahmud Kashgari " Divan Lugat at- Turk"
there is a word and even a proverb with this word. The heart of taigan fox does not love fox does
not love without running ( Ancient Turkish dictionary 1969: 528). It is well known that today this
proverb is found in our language in the form of "Dogs do not like foxes." In addition, the presence
of children's games such as "fox - taigan", "fox does not bite", "fox chase", "fox drag" (Yudahin
1965: 874; Mukambaev 2007 : 849) proves that the Kyrgyz people have been hunting with taiga
since ancient times.            
tazy T aygan. Becoming Tazy with a golden crow (Manas SO ) (Explanatory Dictionary of the
Kyrgyz Language 2010: 439).
The word taigan is also found in place names . For example, the Crimean Peninsula, a long,
Cani was. Later, during the Soviet era, the village was renamed Ozernoye. In 1938, a large reservoir
was built near the village and was called the Taigan Reservoir. This water reservoir of topsoil in
2012, titled "Cani" within the safari park was built, mainly cultivates the lions, tigers, zoo as
146
a tourist services to the visitors. Where and how the word "slippery" is used deserves a separate
investigation.
Archaeologists excavating the Jaltyrak-Tash monument in Talas have copied a picture of a two-
winged dog drawn on a stone with a thin, sharp weapon. Let us consider the beliefs
in this regarArchaeologist DV Cheremisin , who has studied the rock paintings  Turkic-
speaking peoples believed that there was a fantastic dog named Kumai. The animal that was bitten
by his teeth did not survive. According to the legend written by the ethnographer of the XX
century AA Divaev, the Kazakhs laid eggs on the shoulders of birds or mazars . According to
information from a Kazakh hunter , a dog-spotted goose? E. Spangenberg wrote that a dog born
from an egg is called a greyhound. They gave birth to a fast dog named Kumai. Kumai brought the
man who found such a dog to his well-being. "Yt-kus has a place in Yakut folklore . "
D.V. Cheremisin collected similar examples from the folklore of Kyrgyz, Khakass, Bashkir and
other Turkic -speaking peoples . In a fairy tale written by a great Khakas scientist NF Katanov, he
went to a place where a species of duck called turpan lived and found an egg in a cave. From that
egg a dog named "Kubai-kus" was born. When he is taken out to hunt, he takes home animals,
birds, deer, deer, and deer. Local mountain and lake owners, fearing the extinction of the animals,
lured Kubai-Kus into a trap and chained him to the lake. In the folklore of the Turkic-speaking
Balkar people, an animal in the form of a dog-bird is called Samir. The eagle prints two eggs. When
the egg hatches, she eats it herself if she does not have time to take the puppies. If saved, the bird
will turn into a dog. In their story, Jelmaus, the coyote finds a puppy in a fish caught on the
seabed. Samyr means muskrat (water rat) in Turkish. ID Suusamyr of our aquatic ondatr d may be
associated with a soap or a dog.
In the Kyrgyz language, the word kumai has two meanings:
- Kumai I snow vulture, Kumai.
- Kumai II sandy; sandy loam, sand; The surrounding gray sandstone is a brain-boiling desert
folk. around there will be gray sand, there will be a desert with unbearable heat
(Yudahin 1965) .
According to Professor Imel Moldobaev, who has studied Kyrgyz epics in connection with
history and ethnography, Kumayyk is Manas's dog. Kumayyk is born of a bird with an eagle's head
and a lion's body. It lays its eggs on deserts and roads. Up to three days after birth, the person who
finds it will return with an animal species (will take any animal). But if a person can't find it, he
becomes a bird. The person who finds it must not sleep for seven days, otherwise he will
disappear (Moldobaev, 1989: 41 ).
It is the image of an animal born from a bird depicted with immeasurable artistry from Jaltyrak-
Tash in Talas. In the study of petroglyphs, or in the study of ethnography and folklore, if the data
147
coincide in the above way, the study will be more beautiful and the meaning will be somewhat
resolved.
Until now, there has been no in-depth scientific research on slipping. A fundamental, multi-
volume work on the Kazakh taiga and the Kyrgyz taiga is being written by Evgenia Shishkina, a
well-known Russian dog trainer and now a French citizen. This book provides some very
interesting historical information. During her research, she visited the petroglyphs near the village
of Ornok on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul and identified valuable information about the historical
development of dogs.
References
1. Manas.  According to Karalaev. Bishkek, Turar Publishing House, 2010.
2. Yudahin  Kyrgyz-Russian dictionary. Moscow, 1965.
3. Ancient Turkic dictionary. Leningrad, 1969.
4. Mukambaev Zh. Dialectological dictionary of the Kyrgyz language. Bishkek, 2007.
5. Mahmoud d al-Kashgari. Divan Lugat at-Turk. P e revod Z.Auezovoy. Almaty, 2005.
6. Taigan. Collection of articles. Compiled by Murataliev B. Bishkek, 2020.
148
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT SOLID GROWING MEDIA ON
ONION FRESH LEAF YIELDS IN SOILLESS CULTURE
H. CAN1, M.PAKSOY*,1,21
1: Department of Field Crop and Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas
University, Bishkek/ Kyrgyzstan
2: Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, Konya/Turkey
*: Corresponding author: paksoy42@hotmail.com
Abstract
Nowadays, soilless culture is a common agricultural method in many countries, and in some
developed countries, the great part of the agricultural land is used as a greenhouse and for soilless
cultivation. Peat and perlite are two of the most common solid growing media used in soilless
cultivation for growing various horticultural plants including onion. In the trial, perlite, a kind of
volcanic glass, organic peat and a mixture of these two at a ratio of one to one were used as growing
media. The study was carried out in laboratory conditions in Bishkek/Kyrgyzstan in 2019. In the
laboratory of Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University Agriculture Faculty, three replications according to
a completely randomized block design were used in the experiment. Onion bulbs with 2-4 cm
diameters were used as the experimental material. In the experiment, the stem diameter, leaf
number, leaf length, leaf width and leaf weight parameters were recorded to determine to the yield
of onion leaves. According to the results, the highest onion fresh leaf yield was obtained from the
peat-perlite mixture, whereas the lowest onion fresh leaf yield was obtained from the peat medium.
The best results in terms of leaf number and leaf length were also obtained from the peat-perlite
mixture.
Keywords: Onion, soilless culture, growing media, leaf yield
Introduction
Soilless culture is defined as a growing method without using soil as a rooting medium
where the inorganic nutrients absorbed by the roots are provided with irrigation water (El-Kazzaz
and El-Kazzaz 2017). Soilless systems are a significant alternative against normal cultivation
methods which have problems that may arise during soil processing in the soil (salinization)/water
(drought) (Olympios and Choukr-Allah 1999). Soilless culture is generally carried out in 3 different
ways. These are hydroponic systems, solid cultures and aeroponic systems. While plants may be
grown in open or enclosed environments in solid growing medias, in solid cultures, various
substrates (perlite, vermiculite, coconut shell) are used for fixating plants as long as these are
characterized by water and air retention capacity and easy drainage (Atzori et al. 2019). Soilless
growing has several superior aspects in comparison to classical cultivation. These advantages
mainly include that it minimizes water loss (can achieve up to 30% savings in comparison to soil
149
culture), prevents salinization in the root area, provides maximum yield, reduces transpiration, uses
mineral nutrients effectively, and most importantly, provides sufficient nutrients such as vitamins,
minerals and diet fibers in foods for human consumption (Barbosa-. Another issue
that makes soilless culture significant and increasingly a necessity is that, although the human
population today is increasing (expected to reach 9.7 billion in 2050), the amount of agricultural
land per person is constantly decreasing (while there as 0.21 hectares of land per capita in Europe in
2015, this is expected to decrease 1.5 or 2 times) (Gruda 2019). Hussain et al. (2014) reported that
vegetables such as Fragaria ananassa (strawberry), Lactuca sativa (lettuce), Lycopersicon
esculentum (tomato), Phaseolus vulgaris (green beans), Beta vulgaris (beet), Cucumis sativus
(cucumber), Cucumis melo (melon) and Allium cepa (onion) can be commercially produced in
soilless culture.

freed from plant pathogens and provides sufficient oxygen, water and nutrient supply (Savvas and
Gruda 2018). As substrates, rock wool, perlite, volcanic rocks, tuff, clay pebbles, vermiculite,
zeolite, pumice, sand and synthetic materials may be used directly or in combination with other
materials as a growth medium. Among all organic substrates, peat is the most frequently used
organic solid substrate in horticultural plant production, and it is preferred due to its low cost, low
nutrient content, excellent chemical, biological and physical properties, low pH content, high air
gap presence and drainage properties, lightness and a unique water retention capacity that is free
from pests and diseases (Gruda et al. 2017; Savvas and Gruda 2018). While having such good and
unique properties, organic and inorganic solid substrates are still an active area of study in soilless
culture. This is because, for achieving stable production in soilless culture, a growth medium
suitable for sowing, transplanting and planting should be used, and this rhizosphere environment
should be kept in a suitable state throughout the growing period. Only then the aforementioned high
yield and quality product could be achieved. In this study, as mentioned above, onion which has
commercial importance horticultural crop and commercially produced by soilless culture was
selected, and the leaf yields of onions in different growth media were assessed in laboratory
conditions.
Materials and methods
Experimental information
The properties of the media that were used in the trial may be summarized as follows. Perlite, which
is an inorganic growth medium, is a white, light growth medium that is obtained by processing ground,
    
growth environment, regulates drainage, does not carry diseases, does not create a problem about salinity or
alkalinity as it contains little to no soluble ions, is neutral (pH=6.5-7.5) and has low thermal conductivity,
which minimizes damages in the plant from daily temperature changes.
Peat is generally obtained by accumulation of the residues left by plants growing in swamps
in anaerobic conditions in the form of aggregates. Many firms trade it in packages with varying
dimensions. It was selected because it is one of the media with the highest water retention capacity.
This study was carried out in 2020 at the department of Field crop and horticulture
laboratory of Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University. Throughout the growing period, it was observed
that the room temperature in the laboratory conditions was 18--
night. In the trial, three different growth media were used. This study was completed in growth
media including peat, perlite and a 1:1 mixture of peat and perlite.
150
The trial was established with 3 replications based on the random blocks trial design, and 18
onions were planted into 9 pots in each plot on 25 February 2020. Planting was performed by filling
the medium up to a height of 15 cm, placing 2 onions and covering with the medium up to a height
of 5 cm. Plant nutrition was achieved by manual irrigation, and drainage was provided from holes
under the pots. The nutrient solution started to be given to the onions after planting. The onions
were given the nutrient solution for 3 days and water for 1 day. The nutrient solution included the
elements given in Table 1, each pot was given 50 ml of the nutrient solution per day, and the acidity
of the nutrient solution (pH 6-7) was not intervened with. The onions were harvested on 19 March
2020.
Table 1. Elements in the nutrient solution and their concentrations (Kahraman 2014)
Element
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
Fe
Mn
ppm
193
64
242
182
37
55
4
1.23
Measurements
In this study where onions were grown with the method of soilless culture, stem diameter, number of
leaves, leaf length, leaf width and green weight measurements were made.
Stem diameter (mm): Measurement was made with a digital compass from right above the level the
developed onion stems emerged out of the media.
Number of leaves: It is the number of parts obtained by counting the total number of leaves coming
out of one onion.
Leaf length (cm): Measurement was made with a rule from the bottom to the top of the leaves
coming out of the onion.
Leaf width (mm): Widthwise measurement of the leaves coming out of the onion.
Green onion weight (g): Measurement of the weight of cut onion leaves with an electronic
scale.
Statistical analyses
The results obtained in the study were analyzed with the SPSS 22 package software using
.
Results and discussion
There were significant differences in the stem diameters among the growth media (peat, perlite,
peat+perlite) (p<0.05) (Table 2). The stem diameter varied in the range of 6.16-9.09 mm with a mean value
of 7.54 mm in the peat group. It varied in the range of 5.12-9.32 mm with a mean value of 6.95 mm in the
perlite group. It varied in the range of 5.53-11.39 mm with a mean value of 8.13 mm in the group with the
peat+perlite mixture. The highest value and the highest mean value of stem diameter (11.39 mm) was found
in the peat+perlite mixture medium. Kahraman (2014) determined in their study that there was no significant
difference in onion stem diameters based on the growth media.
There were significant differences in the leaf lengths among the growth media (peat, perlite
and peat+perlite) (p<0.05) (Table 2). The leaf length varied in the range of 15-42 cm with a mean
value of 26.55 cm in the peat group. It varied in the range of 19-46.2 cm with a mean value of 31.12
151
cm in the perlite group. It varied in the range of 20-52 cm with a mean value of 34.88 cm in the
group with the peat+perlite mixture. In our trial, it was found that the leaf length was different in all
three media. The highest leaf length and the highest mean leaf length (52 cm) was observed in the
peat+perlite mixture medium. In their soilless culture study, Rodriguez-Delfin et al. (2005) reported
the leaf length of onions as 32.8 cm. In another soilless culture study, Kahraman (2014) reported the
lowest leaf length value in zeolite as 27.66 cm and the highest value in coconut fiber as 34.80 cm.
In our study, the leaf lengths obtained from the peat+perlite mixture were higher than those reported
by Rodriguez-Delfin et al. (2005) and highly similar to those reported by Kahraman (2014) on
coconut fiber.
Table 2. onion measurements in the growth media
Media
Leaf length (cm)
Stem diameter (mm)
Number of
leaves
Leaf width
(cm)
Leaf weight (g)
Peat
26.55b
7.54ab
5.27b
0.72ns
6.57c
Perlite
31.12ab
6.95b
7.89a
0.79ns
8.84b
Peat+perlite
34.88a
8.13a
8.22a
0.83ns
12.57a
Significance
*
*
*
ns
*
* statistical significance level of 5%, ns statistically not significant
There were significant differences in the leaf numbers among the growth media (peat, perlite
and peat+perlite) (p<0.05) (Table 2). The number of leaves varied in the range of 3-9 with a mean
value of 5.27 in the peat group. It varied in the range of 5-14 with a mean value of 7.89 in the
perlite group. It varied in the range of 5-16 with a mean value of 8.22 in the group with the
peat+perlite mixture. In the trial, there were differences among the media in terms of the numbers

the perlite and peat+perlite media. Kahraman (2014) reported the number of leaves to vary in the
range of 3.23-3.90, while Rodriguez-Delfin et al. (2005) stated this range as 6.7-8.2. In terms of the
numbers of leaves, our study was highly similar to that of Rodriguez-Delfin et al. (2005). Another
reason for the differences in leaf numbers may be the differences in the growth condition, cultivar,
growth medium and nutrient solution of onion used in different studies.
There was no significant differences in the leaf widths among the growth media. Kahraman
(2014) also found no significant difference in the leaf width values among the treatments in their
study conducted with perlite, coconut fiber and zeolite.
There were significant differences in the leaf weights among the growth media (peat, perlite
and peat+perlite) (p<0.05) (Table 2). The leaf weight varied in the range of 3-9 g with a mean value
of 6.57 g in the peat group. It varied in the range of 4.03-17.03 g with a mean value of 8.84 g in the
perlite group. It varied in the range of 6.2-24 g with a mean value of 12.57 g in the group with the
peat+perlite mixture.
With the study they conducted on different species, Giroux et al. (1999) demonstrated that
increasing the amount of perlite in peat led to an increase in root development. In their study
conducted on strawberries, Hesami et al. (2012) determined that peat and perlite mixtures at various
ratios increased vitamin C and soluble substance contents. In addition to these studies, Londra et al.
(2018) found that increasing the ratio of perlite in mixtures resulted in reduced water retention
capacity and an increase in wide pores.
152
Conclusion
Considering all these data, in our study, the peat+perlite mixture showed the best
performance, and the results were similar to those reported in previous studies. As a mixture of
perlite and peat at a ratio of 1:1 was used in this study, the reduction in the water retention capacity
reported by Londra et al. (2018) was not observed in this study. Keeping this issue in mind, it is
seen that, in order to determine the ideal growth medium, it is needed to try organic and inorganic
media mixed at different ratios and to determine the mixture providing the best results based on the
plant to be produced.
The best growth medium for our study was determined as the peat+perlite mixture mixed at a
ratio of 1:1.
References
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Agronomy 9:298
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Res 7
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novel alternative for growing crops International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences 7:833
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Londra P, Paraskevopoulou A, Psychogiou M (2018) Hydrological Behavior of Peat- and Coir-Based Substrates and Their Effect on
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153
INVESTIGATION ON THE GROWTH POSSIBILITIES OF SOME
PLANT SPROUTS
H. CAN1, M. PAKSOY*,1,2
1: Department of Field Crop and Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas
University, Bishkek/ Kyrgyzstan
2: Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Selcuk University, Konya/Turkey
*: Corresponding author: paksoy42@hotmail.com
Abstract
Today, as with sufficient consumption of food, food consumption with healthy ingredients
containing nutrient content has become a very significant part of diets for human beings. These
foods contain plenty of the vitamins, minerals, amino acids, proteins, low amount of carbohydrates,
high amount of dietary fiber, total phenolic content, aglycone, isoflavones, saponin, glycosides and
antioxidants whose health benefits have been proven by many studies. It has been supported by
many studies that the aforementioned health content of sprouts obtained from germination of seeds
is high, and sprouts are now widely consumed in countries such as Far Eastern countries, some
European countries and the USA. These edible sprouts could be obtained by germination of a
diversity of seeds like soybean, alfalfa, broccoli, radishes, kale, watercress, peas, cereals, mustards,
adzuki bean and mung bean. The aim of this study is to determine the major yield-related properties
of sprouts such as soybean, mung bean, chickpea and wheat by measuring the length, fresh and dry
weights of sprouts. For this purpose, seeds of soybean, mung bean, chickpea and wheat were
germinated in sterile laboratory conditions in three replications. The height (cm), fresh weight (g)
and dry weight (g) measurements were taken from at least 50 sprouts from each replication, and the
sprouts with the highest dry matter content were determined by comparing the results to each other.
The results are presented in the full text.
Keywords: Plant sprout, soybean, mung bean, chickpea, wheat, germination
Introduction
The increased health-related sensitivities of consumers in recent years have led them to
substantially change their consumption tendencies. The emergence of various health problems by
the use of many additive substances to increase the shelf life of foods and improve their sensory
qualities has led this tendency to change towards natural foods. As a result of this tendency, the
popularity of functional foods has increased, and this popularity has shown a very fast growth.
Nowadays, at least as much as consuming sufficient food, consumption of foods that contain
bioactive compounds that carry importance in terms of health has gained considerable importance. Among
these functionally rich foods, there are sprouts produced out of various seeds. Sprouts are plant parts that are
produced out of seeds by germination or from other plant organs, and they are generally plants or plant parts
that are nutritional or used as a supplementation to food contents in diets which are produced by using simple
cultivation methods within short growth cycles from usually cereals, crucifers and legumes  
Gawlik-Dziki 2015). The reasons for selecting and consuming especially crucifers as sprouts include that, in
addition to compounds with antioxidant properties at high concentrations (e.g., carotenoids, vitamin C and
154
folates), they contain isothiocyanates that facilitate xenobiotic biotransformation and indoles that are
glucosinolate precursors (Cartea and Velasco 2008; Baenas et al. 2012). In terms of nutrient content, sprouts
have more bioactive substance content than seeds from which they are produced. This is because, during
germination, catabolizing and degrading main macronutrient substances lead to a reduction in undigested
contents (Gan et al. 2017). Sprouts are not just limited to vegetables of crucifers and legumes, but they are
produced from various species such as canola, peppergrass, rocket, mustard, onion, leek, sunflower and
clover. Although sprouts are usually prevalently consumed in Far Eastern Asian countries, they are
becoming widespread in other parts of the world, as well .
While the natural bioactive contents of sprouts are high, these contents may be increased even
further by producers through manipulation. Some stress agents are used to increase bioactive contents. These
stress agents consist of chemicals like some plant hormones, sucrose, sodium chloride and amino acids.
These agents activate the defense mechanism of the sprout by inducing stress on it and increase its bioactive
contents (Guo et al. 2014; Baenas et al. 2016). For these reasons, studies on sprout production and increasing
the bioactive contents of sprouts are highly widespread today. Especially sprouts that are added to diet lists
are a plant group whose significance is increasingly higher in the entire world in terms of their healthy
contents. For the aforementioned reasons, their practical and mass production is highly important. The
purpose of this study is to reveal the production potential of sprouts under different conditions. The main
objective of the study includes proving that sprouts could be produced under practically every condition in
addition to purchasing this group of food that is highly significant in terms of health. This study was carried
out at the department of field crop and horticulture Laboratory of the Faculty of Agriculture at Kyrgyz-
Turkish Manas University.
Materials and Methods
Germination procedures
The study was carried out at the department of field crop and horticulture laboratory of the
Faculty of Agriculture at Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University. As the plant material, species that are
frequently used in plant sprout production were selected. In the study, seeds of soybean, mung bean,
chickpea and wheat were germinated. The seeds were selected generally from among local cultivar
that had not been chemically treated produced in Kyrgyzstan.
The seeds that were used in the trial were germinated by being subjected to surface cleaning
by being left in a 6% sodium hypochlorite (NaClO) solution for 30 minutes before sowing. The trial
was organized to include 3 replications. A sufficient number of seeds was placed into each
germination container, the seeds were washed with distilled water 3-4 times after leaving them for
30 minutes, and they were than kept in distilled water for wetting for 24 hours. Afterwards, the
seeds were taken into a plant growth chamber on suitable detectable wire grids in sterilized plastic
food containers. Germinations were facilitated at cabin conditions of a temperature of 1 C and
a relative humidity of approximately 60-70%. The seeds were germinated in the dark for 7 days. In
this process, the water needs of the seeds were met once every day.
Measurements on sprouts
Sprout height (cm): After 7 days from seed sowing, the heights of the sprouts were
measured by a ruler from the root tip to the tip of the cotyledon leaves of the plant and are shown as
cm. Sprout fresh weight (g): As a result of germination, the fresh weights of the sprouts were
measured with a precision scale from the tip of the root to the tip of the cotyledon leaves.
155
Sprout dry weight (g): The sprouts whose fresh weights were measured were separately packed,
they were dried in a drying chamber until they reached constant weight, and their weights were measured.
Results and discussion
As a result of the conducted study, the germination results, heights, fresh weights and dry weights of
the mung bean, soybean, chickpea and wheat sprouts are shown respectively in Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4. Table 1
shows that the heights of the sprouts of mung bean varied in the range of 6.673-6.754 cm, and their mean
height was 6.724. Their fresh weights varied in the range of 0.268-0.292 g, while their mean weight was
0.277 g. For the dry weights, the range was 0.044-0.058 g, and the mean value was 0.049 g. Ebert et al.
(2017) determined that the sprout weights of mung bean (dry weight corresponding to 100 g of fresh weight)
varied in the range of 9.72-14.37 g. They also determined that the sprouts contained 7.13-8.53 mg Ca, 0.36-
0.81 mg Fe, 0.49-0.67 mg Zn and 17.61-23.33 vitamin C. As our study showed similarities to the lower limit
value of weight in their study, it is highly likely that the mineral and vitamin data would show similarity to
their lower limit values. The reason for this difference between these two studies may be due to the seeds,
germination conditions and harvest time. In another study, Zhou et al. (2018) monitored various procedures
on mung bean through different time intervals. Among the properties they followed, they reported the mean
fresh weight of 0.2 g and sprout height of approximately 8 cm. Our results were similar to their study in
terms of the weight values.
Table 1. Results on mung bean sprouts
Plant
Replication
Height (cm)
Fresh Weight (g)
Dry Weight (g)
Mung Bean
1
6.673 
0.272 
0.044 
2
6.754 
0.268 
0.046 
3
6.704 
0.292 
0.058 
Mean
6.724
0.277
0.049
Table 2 shows that the heights of the sprouts of soybean varied in the range of 8.454-9.000 cm, and
their mean height was 8.689 cm. Their fresh weights varied in the range of 0.431-0.453 g, while their mean
weight was 0.445 g. For the dry weights, the range was 0.107-0.108 g, and the mean value was 0.107 g.
Ebert et al. (2017) also studied soybeans to make a comparison to mung beans. In their study, they reported
the dry weights of 100 sprouts to vary in the range of 16.37-28.15 g. Additionally, in the sprouts with these
dry weights, they determined Ca as 46-76.7 mg, Fe as 1.43-2.22 mg, Zn as 1.04-1.58 mg and vitamin C as
8.67-14.67. In our study, the 100 g fresh weight equivalent dry weight of the soybean sprouts was calculated
as 24.82 g. The fact that this was within the limits reported by their study is an indication that the sprouts in
our study would most probably have similar mineral and vitamin contents. Yang et al. (2019) reported on
soybean sprouts harvested on the same day as our study that the heights varied in the range of 5.63-7.78 cm,
and the fresh weights varied in the range of 0.44-0.54 g. The data obtained in our study showed a strong
similarity to theirs.
Table 2. Results on soybean sprouts
Plant
Replication
Height (cm)
Fresh Weight (g)
Dry Weight (g)
Soybean
1



2



3
9.000 


Mean
8.689
0.445
0.107
Table 3 shows that the heights of the sprouts of chickpea varied in the range of 7.216-7.616 cm, and
their mean height was 7.466 cm. Their fresh weights varied in the range of 0.190-0.191 g, while their mean
weight was 0.190 g. For the dry weights, the range was 0.020-0.022 g, and the mean value was 0.021 g.
Arora et al. (2019) reported that, under different germination conditions, the weights of chickpea sprouts
156
varied in the range of 0.125-0.211 g. The fresh weight we determined in this study was similar to those in the
literature. In another study on chickpea sprouts, Sreenivasan (2020) reported that the heights varied in the
range of 7.24-8.34 cm, while the fresh weights were in the range of 0.104-0.165 g. While the results of our
study on height were similar, our fresh weight findings were higher than those reported in their study.
Table 3. Results on chickpea sprouts
Plant
Replication
Height (cm)
Fresh Weight (g)
Dry Weight (g)
Chickpea
1


01
2



3

0.04

Mean
7.466
0.190
0.021
Table 4 shows that the heights of the sprouts of wheat varied in the range of 13.650-13.780 cm, and
their mean height was 13.710 cm. Their fresh weights varied in the range of 0.092-0.099 g, while their mean
weight was 0.095 g. For the dry weights, the range was 0.012-0.013 g, and the mean value was 0.013 g. In
their studies, Wang et al. (2020) stated that the heights of wheat sprouts in the control groups were about 13
cm, and the fresh to dry weight ratio in the control groups was approximately 6. In our study, the mean
height of the wheat sprouts was 13.71 cm, whereas the mean fresh to dry weight ratio was determined as 7.3.
It is considered that such results were obtained because of the fact that the wheat sprouts in our study were
harvested 1-2 days later.
Table 4. Results on wheat sprouts
Plant
Replication
Height (cm)
Fresh Weight (g)
Dry Weight (g)
Wheat
1
13.720 


2
13.780 


3
13.650 


Mean
13.710
0.095
0.013
Table 5. ANOVA results among sprouts
Plant
Height (cm)
Fresh Weight (g)
Dry Weight (g)
Soybean
Mung Bean
Chickpea
Wheat
8.689*
0.445*
0.107*
6.724*
0.277*
0.049*
7.466*
0.190*
0.021*
13.71*
0.095*
0.013*
* 0.05 degree of statistical significance
The prevalent sprout types grown in the scope of our study were observed to show similarities in
many respects to previous studies. This comparison showed that they were at the same standard as
international studies. Table 5 presents the results of the ANOVA conducted among the examined properties.
As a result of the ANOVA, statistically significant differences were observed among the height, fresh weight
and dry weight properties of the sprouts. As the species were different, it is natural that there were
statistically significant differences. The finding that there were no statistically significant differences among
the replications also showed that the results were consistent.
157
Conclusion
With the study, the practical applicability of sprout production was tested, and based on the
obtained results, it was shown that these sprouts could have similar contents to those in previous
studies. According to the ANOVA conducted among the fresh weights, there were significant
differences (p<0.05). The highest fresh weight was in the soybean sprouts, while others could be
listed in descending order as the mung bean, chickpea and wheat sprouts. According to the ANOVA
conducted among the dry weights, there were significant differences (p<0.05). The highest dry
weight was in the soybean sprouts, while others could be listed in descending order as the mung
bean, chickpea and wheat sprouts. As a result of our study, the highest dry matter content was
obtained in the soybean sprouts. In a sense, this situation means these were the sprouts with the
highest mineral and bioactive contents. With this study, it was shown that sprouts could be easily
grown in different environments, their health-promoting contents could be increased with practices
like eustress, and they could be easily integrated into consumption as diet. Today, it is as highly
important to consume foods with high bioactive and mineral contents as consuming sufficient food.
With this study, it was shown that these foods with high beneficial nutrient contents could be easily
grown in various environments.
References
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L.) Sprouts Germinated Under Different Conditions. In, 2019.
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Food Chem 60:11409-11420 doi:10.1021/jf302863c
-Viguera C, Moreno DA (2016) Optimizing elicitation and seed priming to enrich broccoli and radish
sprouts in glucosinolates Food Chemistry 204:314-319 doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.02.144
Cartea ME, Velasco P (2008) Glucosinolates in Brassica foods: bioavailability in food and significance for human health
Phytochemistry reviews 7:213-229
Ebert AW, Chang C-H, Yan M-R, Yang R-Y (2017) Nutritional composition of mungbean and soybean sprouts compared to their
adult growth stage Food Chemistry 237:15-22 doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2017.05.073
Gan R-Y, Lui W-Y, Wu K, Chan C-L, Dai S-H, Sui Z-Q, Corke H (2017) Bioactive compounds and bioactivities of germinated
edible seeds and sprouts: An updated review Trends in Food Science & Technology 59:1-14
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.11.010
Guo L, Yang R, Wang Z, Guo Q, Gu Z (2014) Effect of NaCl stress on health-promoting compounds and antioxidant activity in the
sprouts of three broccoli cultivars International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition 65:476-481
-Valverde C (2009) Efficacy of combinations of high pressure treatment, temperature and
antimicrobial compounds to improve the microbiological quality of alfalfa seeds for sprout production Food Control 20:31-
39 doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.01.012
Sreenivasan E (2020) Preliminary Report on Multiple Harvests of Microgreens from Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) Seeds
-Dziki U (2015) Effects of sprouting and postharvest storage under cool temperature conditions on starch content
and antioxidant capacity of green pea, lentil and young mung bean sprouts Food chemistry 185:99-105
Wang M, Ding Y, Wang Q, Wang P, Han Y, Gu Z, Yang R (2020) NaCl treatment on physio-biochemical metabolism and phenolics
accumulation in barley seedlings Food Chemistry 331:127282
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Yang R, Jiang Y, Xiu L, Huang J (2019) Effect of chitosan pre-soaking on the growth and quality of yellow soybean sprouts J Sci
Food Agr 99:1596-1603 doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.9338
Zhou T, Wang P, Yang R, Gu Z (2018) Polyamines regulating phytic acid degradation in mung bean sprouts J Sci Food Agr
98:3299-3308 doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.8833
158
EFFECTS OF MEDETOMIDINE/KETAMINE ANESTHESIA AND
THEIRS REVERSAL BY ATIPAMEZOLE ON
ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC VALUES IN CATS
M. Kibar1*
1Hunting and Wild Life Medicine Programme, Artvin Vocational School, Artvin University, Artvin,
Turkey. 
Abstract
In order to improve the quality of results of an investigation on cardiac morphology and
function in cats undergoing anesthesia, the aim of this study was to clarify, investigate, and
visualize in vivo the short-term echocardigraphic effects of medetomidine/ketamine (MED-KET)
anesthesia regime and their reversal (atipamezole) in cats undergoing ovariohysterctomy. A
randomized, single-blinded study was conducted. Ten sexually intact female cats (weiging between
2.2 and 3.6 kg, and between 0.5 and 5.5 yrs of age) referred for ovariohysterectomy procedure.
Electrocardiogram, non-invasive blood pressure, respiratory rate, heart rate, pulse oximetry, and
rectal temperature were monitored throughout the anesthesia. The group showed declines in left
ventricular diameter (LVD%) and left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) after anesthesia induction
(T0 vs. T1, all, p < 0.05); nevertheles, the reduction and starting pattern of LVD% and left
ventricular EF presented important intergroup distiction. In conclusion, echocardiographic values
effected significantly after anesthesia with MED-KET; and atipamezole can be useful for return to
baseline values quickly and safely in cats after abdominal surgery such as ovariohysterectomy.
Keywords: Echocardiography, Anesthesia, Atipamezole, Cat
INTRODUCTION
Anesthesia is often needed during the medical management of animals for both experimental
models and therapeutic procedures. The reaction of the cardiovascular system to anesthetics can be
various different, based on dosing, the experimental model and agent selection (Fabian 1964; Gross, 2009;
Wessler et al., 2011). Mostly used maintenance and induction anesthesia procedures involve agents that
are known to effect the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems, contractile properties of
the myocardium, and vascular tone (Oguchi et al., 1995; Kunts et al., 1999; Wessler et al., 2011).
Medetomidine has got potent muscle relaxing properties. Its half-life is one hour. It is a
sedative analgesic too. It is a extremel  -2 adrenergic agonist. Medetomidine induces
159
sedation and primary hypertension later increased intravenous administraion, after produced to
bradycardia and a reduce in blood pressure to ordinary or lightly below ordinary grades. These
impacts are guessed for by a centrally lightly reducee in sympathetic grade and peripherally slightly
vasoconstriction and rise in baroreceptor and vagal capacity. Medetomidine decreases the quantity
of noradrenaline slip and its change in the nervous system (Bienert et al., 2012; Grundmanova etal., 2016).
Medetomidine is often utilized to immobilising for non-surgical procedures to animals, as a
premedication before general anaesthesia or such as radiography or oral inspection.
Ketamine, a derivative of phencyclidine and cyclohexamine, is a N-methyl-D-aspartate
antagonist that is often applied to start anesthesia in dogs. It acts on the limbic, reticular activating,
and thalamocortical systems (Anandmay et al., 2016). Restricted models present to show the various
cardiovascular impacts of ketamine which contained rised cardiac output, vascular resistance, and
heart rate.
Anesthesia with the combination of medetomidine/ketamine (MED-KET), which can be
antagonized by atipamezole, has been described as a useful anesthetic technique for animals (Virtanen,
1989; Talukder et al., 2009; Baumgartner et al., 2010). Obvious benefits of these drug combinations relate to the
competitive reversibility by atipamezole for all components, which leads to an improvement to
control anesthetic depth, a shorter recovery phase and less occurence of hypothermia (Astner, 1998;
Henke et al., 2005; Baumgartner et al., 2010a).
Ultrasound imaging technologies can be applied for the scanning of direct vascular impacts of
anesthetics (Baumgartner et al., 2008; Riha et al., 2012; Baumgartner et al., 2010b). Anesthetic drugs are well-known
to utilize different impacts on various data of the cardiovascular system (e.g., blood pressure,
ventricular contractility and heart rate), and in most patients, there is a visible dose-response
correlation (Smith, 2009).
Late informations evaluating prospective studies have noticed more intraoperatively
morbidity and mortality corporated with anaesthesia in dogs and cats (Dyson and Maxie, 1998) checked
with humans (Lunn and Mushin, 1982). Consequently, there has been wide study into the impacts
of various anaesthetic agents on dog cardiovascular function and their additive to intraoperatively
deaths.
Normal values of cardiac morphology and function have been published for cats (Allen, 1982).
However, papers about cardiac function and morphology in cats with anesthesia regimes is lacking.
The manufacture of deep cardiovascular impacts has been a stable finding in past researches.
Nevertheless, there is small information about the direct cardiovascular impacts of MED-KET
160
anesthesia regime in cats. The hypothesis of this study is that echocardiographic values and cardiac
morpholgy are affected by medetomidine/ketamine anesthesia.
For improve the quality of results of an research on cardiac function and morphology in cats
undergoing anesthesia, the aim of this study was to investigate, visualize, and clarify in vivo the
short-term echocardiographic impacts of MED-KET anaesthesia regime and their reversal
(atipamezole) in cats undergoing ovariohysterctomy.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Animals and anesthesia
A randomized, single-blinded study was conducted. Ten sexually intact female cats (weiging
between 2.2 and 3.6 kg, and between 0.5 and 5.5 yrs of age) referred for ovariohysterectomy
procedure by their owners at regular intervals over 2 months were contained in the study. Holders
were inquired to fast cats from 24.00 hr to the morning of the operation, but water was adlibitum.
The study protocol was addmitted by the local ethics committee (approval number: 2014-12).
The cats were haphazardly included ten cats in each group (T0, baseline). Cats were
anesthesied usi       -1 IM (Tomidine, Provet, Turkey) and
ketamine hydrochloride 2 mg kg-1 IM (Alfamin, Egevet, Turkey) in group (T1: after 10 min
premedication). Electrocardiogram, respiratory rate, non-invasive blood pressure, heart rate, rectal
temperature, and pulse oximetry were monitored (Guoteng Co Ltd, China) throughout the
anesthesia (T2: after 15 min starting operation; T3: after last suture). At the end of the
ovariohysterectomy procedure, anesthesia regime was reversed using at-1, IM
(Reversal, Provet, Turkey; T4: after 10 min reversed). Cats were not entubated during anesthesia.
They were not received additional O2.
Echocardiography
Each cat was shaved in preparation for ultrasonographic measurements. Ultrasonographic
measurements of the 2-dimensional (2-D) guided M-mode echocardiography were directed with the
cats placed in right lateral recumbency. For echocardiography, a 7.0 MHz microconvex transducer
was used. The transducer was utilized together with an ultrasonographic system (SIUI, S. Korea).
Echocardiographic values of the heart were evaluated to research changes of cardiac datas. The
heart was initially viewed in the 2-D mode in the right parasternal short-axis plane. From this scane,
an M-mode indicator was placed at the level of the papillary muscles and interventricular septum by
perpendicular to the posterior wall of the left ventricle. Chamber measurements were detected by
the M-mode tracings. The left ventricular end-systolic diameter (LVSD) was determined at the
161
point of peak upward deflection of the posterior wall, the posterior wall thickness was measured at
end-systole. Echocardiographic investigation measured fractional shortening (FS), left ventricular
diameter % (LVD%), and ejection fraction       
soft-ware of ultrasonographic machine. Measurements were carried out at T0, T1, T3, and T4 time
points (except T2).
M-mode echocardiographic and 2-D systolic function values were assessed before induction
of anesthesia and then at T0, T1, T3, and T4 time points (except T2). The same investigator, who
was not informed     nment, performed all of the echocardiographies. The
echocardiographic values were related to effects of anesthetic regimes. These values were
calculated for each time point except in T2 (after 15 min starting operation) time point. Each
s was included in the statistical evaluation. No patient was withdrawn from the study.
Animals breathed spontaneously during anesthesia. Monitoring of respiration rate, heart rate,
mean arterial pressure, peripheral arterial oxygen saturation, and body temperature was monitored
using a patient monitor (Guoteng Co Ltd, China) at T0, T1, T2, T3, and T4 time points (data not
shown). Clinical datas, including respiration rate, mean arterial pressure, heart rate, body
temperature, and peripheral arterial oxygen saturation were recorded concurrently with the
ultrasonographic examination except at T2.
Ovariohysterectomy was carried out in cats after T1. Every surgeries were did by the same
ginecolog together with veterinary students. No other anesthetic or analgesic drug was applied
during the operation. Carprofen 4 mg/kg IV (Rimadyl, New Jersey, USA) was applied to all cats for
analgesia after T4 time point. All cats were discharged 24 hours after the operation.
       mate the values of all datas. Statistical analysis was
performed using nonparametric tests since the sample size was small and the datas were not
normally distributed. Statistical significance was establish a probability value of p < 0.05 with an
assumption of equal variance and two-sided confidence interval. The statistical analyses were start
using SPSS Version 22.0. SPSS Inc., IBM Company, 233 S. Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois
60606.
RESULTS
All baseline monitoring values were within the expected reference ranges for anesthetized cats
(Table 1). The serial systolic functional changes in MED-KET group are showed in Table 2. Within
the MED-KET group, the end systolic volume increased significantly after medetomidine and
ketamine injection. There is a statistically significant difference between times (p = 0.006). There
162
was a statistically significant difference at T1 and T3 versus at baseline (T1, T3 vs. T0; p = 0.0287
& p = 0.018, repectively); though values were not significanly different from baseline by T4 (T0,
T1 vs.T4 p = 0.128 and p = 0.075, respectively). The left ventricular EF declined importantly from
T0 at T1 and T3 (p = 0.028 & p = 0.018, repectively), and started values at T4 (p = 0.091).
Although the left ventricular EF decreased momentarily, the quartile value was within acceptable
systolic function [T1: 69.2 (64.2-83.6), T3: 69.0 (56.0-79.8)].
The serial M-mode echocardiographic changes in MED-KET group are determined (data not
shown). Within the MED-KET group, the LVIDd increased significantly after medetomidine and
ketamine injection. There was a statistically significant difference between times (p = 0.049). There
was a statistically significant difference between T3 versus T0 (T3 vs. T0, p = 0.028); though this
recovered at T4 with no statistically significant difference (T0, T1 vs.T4 p = 0,176 and p = 0,128,
respectively).
The internal diameter of left ventricular at end-systole (LVIDs) increased importantly from
starting value at T1 and T3 (p = 0.028 & p = 0.018, repectively), and return to initial value by T4 (p
= 0,128). There was a statistically significant difference in T1 and T3 versus T4 (T1, T3 vs. T4 p =
0,028, p = 0,018, respectively), but no statistically significant difference in T0 versus T4 (p =
0,128).
The interventricular septum thickness at end-systole (IVSs) increased significantly after
medetomidine and ketamine injection. There was a statistically significant difference in T4 versus
T0 (T4 vs. T0, p = 0.043)
DISCUSSION
In conclusion, echocardiographic values effected significantly after anesthesia with MED-KET; and
atipamezole can be useful for return to baseline values quickly and safely in cats after abdominal
surgery such as ovariohysterectomy.
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Table 1. Animal data and baseline (T0) physiological variables for both 
Patient variable
MED-KET
group
BW (kg)

BCS

Age (years)

Baseline HR (beats/min)

Baseline RR (breaths/min)

Baseline BP (mmHg)

Baseline SPO2 (mmHg)
94,0
BCS: body condition score; BP: blood pressure; BW: body weight; HR: heart rate; RR: respiration
rate; SPO2: Oxygen saturation.
165
Table 2. The serial systolic functional changes in MED-KET group.
Group
T0
T1
T3
T4
IVS%
MED-KET




LVPW%
MED-KET




LVD%
MED-KET




EDV
MED-KET




ESV
MED-KET

2,82*
*

SV
MED-KET




EF
MED-KET

*
*

CO
MED-KET




CO: cardiac output; EDV: end diastolic volume; EDS: end systolic volume; EF: ejection fraction; IVS%: interventricular septum fractional
thickness %; LVD%: left ventricular thickness %; LVPW%: left ventricular posterior wall thickness %; SV: stroke volume *p < 0.05: vs. T0 within
 T4 within the group.
166
EFFECTS OF MEDETOMIDINE/KETAMINE ANESTHESIA AND
THEIR REVERSAL BY ATIPAMEZOLE ON OCULAR
PARAMETERS AND MONITORED ANESTHESIA CARE IN
CATS
M. Kibar1


muratkibartr@yahoo.com
Abstract
The aim of this study was to research the summary impact of the general anesthetic drug
ketamine and premedication agent xylazine, and their reversal by atipamezole, on feline ocular
parameters such as intraocular pressure, horizontal pupillar diameter, and Schirmer tear test and
monitored anesthesia care values. A randomized, single-blinded study was conducted. Ten sexually
intact female cats (weiging between 2.2 and 3.6 kg, and 0.5 to 5.5 yrs of age) referred for
ovariohysterectmy procedure by owner at regular intervals over 4 months were included in the
study. The cats were included to one group with ten cats in group (T0, baseline). The cats were
anesthesied -1 IM and ketamine hydrochloride 2 mg
kg-1 IM in group (T1: after 10 min premedication). At the end of the ovariohysterectomy procedure
  ly. Monitoring of
respiration rate, heart rate, mean arterial pressure, peripheral arterial oxygen saturation, and body
temperature were conducted using a patient monitor at T0, T1, T2, T3, and T4 time points. The
animals showed declines in intraocular pressure and increases in horizontal pupil diameter after
anesthesia induction (T0 vs. T1, all, p < 0.05); however, the chencing and recovery pattern of
intraocular pressure and horizontal pupil diameter showed significant intergroup difference. In
conclusion, mederomidine/ketamine is effective in attenuating the intraocular pressure, increasing
the horizontal pupil diameter, and chance monitored anesthesia care response in the general
anesthesia.
Keywords: Anesthesia, Atipamezole, Cat, Ocular
INTRODUCTION
Anaesthetic drugs and endotracheal intubation have vitally significant effects on the cardiovascular
167
and pulmonary systems. At the same time, they cause sudden increases in intraocular pressure. This
leads to severe complications occurring in surgical interventions performed on patients, in
particular, those with ocular trauma or glaucoma (Zimmerman et al., 1996; Batista et al., 2000; Perk et al., 2002;
.
Increasing intraocular pressure (IOP) in ophthalmic surgery has always been problematic for
the surgeon and it is necessary to prevent the elevation of IOP and control IOP before, during and
after the surgery (Miller, 2005; Banga et al., 2015). Anesthesia for a patient with a penetrating eye injury
and a full stomach is a challenge to the anesthesiologist. In these cases the aim of anesthesia is rapid
sequence induction without increasing IOP. The anesthesiologist must weigh the risk of aspiration
against the risk of blindness in the injured eye that could result from elevated IOP and extrusion of
ocular contents (Banga et al., 2015).
Monitored anesthesia care (MACr) has been utilized to ensure relief from anxiety, sedation,
minimal memory loss, and comfort throughout diagnostic or therapeutic applications with analgesia
and sedation            . Respiratory decrease is
associated with the most significant case injuries in MACr (Cunningham and Barry, 1986; Gelatt et al., 1977).
The goal of MACr is the management of anesthesia and maintenance of optimal cardiac functions
without intense respiratory down and airway obstruction. The ability to quickly modulate the depth
of anesthesia when needed is also a significant aspect of MACr. Several narcotics, analgesics and
sedatives are utilized to obtain these aims while minimizing side effects .
Anesthesia with the combination of medetomidine/ketamine (MED-KET), which can be
antagonized by atipamezole, has been described as a useful anesthetic technique for animals
(Badrinath et al., 1986; Bruniges et al., 2016). Obvious benefits of these drug combinations are related to the
competitive reversibility by atipamezole for all components, which leads to improved control of
anesthetic depth, a shorter recovery phase and lower occurence of hypothermia (Hofmeister et al., 2006;
Bruniges et al., 2016).
While there has been extensive research on some general anesthesia and premedication agent
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics, information on their impact on MACr and ocular
parameters, such as IOP, horizontal pupil diameter (HP      
animals and particularly cats, are few, deficient and rather contentious .,
2016). To our knowledge, no articles have focused on the impact of medetomidine/ketamine
anesthesia on ocular parameters and MACr values in cats. The aim of this study was to research the
summary impact of the general anesthetic drug ketamine and premedication agent medetomidine,
168
and their reversal by atipamezole, on feline ocular parameters such as IOP, HPD, and STT and
MACr values.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experimental procedure was authorized by the local ethics committee (approval number: 2014-
12). A randomized, single-blinded study was conducted. Ten sexually intact female cats (weiging
between 2.2 and 3.6 kg, and 0.5 to 5.5 yrs of age) referred for ovariohysterectmy (OVH) procedure
by owner at regular intervals over 2 months were included in the study.
The cats were included with ten cats in each group (T0, baseline). Carprofen 4 mg/kg IV
(Rimadyl, USA) was applied to all cats for analgesia. The cats were anesthesied using a combine
-1 IM (Tomidine, Provet, Turkey) and ketamine hydrochloride 2 mg kg-
1 IM (Alfamin, Egevet, Turkey) in group (T1: after 10 min premedication). Electrocardiogram,
oscillometric mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), respiratory rate (RR), heart rate (HR),
hemoglobin oxygen saturation (SpO2), and rectal body temperature (BT) were monitored by
multiparameter monitor (Guoteng; China) with 5 min intervals throughout the anesthesia (T2: after
15 min starting operation; T3: after last suture). At the end of the OVH procedure anesthesia regime
was revers            
intramuscularly.
Animals breathed spontaneously during anesthesia and were not entubated in order to avoide
a heightened effect on the IOP. Monitoring of heart rate, RR, MAP, SpO2, and BT was conducted
using a patient monitor at T0, T1, T2, T3, and T4 time points. Clinical datas, including RR, HR,
MAP, SpO2, and BT were recorded concurrently.
Ocular parameters were measured at T0, T1, T2, T3, and T4 time points. All ocular
measurements were performed with the cat with the care taken not to occlude the jugular veins or
place pressure on the globe while retracting the eyelids. The cats were in dorsal recumbency in T3
time point, and in lateral recumbency at other time points. One researcher who was blind to the
anaesthetic drug, performed all IOP controls using a rebound tonometry (TonoVet; Tiolat).
Intraocular pressure was evaluated on the center of the cornea in accordance with the instruction
manual of each tonometer. The tonometer was factory-calibrated before the study and calibrated
each day before data collection. Three readings were obtained in the right eye at each measurement
time. The mean of the three readings was recorded. No local anesthetic drop was used before IOP
measurement. PS was measured with a caliper by horizontally at the same time points. Schirmer
169
tear test I was performed using commercial Schirmer strips placed in the lower fornix for 1 min.
Ovariohysterectomy was carried out in cats after T1 time point. All surgeries were performed
by the same ginecolog with assisstance from veterinary students. All cats were discharged 24 hours
after the operation.
            s. Statistical analysis was
performed using nonparametric tests since the sample size was small and the datas were not
normally distributed. In order to test whether the effects of the drug differed from the median
values, the Friedman test was used to analyze the variables between the two groups. Comparisons
between the groups were made employing the Mann-Whitney U test, and differences between
measurements were taken over time using the Wilcoxon test. Statistical significance was set at a
probability value of P < 0.05 with a two-sided confidence interval and assumption of equal
variance. The statistical analyses were run using SPSS Version 22.0. SPSS Inc., IBM Company,
233 S. Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois 60606.
RESULTS
No statistically significant differences were observed between the treatment groups with regard to
body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), age and baseline measurements of HR, RR, SpO2,
and BT. All of baseline monitoring values were within the expected reference ranges for
anesthetized cats (Table 1).
The serial monitorized data changes in MED-KET and XYZ-KET group are noted (data not
shown). Within the MED-KET group, the HR decreased significantly after medetomidine and
ketamine injection. There is a statistically significant difference between times (p = 0.005). There
was a statistically significant difference at T1, T2 and T3 versus at T0 (T1, T2, T3 vs. T0, p =
0.005, p = 0.014 and p = 0.005, respectively); though values were not significanly different from
baseline by T4 (T0 vs. T4, p = 0.508). Even though the HR reduced temporarily, the quartile range
was within normal values [T1:103.80 (60.00-148.00), T2: 124.41 (67.00-200.00), T3: 113.50
(68.00-175.00)].
The serial intraocular parameter changes in MED-KET group are compared in Table 2.
Within the MED-KET group, the STT reduced significantly after medetomidine and ketamine
injection. There is a statistically significant difference between times (p = 0.000). There was a
statistically significant difference at T1, T2 and T3 versus at T0 (T1, T2, T3 vs. T0, p = 0.005, p =
0.005 and p = 0.007, respectively); though values were not significanly different from baseline by
170
T4 (T0 vs. T4, p = 0.233). Even though the STT decreased temporarily, the quartile range was
within normal values [T1: 5.50 (2.00-15.00), T2:4.20 (3.00-13.00), T3:4.40 (2.00-8.00)].
DISCUSSION
In conclusion, XYZ-KET is more effective than MED-KET in attenuating the IOP, increasing
the HPD, and chance the MACr response in general anesthesia. This temporary reduction in IOP
could likely be helpful in eye operations especially in animals with high IOP values. Additionally,
dilated HPD could possibly aid in the avoidace of anretior sinechia during corneal surgery. Future
investigations may focus on the impact of other premedicant or induction agents on the IOP, HPD,
and MAC to confirm our results for medetomidine and xylazine, and on evaluating the effects on
the IOP, HPD, and MACr of different doses of medetomidine or xylazine.
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Table 1. Animal data and baseline (T0) physiological variables for both groups, Mea
Patient variable
MED-KET
group
BW (kg)

BCS

Age (years)

Baseline HR (beats/min)

Baseline RR (breaths/min)

Baseline SPO2 (%)

Baseline BT (C)

BW: body weight, BCS: body condition score, HR: heart rate, RR: respiratory rate, SpO2:
hemoglobin oxygen saturation, and BT: rectal body temperature, NS (p>0.05).
172
Table 2. The serial intraocular parameter changes in MED-KET and XYZ-KET group.
Group
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
p-within group
IOP
MED-KET
24.52
22.602.88
20.902.16
23.60

0.762
PS
MED-KET
6.60
7.10 0.57
7.10
6.90

0.034
STT
MED-KET
1.59
5.50*,
4.20*,
4.40*,

0.325
*, p < 0.05: vs. T0 within the group, , p < 0.05: vs. T1 within the group, , p < 0.05: vs. T4 within the group, IOP: Intraocular pressure, PS: pupil
size, STT: Schirmer tear test.
173
USE OF MICROBIAL STIMULANTS TO REDUCE THE
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF DROUGHT IN SUSTAINABLE
VEGETABLE PRODUCTION
Musa Seymena,*
a: Selcuk University, Horticulture Department of Agriculture Faculty, Konya/Turkey
*Corresponding author: mseymen@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract
Drought is one of the most important abiotic stress factors that limit agricultural production in many
regions of the world, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. As a result of global climate change,
many regions are faced with water scarcity in the world, and accordingly, 45% of agricultural areas
have drought stress. Therefore, for the economical use of available water, determination of plant
water consumption, growing drought-tolerant plants, using microbial biostimulants that reduce the
impact of drought by different mechanisms, etc. are important approaches. It is well known, AMFs
and PGPRs living in the rhizosphere are known as microbial stimulants (MS). MSs interacts with
plant roots to assist in plant nutrient uptake and decomposition of organic substances from the soil,
as well as promote plant development and also helps suppress the phytopathogens. Some MS
practices that contribute significantly to plant development are known to tolerate abiotic stress
conditions and reduce yield losses. In this review, the effects of environmentally friendly MS
applications on vegetable crops and its use in reducing drought stress have been revealed through
current studies.
Keywords: Abiotic stress, Bio-stimulants, Drought stress, Microbe, Vegetable,
1. Introduction
Vegetables, which have an important role in human nutrition and whose 50 different types are
evaluated economically, are a part of a healthy life. Approximately 1 094 343 707 tons of
vegetables are produced annually in the world, and approximately 50% of this production is
provided by China (FAO, 2018). Vegetables with the most economic value are mainly tomato,
pepper, cucumber, eggplant, melon, watermelon, and onion.
The world population is increasing day by day, and it is inevitable to open new agricultural
areas or to increase the productivity per unit area to feed this population. Opening new agricultural
areas in the world is limited by natural resources and ecology. Therefore, efforts to increase
efficiency per unit area are more desirable. In line with this goal, producers have started to use more
intensive chemical fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural cultivation (Kaymak, 2019). On the other
hand, it has been a production method where more chemical wastes and medicines are used in
greenhouse and open field conditions to increase efficiency in vegetable production (Seymen et al.,
2019a). Pesticides and fertilizers used day by day caused the deterioration of the soil structure, as
well as the ecological balance and human health.
On the other hand, day by day, besides intensive and wrong agricultural practices, ecological
factors, drought, salinity, heavy metal toxicity, alkalinity, and flood have increased the negative
effects of abiotic stress factors. Drought, which is one of the abiotic stress factors, is an important
factor that negatively affects plant growth and productivity. The decrease in water resources with
the effect of global warming in the world increased the negative effect of drought (Rijsberman,
174
2006). It has been determined that drought stress has negative effects on plant growth in
approximately 45% of the world's agricultural areas (Asraf and Foolad, 2007). Water scarcity is a
global problem where 1/3 of the world population is affected and it has become a progressive
problem with the increasing use of water in areas such as population growth, urbanization, industry,
and agriculture. If this increase is not put to a stop, it is thought that 2/3 of the world population will
suffer from water scarcity in 2025 (UN Water, 2014). Therefore, different applications are
developed to avoid the negative effects of drought. At the beginning of these practices,
determination of drought-tolerant genotypes (Seymen et al., 2019b), investigation of the effects of
different plant species on plant growth and yield under limited irrigation conditions (Yavuz et al.,
 -Arias et al., 2019; Seymen 2021), grafting of commercial varieties onto drought-
tolerant rootstocks (Yavuz et al., 2020) and inoculation of beneficial microbial stimulants (Enebe
and Babalola, 2018; Igiehon et al., 2019; Hefzy et al., 2020). Microbial stimulants are important
applications in terms of ensuring sustainability in agriculture and protecting human health.
AMFs and PGPRs that generally live in the rhizosphere are known as microbial stimulants
(MS) (Calvo et al., 2014; Mishra et al., 2016). Microbial stimulants are biological applications that
increase plant nutrients from the soil, protect soil fertility, and contribute positively to plant growth.
In the studies conducted, MSs applied to the soil contributed to the soil ecosystem and showed that
the microbial population in the rhizosphere developed qualitatively and quantitatively (Fiorentino et
al., 2018; Rouphael and Colla, 2018). Besides, MSs encourage plant development by increasing the
decomposition of organic matter and nutrient uptake in the soil and additionally suppress the
negative effect of phytopathogens (Nihorimbere et al., 2011; Mishra et al., 2016). On the other
hand, it has been demonstrated in many studies that MSs tolerate abiotic stress conditions and
reduces yield losses (Calvo et al., 2014; Ipek et al., 2019; Selvakumar et al., 2008; Wang et al.,
06).
In this review, it is aimed to reveal the use and effects of microbial stimulants (PGPRs and
AMFs), which are an environmentally friendly application agent within the framework of
sustainable agricultural production, under drought stress conditions that have significant constraints
in the cultivation of vegetable species that have an important place in human nutrition.
2. Microbial stimulants and drought stress in the vegetable production
Global climate change has started to show its negative effects day by day. Today, the most
important factors that cause climate change are fossil fuels, wrong land use, lack of protection of
forests, and increased industry, and the increasing greenhouse gas negatively affects the atmosphere
    lobal warming occurs as a result of the increase in the average
temperature of the atmosphere. As a result of global warming, the surface temperature increases and
affects plant growth negatively. Although the total amount of precipitation is at the same level, the
lack of effective rainfall during the vegetation period of the plant negatively impairs the plant
development and yield and the plant is exposed to drought stress.
Especially drought stress is an important factor that negatively affects agricultural
productivity and limited plant growth in arid and semi-arid regions (Seymen et al., 2016; Yavuz et
al., 2015a; Yavuz et al., 2015b; Seymen et al., 2019a; Yavuz et al., 2020). Ethylene released from
plant tissue in arid conditions can restrict plant growth, inhibit photosynthesis, and alter chlorophyll
content. Some chemicals such as amino ethoxy vinyl glycine (AVG), cobalt ion (Co2 +), and silver
ion (Ag +) can be applied to reduce the ethylene level and protect against stress. However, these
chemicals are not preferred because they are both expensive and adversely affect human health
(Mckeon et al., 1995). Also, such chemicals are not recommended because they have permanent
effects on the soil and will cause environmental pollution and other stress factors in the future.
Environmentally-friendly production techniques and practices should be developed as an alternative
method to ensure sustainability in agriculture. Although plants have developed some special
mechanisms to combat such stress conditions, it is known that some beneficial microorganisms in
175
the root regions play an important role in reducing the stress intensity (Nadeem et al., 2014). The
use of PGPR and AMF is an important issue in sustainable agriculture to avoid the negative impact
of drought stress (El-Meihy, 2016; Wang et al., 2012a).
It is possible to explain the mechanisms developed by PGPRs against abiotic stress factors; 1-
It produces some phytohormones such as ABA, GA, and IAA, 2- ACC reduces the ethylene level in
the roots with deaminase, 3- It creates systemic resistance with bacterial compounds, 4- Increases
bacterial exopolysaccharides (Kim et al., 2013; Timmusk et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2009). ACC has
a significant influence on ethylene regulation, a plant hormone, resulting in modified plant growth
and development. Bacterial strains containing ACC deaminase can eliminate adverse effects caused
by stress and mediated by ethylene. It has been reported that some bacterial strains such as Bacillus,
Azospirillum, Burkholderia, Enterobacter, Agrobacterium, Rhizobium, Methylobacterium,
Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Variorhizobium, Ralstonia, and Rhodococcus release ACC deaminase
).
AMFs consists of three families, Glomaceae, Gigasporaceae, and Acaulosporaceae.
Mycorrhizae form hyphae in the roots of plants, helping the plants to form more roots and obtain
better plant nutrients from the soil. For this reason, AMFs reduce yield losses by providing plant
growth more tolerant to drought with better nutrition in the soil. AMFs interact with some cations
and play a role in dissolving insoluble phosphate ions in the soil (Kloepper and Schroth, 1978).
AMFs provide a better rhizosphere by secreting enzymes and organic matter. On the other hand, it
makes important contributions to the intake of micronutrients.
Due to the decrease in water resources used in agriculture day by day, it is difficult to meet
the irrigation water needed in vegetable agriculture. Therefore, it is among the issues that are tried
to reduce the negative impact of drought in vegetable agriculture. PGPR applications in vegetable
species and drought protection of plants are among his research topics. When the studies were
examined, V. paradoxus applied to tomato increased the root dry weight and chlorophyll content.
On the other hand, it caused a decrease in the content of oxidative damage to lipids, osmolyte
accumulation, root hydraulic conductivity, net photosynthetic capacity, and proline content and it
was explained that it had positive effects against drought. As a result of the application of
Citrobacter freundi-J118 bacteria, K + accumulation, RWC, and fruit yield were increased in
tomato, while Na + uptake and electrolyte leakage decreased. Similarly, Bacillus cereus AR156 and
A. brasilense bacteria applied to tomatoes showed positive results in arid conditions. In pepper, it
has been stated that Bacillus licheniformis K11 bacteria produce Auxin and ACC deaminase and are
important bacteria in arid conditions. Achromobacter piechaudii ARV8 bacteria strain applied in
tomatoes and peppers under arid conditions made positive contributions on dry and wet weights by
reducing ethylene production. Bacterial strains of Pseudomonas putida SAB10 and Pseudomonas
palleroniana SAW21 applied under drought stress conditions in eggplant caused increases in plant
height, above-ground and underground dry weights. Again in eggplant, the bacterial strain
Rhizobium strain applied in arid conditions provided increased fruit yields, higher leaf relative water
content, higher consumptive use of water. In pumpkin, Azotobacter chroococcum ML1, Bacillus
circulans ML2, Bacillus megaterium ML3, and Pseudomonas fluorescence ML4 bacteria strains
showed significant increases in enzymes activities, IAA, GA3, osmoregulators, growth
characteristics, and yield compounds. In cabbage, Bacillus megaterium TV6D, Bacillus megaterium
TV-20E, Peanibacillus polymyxa KIN-37, and combination of Bacillus megaterium TV-6D +
Pantoea agglomerans RK-92 + Brevibacillus choshiensis TV-53D bacteria strains in arid
conditions, hormone enzyme production, and decreased electrolyte leakage. In onion,
Agrobacterium rubi, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas fluorescens, Pantoea agglomerans,
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus megaterium bacteria made significant contributions to enzyme levels in
arid conditions. Bacillus megaterium TV-3D, Bacillus megaterium TV-91C, Pantoea agglomerans
RK-92, and Bacillus megaterium KBA-10 bacterial strains applied under arid conditions in broccoli
made significant contributions to seedling length, stem diameter, leaf area, leaf area, leaf dry matter,
176
and mineral element content. In a study on cucumber, Bacillus cereus AR156, Bacillus subtilis
SM21, and Serratia sp. While XY21 bacteria strains decreased MDA content and relative electrical
conductivity, leaf proline content, the root recovery intension, and SOD activity showed significant
increases (Table 1).
Table 1. Effects of PGPRs applied in drought stress conditions on some vegetable species
Species
PGPR
Result
Reference
Tomato
V. paradoxus
Shoot dry weight and chlorophyll content
were increased.
Oxidative damage to lipids, osmolyte
accumulation, root hydraulic conductivity,
net photosynthetic capacity, and proline
content was decreased
Calvo-Polanco et
al., 2016
Tomato
Citrobacter freundii J118
K+ accumulation, RWC, and fruit yield
were increased.
Na+ uptake and electrolyte leakage were
decreased
Ullah et al., 2016
Tomato
Bacillus cereus AR156
The relative water content of leaves,
recovery intension of roots, chlorophyll a,
chlorophyll b, total chlorophyll, SOD,
CAT, and POD were increased
Wang et al.,
2012b
Tomato
A. brasilense
Nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in
IAAinduced pathway which enhanced
lateral root and root hair development
Creus et al.,
2005
Pepper
Bacillus licheniformis K11
Auxin and ACC deaminase producing
Lim and Kim,
2013
Tomato
and Pepper
Achromobacter piechaudii ARV8
Reduced ethylene production and increased
fresh and dry weight
Mayak et al.,
2004
Eggplant
Pseudomonas putida SAB10
Pseudomonas palleroniana
SAW21
Plant height, shoot dry weight and root dry
weight were increased
Fathalla and
Sabry, 2020
Eggplant
Rhizobium strain
Increased fruit yields, higher leaf relative
water content, higher consumptive use of
water
Wakchaure et al.,
2020
Squash
Azotobacter chroococcum ML1,
Bacillus circulans ML2, Bacillus
megaterium ML3 and
Pseudomonas fluorescence ML4
Enzymes activities, IAA, GA3,
osmoregulatory compounds, growth
characteristics, and yield were increased
El-Meihy, 2016
Cabbage
Bacillus megaterium TV6D,
Bacillus megaterium TV-20E,
Peanibacillus polymyxa KIN-37,
and combination of Bacillus
megaterium TV-6D +Pantoea
agglomerans RK-
92+Brevibacillus choshiensis TV-
53D)
accumulating antioxidant enzymes,
osmolytes, hormone production, and
decreased electrolyte leakage
Samancioglu et
al., 2016
Garlic
Agrobacterium rubi,
Pseudomonas putida,
Pseudomonas fluorescens,
Pantoea agglomerans, Bacillus
subtilis, Bacillus megaterium
important changes in the plant enzyme
levels
Saharan and
Nehra, 2011
Broccoli
Bacillus megaterium TV-
3D, Bacillus megaterium TV-
91C, Pantoea agglomerans RK-
92 and Bacillus megaterium KBA-
10
seedling length, stem diameter, leaf area,
leaf dry matter, and mineral element
content were increased
Ruiz-Lozano and
Aroca, 2010
Cucumber
Bacillus cereus AR156, Bacillus
subtilis SM21, and Serratia sp.
XY21
MDA content and relative electrical
conductivity were decreased
Leaf proline content, the root recovery
intension, and SOD activity were increased
Wang et al.,
2012
177
Table 2. The effects of AMFs applied under drought stress conditions on some vegetable species
Species
AMF
Result
Reference
Tomato
R. irregularis
Shoot dry weight and chlorophyll content were
increased.
Oxidative damage to lipids, osmolyte
accumulation, root hydraulic conductivity, net
photosynthetic capacity, and proline content was
decreased
Wang et al., 2016
Tomato and
bell pepper
Rhizophagus intraradices,
Rhizophagus fasciculatum
Biomass, root length, shoot length, and
chlorophyll content were increased.
Accumulation of proline was decreased
Tallapragada et
al., 2016
Tomato
Funneliformis mosseae
BEG12
Increased leaf area, root weight or length, plant
transpiration
Bitterlich et al.,
2018
Pepper
Glomus fasciculatum and
Glomus spp.
Leaf water potential, relative water, content
stomal conductance, transpiration, and plant
biomass were enhanced
Davies et al.,
2002
Pepper
Glomus fasciculatum
(AMFG), a fungal species
consortium from the

Mexico (AMFT), a fungal
species consortium from
the Sonorian desert in
Mexico (AMFD)
AMFT and AMFD increased fresh weights
AMFG increased color intensity and chlorophyll
NAMF increased carotenoid content
Mena-Violante et
al., 2006
Pepper
Glomus coronatum and C.
annuum var. VNR-145
Increased shoot biomass and root biomass,
absorption of water from roots, and membrane
integrity
Krishna et al.,
2018
Lettuce
Glomus mosseae, G.
fasciculatum Glomus
coronatum, G.
intraradices, G.
claroideum, G. mosseae
Shoot biomass and N were decreased
Tobar et al., 1994
Lettuce
a mixture of G.
intraradices and G.
mosseae
Improved the accumulation of antioxidant
compounds, mainly carotenoids and
anthocyanins, and to a lesser extent chlorophylls
and phenolics, in leaves
Baslam and
Goicoechea, 2012
Watermelon
Glomus mosseae
Increased water use efficiency, leaf water content,
and leaf osmotic potential.
Ortas et al., 2011
Cabbage
Glomus occultum
Increased yield and quality
Auge, 2001
Muskmelon
Glomus mosseae
Increased K/Na ratio
Turrini et al.,
2005
Melon
Glomus mosseae
Increased water use efficiency, leaf water content,
and leaf osmotic potential.
Sannazzaro et al.,
2006
At the same time, AMF applications have an important place in vegetable agriculture to avoid
the negative effects of drought. Researchers have reported that different mycorrhiza breeds have
different effects on vegetable species and their effectiveness should be determined in arid
conditions. R. irregularis shoot dry weight and chlorophyll content applied in tomatoes in dry
conditions increased, while oxidative damage to lipids, osmolyte accumulation, root hydraulic
activity, net photosynthetic capacity, and proline content decreased. In another tomato study,
Funneliformis mosseae BEG12 application revealed increases in the rate of leaf area, root weight or
length, plant transpiration under arid conditions. Rhizophagus intraradices and Rhizophagus
fasciculatum applied to two important species such as tomato and pepper increased the biomass,
root length, shoot length, and chlorophyll content in dry conditions, while the accumulation of
proline decreased. In pepper, Glomus fasciculatum and Glomus spp. Its applications have been
reported to increase leaf water potential, relative water content, stomal conductance, transpiration,
and plant biomass in arid conditions. Glomus fasciculatum (AMFG) applied to pepper, a fungal
178
  Tuxtl
from the Sonorian desert in Mexico (AMFD), Glomus coronatum and C. annuum var. VNR-145
applications have shown positive results in arid conditions. In a study conducted on lettuce,
applications of Glomus mosseae, G. fasciculatum Glomus coronatum, G. intraradices, G.
claroideum, G. mosseae reduced shoot biomass and N uptake in arid conditions. The application of
the mixture of G. intraradices and G. mosseae in lettuce in dry conditions improved the
accumulation of antioxidant compounds, mainly carotenoids and anthocyanins, and to a lesser
extent chlorophylls and phenolics, in leaves. Glomus mosseae application in watermelon in arid
conditions revealed an increase in water use efficiency, leaf water content, and leaf osmotic
potential. Glomus occultum application has made positive contributions to yield and quality in
cabbage under drought conditions. Glomus mosseae applications in muskmelon showed an increase
in the K / Na ratio. It has been reported that Glomus mosseae applied in arid conditions have
increased water use efficiency, leaf water content, and leaf osmotic potential in melon (Table 2).
3. Conclusion
As a result of the decrease in water resources used in agriculture, the negative effects of
drought in vegetable cultivation are increasing regularly. Previous studies have shown that the
application of microbial stimulants to avoid the negative effects of drought is not only
environmentally friendly but also increases the efficiency of water use. In addition to increasing the
intake of plant nutrients, these practices help plants avoid drought by providing changes in enzymes
and physio-biochemicals in the plant. Since vegetable cultivation is an agricultural production
pattern with labor-intense, the use of microbial stimulants becomes important in terms of
sustainability. In light of the studies conducted, new microbial stimulants need to be diagnosed to
increase drought tolerance. On the other hand, the relationships of the stimulants obtained with
vegetable species and varieties should be examined. Besides, it is necessary to examine the works
that are usually practiced as potting work in the open field and greenhouse conditions and to
demonstrate their effectiveness. Despite the rapid limitation of water resources, stimulants with
demonstrated effectiveness take a long time to commercialize. Studies on the transformation of
commercial preparations should be focused on this subject.
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181
SECTOR THAT DETERMINES THE MARKET VALUE OF
FOODS: COLD STORAGES
Mustafa AYDINLI
Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
m.aydinli@caglayansogutma.com
ABSTRACT
Most of food in the world cannot be consumed immediately after production. Keeping food stable
in an environment of suitable temperature and humidity is of great importance, especially in terms
of protecting sensitive foods such as meat, milk, fish and frozen foods and keeping them intact.
Failure to create an ideal food environment causes microbial growth and disrupts the physiological
and chemical structures of food. Therefore, food must be stored in appropriate conditions. Cold
storage is the process of preserving a product by creating conditions that preserve its market value
and quality. Cold storage aims to generate a high income from the product. The overwhelming
majority of cold storages operating in our country are deprived of the technological capabilities that
engineering technologies provide. The most obvious reason for this is unsuitable selection of a
refrigeration system suitable for food storage conditions. This study will explain basic storage
information and provide information on the parameters needed to design a refrigeration system
suitable for food storage.
Keywords: Cold Storage, Food Storage, Refrigeration Technology, Cold Storage Management.
INTRODUCE
The world population is constantly increasing and the demand for food is increasing day by day.
Improper practices during the post-harvest processing and storage of food cause negative
consequences in terms of continuous access to food and food safety. Cold storage rooms, in which
the food is stored under conditions to protect its physical properties and quality, are of great
importance. In the products that do not provide the storage conditions specific to the product to be
stored during the cold storage process, and the products stored in the warehouses where the
temperature and especially the ideal humidity environment required by the product are not created,
it will be inevitable to experience a serious loss of quality and consequently loss of added value. In
this study, the importance of cooling system design according to the product is emphasized.
182
STORAGE OF FOOD
The process of storing food at the desired temperature and relative humidity conditions without
losing its physical properties in the process from production to delivery to the consumer is called
cold storage.
Figure 1 Cooling Process
During the cooling process, harvested fruits are quickly pre-cooled. After the rapid cooling process,
the product temperatures are reduced from the field temperature to the appropriate temperature for
long-term preservation and taken to normal storage rooms. In the food processing process, the
products that pass the pre-cooling stage are taken to the shock chambers and subjected to the shock
process. Frozen foods are taken to long-term frozen storage rooms and stored.
MODERN FRUIT AND VEGETABLE STORAGE
Today, foods are processed and preserved in modern processing and storage facilities. Cold storage
is one of the most important elements that keep the cold chain efficient and uninterrupted. With the
development of cooling technology, cold storage rooms are built to meet the industrial capacity of
1000-10,000 tons.
COOLING SYSTEMS
Today, cooling systems can be produced in refrigerant types such as freon, ammonia, CO2,
depending on the country and conditions in which they are used. It can be designed as split or
central cooling systems according to the project where the cooling system will be used. Cooling
systems used in different fluid types are described below.
Freon Systems
Freon cooling systems Hydrofluorocarbons - HFC are the most used systems in the market, which
are evaluated in the freon category. During the storage of food, cooling can be provided to
PICK FAST COOLING COLD STORAGE
PICK FAST
COOLING FREEZING
TUNNEL FREEZER
183
capacities between 1 kW and 450 kW. The auxiliary equipment supply of Freon systems is also
easy. They are easy to malfunction and maintenance systems. It is designed and used as split and
central systems. Its disadvantage compared to other refrigerants is that it has a negative effect on the
environment and has a low cooling coefficient.
NH3 Ammonia Systems
Ammonia refrigeration systems are used in large-scale businesses where food is processed and
stored. Ammonia systems offer solutions in terms of high energy efficiency and rapid cooling
technique up to very low temperatures. Ammonia has been used in the field of industrial
refrigeration for years. Low regime ammonia systems developed in today's refrigeration technology
have helped to address safety concerns. Propane and carbon dioxide are preferred for industrial
storage applications, which are increasing in popularity for cascade systems that also use carbon
dioxide and ammonia.
CO2 Carbon-dioxide Cooling Systems
R744 (CO2) has been replaced by halocarbon refrigerants due to the decrease in the cooling effect
coefficient and high operating pressures due to heat rejection around or above the critical point. Due
to the negative effects of halocarbon refrigerants on the environment, it has begun to be used again
as alternative, natural refrigerant. Thanks to the current machine and heat exchanger technology and
system control elements, R744 (CO2) has reached competitive levels in terms of efficiency,
especially in northern countries and in southern countries with subcritical cascade cycle.
DETERMINATION OF COOLING CAPACITY IN COLD
STORAGES AND SELECTION OF EVAPORATOR (COOLER)
The choice of cooler is critical in the design phase of cold storages. Failure to provide a suitable
humidity environment in the cold storage will dry the room, and there will be waste losses in the
product. For this reason, it 
vaporator
and the evaporation temperature inside the evaporator. In Figure 1, relative humidity values
corresponding to delta t variations are shown. In cold rooms where 90% relative humidity is
desired, a cooler should be selected in delta t = 5 conditions. Especially in red meat, apple and
pomegranate rooms, 85-90% humidity will be required, so a cooler selection will be required for
these rooms at delta t = 5 conditions.
184
Figure 2 Temperature Difference Between Room Temperature And Evaporation Temperature.
(Friterm)
DETERMINATION OF COOLING CAPACITY IN COLD
STORAGES
If we want to keep the product to be stored for a long time without losing value; Quickly pre-
cooling the product should be the primary rule. It is not possible to keep the product stored in rooms
where the cooling system is not selected correctly and for a long time. Especially for freshly stored
products, determination of cooling capacities and accurate calculation of storage heat loads are of
great importance.
While calculating the heat load; The cooling capacity calculation is made by including the heat
conduction load that may come from the cold room wall, floor and roof, the heat load caused by the
heat exchange of the product entering the room, and the heat loads that may occur during product
breathing into the total heat load calculation. Cooling load calculation is explained in the following
titles.
Transmission Calculation
Q = I x S x (It Ot) x h / 1000
Q = kWh / day cooling l.
I = 
S = Wall, roof and floor surface area (m2)
It =Internal temperature 
Ot=Outside temperature 
h=Number of hours in a day
1000= W - > kW
Walls and Roof
Q = I x S x (It - Ot) x h / 1000
Floor
Q = I x S x (It - Ot) x h /1000
185
Calculation of Product Change Coefficient
In addition to the products cooled in the cold room, the following formula is used in calculating the change
coefficient resulting from the entry of the high temperature product into the warehouse.
Q = m x Sp x (It – Ct) / 3600
Q = kWh / day
Sp = 
m = Product mass (kg)
It = Input tempreture 
Ct= Cold room tempreture 
3600 = kJ -> kWh
The cooling load must be calculated separately for fast cooling.
Product Respiration Coefficient Calculation
Product breathing changes depending on time and temperature. The following formula is used to calculate
the respiratory coefficient.
Q = m x resp / 3600
Q = kWh / day
m = Product amound (kg)
resp = Product respiratory temperature (kJ / kg)
3600 = kJ -> kWh
In order to calculate the total cooling load, after calculating the conduction, product storage and respiratory
temperatures, in addition to these calculations, the total cooling load should be calculated by including the
lighting fixtures in the room, the heat given by the evaporator fans and the heat dissipation of the working
people. The result should be reached by adding 10 -15% as a safety factor to the total cooling load that
results.
CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE STORAGE
In controlled atmosphere storage technology, which is one of the methods applied to prevent the
loss of quality that may occur during the storage of food, all the necessary conditions for the cooling
process are provided, as well as the oxygen level of the ambient atmosphere in specially insulated
and sealed storages from 21% to 5% to 0.1% (ULO ) levels, and the CO2 level is increased to levels
between 1% and 5%. The remainder is complemented by N2. This slows the breathing rate of the
product and increases the marketing time. In addition, moisture loss is prevented by controlling the
ethylene level in the room.
186
Figure 3 CA Storage Technologies (Van Amerongen)
ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN COOLING SYSTEMS
The selection of auxiliary equipment used when designing cooling machines is of great importance
in saving energy. By using double speed fans in cold storage, both product waste is reduced and
energy savings are achieved. We mentioned in Figure 2 that the waste in the product can be reduced
by reducing the temperature difference between room temperature and evaporation temperature
during long cold storage periods of the chilled products. During this process, energy savings will be
achieved throughout the system. By reducing the Delta T difference, the compressors will be
provided to operate at higher evaporation temperatures, so C.O.P. increases and energy savings are
achieved. Figure 4 shows the distribution of energy consumption over time between the two
systems.
Figure 4 Energy Efficiency for Cooling Systems (Friterm)
CONCLUSION
Considering all the above, it is correct to say that; The important thing in the construction of a cold
room is not to isolate the room and cool it, but to ensure that the product to be stored is stored in the
room without causing any quality loss by providing the storage conditions required in the room. In
other words, it is important to design a cooling system specific to the product to be stored. While
doing this, designing a cooling system that will consume the least energy should be the primary
187
goal. The way to get high returns from the product is to preserve it without compromising its
quality. Since the products stored in poorly designed cold rooms will lose quality, it will not be
possible to create the desired economic added value.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the following for their assistance and encouragement in the preparation of this
paper. Caglayan Refrigeration Company, Van Amerongen Company, Friterm Company.
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188
HOW CAN WE USE COMPUTER AND SOFTWARE
TECHNOLOGY TO ANALYZE AND DEVELOP
AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY DESIGN?
M. Ucgul1
1 University of South Australia, STEM, SA 5000, Australia
Abstract
Soil constraints limit crop productivity. In order to overcome soil constraints a wide range of
agricultural machines are used. Selection of a suitable agricultural machinery is a challenging job as
the performance of each machinery is difficult to evaluate. The performance of the agricultural
machineries is generally evaluated through time and resource intensive field works which can only
be undertaken at certain times of the year. Similarly, development of new agricultural machineries
to increase agricultural production is also based on field experiments. If the interaction between soil
and agricultural machinery can be simulated using computer and software technology (a) the
performance agricultural machineries can be evaluated (b) more effective agricultural machineries
can be designed without performing field tests. In this paper a useful methodology, which includes
using of 3D scanner and discrete element method (DEM) to evaluate and design agricultural
machinery, has been suggested. The aim is to help and offer a new perspective to the academics
working on agricultural machinery and agricultural machinery manufacturers for agricultural
machinery design.
Keywords: Computer simulation, discrete element method (DEM), 3D scanner, agricultural
machinery
Introduction
The population of the world has increased dramatically, but the required land and water
resources to produce a sufficient amount of food are limited. The reducing per capita availability of
arable land pushes farmers to increase their productivity (Gajri et al., 2002). Using a of a suitable
agricultural machinery has a vital role on improving agricultural production. Energy currently plays
a key role in agricultural machinery systems as diesel fuel is currently the main energy source
agricultural tractors (Aybek et al., 2011). In order to improve the efficiency of the agricultural
machineries and reduce energy use, the evaluation and design of the agricultural machineries must
be improved. Tillage, which is defined as the physical manipulation of the agricultural soil, is an
extremely vital part of crop production. The cultivation of agricultural soils has been achieved by
manipulating the soil using tractor-drawn implements. Kushwaha and Zhang (1998) pointed out that
the energy used for tillage is almost half of the total energy used in crop production. So, optimum
tool configuration must be determined, and more efficient tillage tools must be designed to achieve
energy efficiency and hence economic crop production.
The performance of the agricultural machineries is generally evaluated using empirical
methods (i.e. field experiments and soil bin tests). Although empirical methods give practical
information, physical testing of the agricultural machineries is expensive and time consuming.
Additionally, physical tests can only be undertaken at certain times of the year. The extrapolation of
the results to all field conditions is also most uncertain (Raji, 1999). In order to, overcome the
shortcomings of the empirical methods, analytical and numerical methods are also used.
Analytical methods have received much attention over the last 50 years from many
researchers ( i.e. Godwin et al., 2007). Although the results of the analytical modelling approach are
189
still valid to some extent, analytical models are not able to fully simulate a real system in a
complete way due to the fact that almost all of the proposed analytical models used simplifying
assumptions. The disadvantages of using analytical methods are that (1) the structure of the
agricultural materials is not homogenous, so developing of just one governing equation to calculate
the whole process is not realistic, and due to their quasi-static or dynamic condition assumptions,
the analytical models only examine forces but not the movement of the agricultural product.
With the rapid development of the computer technology, numerical methods have also been
implemented to overcome the shortcomings of the empirical an analytical method. Two types of
numerical methods, namely, continuum approach and dis-continuum approach have been used to
simulate agricultural machineries. Commonly used continuum methods are Finite Element
Modelling (FEM) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The FEM is used for finding
approximate solutions of partial differential and integral equations. Particulate materials with
continuous bonding between particles, can be considered as continua and can be successfully
analysed using FEM. FEM is in particularly useful when analysing the stress and force distribution
over an agricultural tool. The main limitations of the FEM are the difficulties when setting up the
boundary conditions and computation time. Automatic recognising of the new contacts is also not
possible with FEM (Raji, 1999). On the other hand with the CFD method, governing laws of fluid
dynamics are solved by using partial differential equations in a geometric domain divided into small
volumes, commonly known as a mesh. The flow patterns can be successfully simulated using CFD.
However, its use is limited when modelling tillage equipment. All of the CFD simulations have
been conducted considering the soil as a single continuous phase incompressible medium; hence the
change in the soil structure cannot be predicted precisely. Also, the rheological properties of soil
have not been measured for different soil physical conditions and soil types. Generally, it can be
said that although there are some advantages of the continuum numerical methods, the assumption
of continuity is not always valid. Hence, the change in the soil structure and soil translocation
cannot be predicted accurately by using continuum numerical methods (Asaf et al., 2007).
To overcome the shortcomings of the continuum numerical methods for modelling the
mechanical behaviour of agricultural materials, discrete element method (DEM), which is a dis-
continuum numerical method can be used. DEM is based on the contact between two particles.
Interactions between the particles are calculated by using contact models governed by physical
laws. After calculating all the forces acting upon a particle, position and orientation of the particle is

fertilizers) can be considered as granular. Thus, DEM can be used to model the bulk behaviour of
agricultural materials. Recent studies have shown that DEM can be in particularly helpful for
modelling soil-tool interaction (Saunders et al, 2021; Barr et al ,2020).
The major constraint in using DEM in agricultural systems is the massive number of contact
points within the bulk system which affects the computation time and memory (Raji, 1999). Due to
the lack of suitable computer technology, DEM was not been able to be used as an effective method
in the past. However, with the rapid development of the microchip and processor technology; the
appropriate computer technology is now becoming available to allow the use of DEM for designing
and evaluating of agricultural machineries.
Besides the modelling of the agricultural product, obtaining of the CAD model of the
agricultural tool to be modelled is also important. Generally, agricultural machinery manufacturers
do not provide the CAD models of the tools. Therefore, an accurate modelling of the agricultural
material and agricultural tool can be challenging. However, with the use of 3D scanner technology,
CAD model of the agricultural tool can be easily obtained (by scanning the tool) and effective
modelling and evaluation of agricultural machinery can be achieved.
In this study, the method of DEM has been introduced and a detailed explanation of how it
should be used in agricultural machinery design and evaluation, along with 3D scanners, has been
described. The main objective of the study is to help and offer a new perspective to the (i)
academics working on agricultural machinery and (ii) agricultural machinery manufacturers.
190
Materials and Methods
Due to computational limitation, particle sizes used in DEM simulations are generally
specified larger than that of the real size. Additionally, spherical particles are generally preferred
due to their computational simplicities (as the use of complex shapes causes an increase in the
number of contacts and hence the computation time).
In order to start calculations in a DEM algorithm, firstly, the contacts between the particles
must be detected. If the distance between the centres of two spheres is less than the sum of their
radii, two spheres can be taken as in contact. After detecting the contact, relative velocity is
calculated at inter-particle contacts in terms of a given time increment. Then the overlap between
the two spheres is found by calculating the relative displacement between the spheres. To do so, the
relative velocity equations need to be integrated with respect to the time step. A suitable integration
time step must be chosen to make the system computationally stable. After determining the relative
overlap, the contact forces between the particles are computed by using a suitable contact law. After
the total moment acting upon the particles is computed, the new position and velocity of the
particles are calculated by integrating the linear and rotational acceleration of the particles. The
flowchart of the calculation s DEM process is given in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Flowchart of the calculating process in DEM adopted from Shmulevich (2010)
There are different contact models used to calculate the interaction between agricultural
materials. For soil tillage applications, hysteretic spring contact model integrated with a linear
cohesion is suggested (Fielke et al., 2013) while for other applications Hertz-Mindlin contact model
is preferred. If there are bonds between the particles (i.e. fibre or organic matter) then a parallel
bond contact model is used.
In order to carry out a realistic simulation, the shape of the DEM particle should be as close as
possible to the shape of the real particle. As the spherical particles are preferred due to their
computational advantage, clump particles, using multiple spheres, are used to create a realistic
shape of the particles (Figure 2).
191
Figure 2. Particle shape generation using clump particles (Li et al., 2017)
Using of greater particle sizes and different particle shapes also require calibrating DEM
particles so that DEM particles behave like actual agricultural material. Calibration process can be
carried out using geo-technical tests. However, at least 2 different tests should be performed for
accurate calibration one of which is for determining soil movement and the other one is for force
calibration. For the simplicity, angle of repose and cone penetration tests are generally preferred.
The angle of repose (AOR) for granular materials is defined as the steepest angle of the slope
of material pile at rest, measured relative to the horizontal plane (Li et al., 2020) (Figure 3a and 3b).
The DEM parameters required to run the simulations can be determined by performing an angle of
repose test matching the simulation results to test results (Figure 3c). Similarly, force results
obtained using a cone penetration test, can also be used to calibrate the DEM parameters (Figure 4a
and 4b).
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 3. (a) Angle of repose test; (b) measured angle of repose; (c) DEM simulated angle of repose
(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Cone penetration test; (b) DEM simulated cone penetration test
192
In order to determine the most suitable DEM parameters or to optimize the design process the
statistical method of design of experiment (DOE) can be used. Response surface methodology
(RSM) is generally preferred in combination with a box-Behnken design to analyse and optimise
the effect of DEM input parameters.
In order to run an accurate simulation obtaining of the CAD model of the geometry is
essential. Although the best way to obtain the CAD model is to request it from the manufacturer,
manufacturers generally do not provide CAD models due to IP concerns. A 3D scanner can be used
to scan and obtain the CAD model of an agricultural tool. The accuracy of the 3D scanning process
is influenced by many factors such as the quality of the 3D scanner, the available computational
power and lighting. Better scanning of the geometry allows to carry out more accurate simulations.
Scanned parts can also be modified in CAD software for further modification.
(a)
(b) (c)
Figure 5. (a) 3D canner; (b) Mouldboard plough; (c) 3D scanned mouldboard plough
In DEM, in order to carry out a simulation, firstly the shape and size of the particles are
determined. Then, the DEM properties of the particles determined through the calibration process,
are entered to the software. After the agricultural tool scanned using a 3D scanner (and modified
using 3D modelling software) is imported, particle factories that generate the particles in the
simulation are created. Finally, simulation time is entered, and simulations are started. In this study
some of the agricultural tools modelled using DEM has been presented.
Results and Discussion
DEM simulation of soil-mouldboard plough interaction has been presented in Figure 6. In the
simulation, topsoil burial performance of a three-furrow mouldboard plough was modelled. The
colour of a small strip of topsoil was changed into blue and the final location of this strip then
investigated. The DEM results were compared to the test results available in the Farmax Magazine
(2019). Results showed that the soil burial predicted using DEM is similar to the test results. By
using the same geometry, the effect of moulboard skimmer on topsoil burial was also investigated
using DEM (Figure 7). The comparison of the topsoil burial results with and without skimmer
attachment showed that using of skimmer improved topsoil burial which also aligns with the field
observations.
193
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 6. (a) Isometric view of DEM simulation of soil-moudlboard plough interaction (b) Rear
view of DEM simulation of soil-moudlboard plough interaction; (c) DEM predicted cross sectional
view; (d) Test results of cross-sectional view (from Farmax Magazine, 2019)
In Figure 7, results of a test and a DEM simulation carried out to predict wear on tillage tools
(used for cultivation process) is given. In the simulation, the interaction between soil and tillage tool
(Figure 7a) was simulated. The same tool was also physically tested in an outside soil bin (Figure
7b). The 3D scanned tool after the testing (Figure 7c) and DEM predicted wear results (Figure 7d)
show a fair agreement.
194
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7. (a) Tool tested; (b) Outside soil bin test; (c) 3D scan of the tool after the test; (d) DEM
predicted wear (Seeliger, 2019)
Another study conducted to show the effect of soil type on the performance of a disc opener showed
that DEM can predict tillage forces and demonstrate soil stickiness under different tool and operation
conditions (Figure 8).
Figure 8. Soil-disc opener interaction in (a) sticky-cohesive soil and (b) non-cohesive soil
195
Conclusion
Due to the nature of the agricultural materials, modelling and evaluation of the agricultural
machineries are challenging and generally rely on empirical methods. In this study, a methodology,
which includes using of 3D scanner and discrete element method (DEM), was suggested to evaluate
the performance of agricultural systems. It is suggested from the results that using DEM and 3D
scanners can be very useful to improve the design of agricultural machinery systems. Future work
will focus on using suggested method (a) for more complex systems (i.e. Fluidised bed simulation
using DEM-CFD coupling) and (b) to other areas of agricultural machinery (i.e. food systems and
silos)
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DETERMINATION OF ADAPTATION ABILITIES OF SOME
APRICOT VARIETIES IN BISHKEK ECOLOGICAL
CONDITIONS
1.2, N. Alimova1
1: Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture,
Bishkek / Kyrgyzstan
2: 
, muruvvet.ilgin@manas.edu.kg
Abstract
This study was conducted in 2019 in apricot parcel, which was established in the Field of Research
and Application, the Faculty of Agriculture of Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University. Phenological
observ
Korolevskiy, Issyk-        Within the
scope of the thesis, phenological criteria such as bud swelling, first blooming, full blooming, fruit
setting and fruit ripening and pomological values such as fruit weight, width, lenght, height, seed
weight, width, lenght, fruit top color, ground color and fruit flesh color, kernel weight, width, length
and taste, and water-soluble dry matter (brix) amount were recorded in the parcel with apricot
varieties. When the phenological observations made in apricot varieties were evaluated in general,
-en March 12-
15, beginning of blooming between March 16-17, full blooming on March 25, fruit set between
April 3-4 and fruit ripening between June 26 - July 17 were recorded. When the pomological
analysis of the varieties included in this study was evaluated, the largest fruits in terms of fruit
   -kulskiy variety with 34,0 g.       
-kulskiy variety attracted attention with its completely hairless peel.
The kernels of all varieties were determined as sweet, and the water-soluble dry matter values were
between 22,0-17,9%.
Keywords: Apricot, phenology, pomology, Kyrgyzstan
INTRODUCTION
Apricot fruit species is geographically distributed in many parts of the world and its fruits
are consumed gladly, it is a type of fruit belonging to the Prunoideae subfamily of the Rosaceae
 It is included in the Prunus genus.
There are 4 subgenus in the Prunus genus. Apricot is found in the Prunuphora subgenus. The type
name of the apricot that is cultivated is Prunus armeniaca L.
It is accepted that the homeland of the apricot is the northern and northeastern mountainous
areas of China, the Tiyan-Shan and Altai Mountains in the Hinjiang region, Central Asia and
Manchuria, and that its gene centers are China, Central Asia and the Near East. It is estimated that
the history of apricot goes back to 3000 BC in China. Vavilov, known for his studies on the genetic
resources of plants, stated that there are forests consisting of wild apricot trees in Turkistan and that
they differ from the cultural varieties only by the small size of their fruits and seeds. Vavilov stated
that the Near East Gene Center is the secondary center for the culture forms of apricots. This
researcher drew attention to the relationship between the wild forms of apricot and the old culture
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forms with the mountains (Vavilov, 1951). Apricots are best grown in mountainous areas where the
summers are hot and dry, the winters are long and cold and the continental climate prevails.
Apricot is a type of fruit that is grown economically in the world. Despite the large number
of apricot species and varieties grown in different climatic conditions, world fresh apricot
production is still very low.
It is noteworthy that apricot, which is in high demand in the world, is a good source of
income, and its planting areas have increased in recent years. According to FAO records, the world
apricot production areas and production amounts increase and decrease over the years. The most
important factor affecting apricot cultivation is the climate factor, and the most important of this
factor is the late spring frosts. Due to the late spring frosts, there are fluctuations in worldwide
apricot production over the years. In 2018, Turkey took the first place with a production value of
750,000 tons in an area of 125,756 ha, and it was followed by Uzbekistan, Iran, Algeria and Italy
according to the order of production quantity. As of 2018, 3,838,523 tons of fresh apricots were
produced on 548,730 ha area around the world (Anonymous 2020).
Uzbekistan took palce on the top among the neighbors of Kyrgyzstan in apricot production
with an area of 38,694 ha and a production amount of 493,842 tons. China with 76,193 tons of
production and Tajikistan with 31,980 tons followed this country. Kyrgyzstan, which ranks 4th in
terms of area and production amount, produced 25,702 tons of apricots on 7,855 ha area.
An important part of the apricots produced in the world are consumed as edible. However,
since the harvest period is short and fresh apricots deteriorate quickly, apricots are mostly dried or
processed. Approximately 10-15% of the fresh apricots grown in the world are used as dried.
Fruit types can adapt to different ecological conditions. Especially in countries and regions
with similar ecologies, conducting adaptation studies is one of the priority research topics. This
situation is even more important for apricot. In fact, apricot, which has serious problems in terms of
ecological adaptation capability among fruit species, has limited number of varieties that can fully
adapt to all ecologies, and varieties that fit all ecologies must be determined by adaptation studies.
In this study, it was aimed to determine some characteristics of 4 apricot varieties in
Kyrgyzstan Bishkek ecological conditions.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Material
This study was carried out in 2019 in the Research and Application Area of the Faculty of
Agriculture of Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University.    
Issyk-kulskiy apricot trees in the research and application garden were used as plant material in the
research. The trial garden was established with planting intervals of 5x4 meters.
  district and at the foot of the Kyrgyz Ala-Too mountain
range and is 760 km above sea level. It is located in the southeast of Kyrgyzstan between 37' 36'
north latitude and 36' 56' east longitude. Bishkek has the southern position in the continental zone of
the temperate area according to the climatic conditions. The monthly sunshine duration is 322 hours
in July and 126 hours in December. The climate of Bishkek shows continental climate features.
In the garden where the research is conducted, irrigation was done with a drip irrigation
system. Technical and cultural processes such as fertilization, disease and pest control were carried
out regularly. The garden soil was sandy, clayey and loamy.
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Method
Phenological observations
Phenological observations such as bud swelling, first blooming, full blooming, fruit setting,
fruit ripening dates, harvest dates were made on the apricot types found in the experiment under the
field conditions.
Bud Swelling: It was recorded as the date when the flower buds swelled.
First Blooming: It was recorded as the date when approximately 5% of flower buds opened.
Full Blooming: It was recorded as the date when approximately 70-80% of flower buds opened.
Fruit Setting: The date when fertilization was completed and the ovary began to bulge was taken
into account.
Fruit Ripening: It was recorded as the date on which the cheeks and the ground of the fruits
became colorful, that is, they were ripened.
Pomological observations
Measurements were made on 20 randomly picked apricot fruits representing each variety
from fruit samples brought to the laboratory, and their measurement values were recorded.
Fruit Weight (g) : The weights of 20 fruits were determined with a digital scale with a sensitivity
of 0,01 g and averaged.
Fruit width and length, height (mm): The width and length values of the fruits were determined
with the help of a digital caliper.
Seed weight (g): 20 seeds were weighed and averaged with digital scales with a sensitivity of 0,01
g.
Seed width and length (mm): The width and length values of the fruit seed were determined with
the help of digital caliper.
Color of fruit peel and flesh: The colors of fruits taken from all varieties were determined. Color
measurement was made with the Konica Minolta CR-400-branded colorimeter. Measurements were
given in form of L, a, b. Color measurements were determined by measuring L (100: white, 0:
black), a (+: red, - green), b (+: yellow, -: blue) values according to CIE 31 standard.
Kernel weight (g), width, length (mm) and kernel taste: After the seeds were separated from the
hard shell, their weights were determined by weighing on a sensitive scale, their width and length
were measured with the help of a caliper and their sensory tastes were determined as sweet or bitter.
Water-Slouble Dry Matter (Brix) (%) : In order to measure the water-soluble dry matter amount
of the fruits, some fruit taken from each repetition was put in cheesecloth and squeezed and the fruit
juice was extracted. Taking enough of the obtained homogeneous juice, readings were made in
digital refractometer and the values were recorded as %.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Phenological observations
The first budding, beginning of blooming, full blooming, fruit setting and fruit ripening
dates of the varieties used in the experiment were given in Table 1. As can be seen from the chart,
-Kulskiy varieties, and these
two varieties were followed by Medoviy and Korolevskiy varieties which budded on March 15.
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Table 1. 2019 phenological observations of the apricot varieties used in the experiment.
Varieties
First
blooming
Beginning
of blooming
Full
blooming
Fruit
setting
Date of fruit
ripening

March 15
March 17
March 25
April 03
July 16

March 12
March 16
March 25
April 04
July 16
Korolevskiy
March 15
March 17
March 25
April 03
June 26
-kulskiy
March 12
March 16
March 25
April 04
July 17
         -kulskiy varieties.
The full blooming period for all varieties was determined as March 25.
It was determined that the first fruit setting among the varieties occurred on April 3 in
-kulskiy varieties (Table
1). When the first ripening dates of the varieties used in the experiment in 2019 were compared,
the Korolevskiy variety was the first to ripen their fruits on June 26.   
-Kulskiy on July 17.
Phenological parameters, which are considered as an indicator of biological development
stages of plants, are very important in determining the behavior of varieties as well. Phenological
stages of fruit trees such as full blooming, fruit maturity and leaf fall show quite distinct differences

Vachun, 2003). Accordingly, according to the data obtained in the two-year study on 13 types and 4
varieties in Malatya province of Turkey, it was determined that there were variations between
genotypes in the phenological stages in the range of about 8-10 days (Asma et al., 2007). However,
other researchers stated that there might be a difference of almost two months between these phases
(Szalay et al., 2010).
The time from the beginning of blooming to the fruit ripening period of the varieties we
conducted the experiment was approximately 2.5-3 months depending on the varieties.
Pomological Analysis
The pomological characteristics of the fruits belonging the varieties cultivated in 2019 were
given in Table 2-5.
Fruit weight (g)
While the average fruit weight of the apricot varieties included in the study was obtained
-kulskiy variety with the highest 34,0 g, the lowest value was obtained from the fruits

Bahar and Son (2016) measured the fruit weight of the Tyrinthe variety between 46,29 g and
55,67 g in their study between 2007 and 2012, and they measured it between 40,75 g and 45,37 g in
the fruits of the Ninfa variety. Son (2018) measured the fruit weight of some varieties as Alyanak
43,02 g, Aurora 39,68 g, Bebeco 55,51 g, Ninfa 42,84 g, Priana 37,7 g, and Tyrinthe 52,28 g. Ruiz
and Egea (2008) reported that fruit weights were between 80-95 g in their study on 5 varieties in
Spain. Khadivi-Khub and Khalili (2017) determined the fruit weights between 33,01 g and 66,01 g.
Considering all these studies, it was determined that the apricot varieties grown in Bishkek
conditions were medium-sized. The size criterion may vary according to the climatic conditions and
maintenance conditions as well as the variety feature.
Fruit Width, Length and Height (mm)
As a result of the analysis, it was seen that the fruit sizes were parallel to the average fruit
weight in general. In the measurements, the highest fruit width, fruit length and fruit height were
200
ob      -kulskiy with 36,4 mm, 38,6 mm and 37,6 mm,
respectively, and the second highest values were obtained from Korolevskiy fruits with 35,2 mm,
34,8 mm and 34,2 mm, respectively. The lowest values were measured in Krasno
27,4 mm, 29,3 mm and 27,3 mm (Table 2; Figure 11).
Table 2. Fruit weight, fruit width, length and height values of apricot varieties in 2019
Varieties
Fruit
weight
(g)
Fruit
width
(mm)
Fruit
length
(mm)
Fruit
height
(mm)
Medoviy
15,6
30,9
30,2
29,3
Korolevskiy
28,0
35,2
34,8
34,2
-kulskiy
34,0
36,4
38,6
37,6

23,6
27,4
29,3
27,3
Figure 1. Fruit weight (g), width, length and height (mm) graph of the apricot varieties used in the
experiment in 2019
Seed weight, width, and length
Seed weight, width and length values of the varieties were given in Table 3. When the
varieties were evaluated in terms of seed weight, it was determined that the largest seeds belonged
-kulskiy variety with 2,4 g and the lowest value

201
In terms of seed width and length, the highest value -kulskiy variety,
and the Korelevskiy variety had the lowest values in terms of these features (Table 3).
Table 3. Seed weight, width and length values of the varieties in 2019
Varieties
Seed weight g
Seed width
mm
Seed length mm
Medoviy
2,8
19,1
25,8
Korelevskiy
2,2
10,4
23,7
-kulskiy
2,4
19,8
27,8

1,8
16,6
26,2
Bahar and Son (2016) determined the seed weight of the Ninfa variety between 2,44 g and
2,56 g in their study between 2007 and 2012, and between 2,58 g and 2,86 g in Tyrinthe variety. It
is possible that the differences between our research findings and those of other researchers are due
to differences in variety, climate and care conditions.
Fruit peel and flesh color of the varieties (L * a * b *)
The color measurements of the fruits of the varieties used in the experiment were
determined as L, a *, b * values by measuring from both cheeks of 20 fruits with the help of the
Minolta Color Meter (Minolta CR-300) and were given in Table 4.
According to the data obtained from apricot varieties in the experiment, it was obtained that
the top color of the peel of the fruit had the lowest L* value in Medoviy (17,88), the highest L*
value in Korolevskiy (27,00); for fruit peel ground color, lowest L* value was in Medoviy (18,48),
the highest L* value in Korolevskiy (27,05); lowest fruit flesh color L* value was in Medoviy
(12,87), and the highest L* value in -kulskiy (15,21).
When the varieties were examined in terms of a * values, the lowest a * value in the fruit
peel top and ground color was found in Medoviy (9,19; 7,17, respectively), the highest a * value
iy (15,27; 10,79, respectively); the lowest a * value in fruit flesh was found
in Medoviy (3,93), the highest a * value was found in the -kulskiy variety (9,96) (Table 4).
When apricot varieties were examined in terms of b * values, the lowest b * value of the
fruit peel top and ground color was found in Medoviy, the highest b * value was found in Medoviy
(-0,28) and the highest b * value of the fruit flesh was found in Korolevskiy variety (0.95) (Table
4).
Yilmaz (2008) stated that the fruit surface color was  e
data obtained in domestic apricot varieties in Malatya province of Turkey. The researcher stated
             was "white" and the
coloration on the fruit surface is generally continuously plastered. Khadivi-Khub and Khalili (2017)
reported that 68 of the 73 genotypes they examined in their study were yellow. Asma et al., (2018)

reddened.
It was ad a red
top color in places on an intense yellow ground color; Korolevskiy had a dominant yellow ground
color and a red top color in places; -kulskiy had a dominant red-orange top color over a very
little yellow ground color; and ad an intense red color on a less yellow ground
color.
202
Table 4. Values of fruit shell top color, ground color and fruit flesh color of varieties in 2019 (L * a
* b *)
Varieties
Fruit peel top color
Fruit peel ground
color
Fruit flesh color
L *
a *
b *
L *
a *
b *
L *
a *
b *

11,88
9,19
5,39
18,48
7,17
5,05
12,87
3,93
-
0,28
Korolevskiy
27,0
11,4
12,32
27,05
10,04
10,04
13,51
9,10
0,72
-kulskiy
21,76
13,41
6,91
20,45
10,67
6,38
15,21
9,96
0,63

21,33
15,27
6,73
20,12
10,79
7,24
13,83
8,35
0,95
Kernel weight, width and length of varieties, and seed taste
Kernel weight, width and length values and seed taste of the varieties were given in Table 5.
When the varieties were compared in terms of kernel weight, it was seen that Medo-
kulskiy varieties had the heaviest seeds with 0,8 g. The lowest value in terms of this feature

The -kulskiy variety the highest and
the lowety.
The taste of the seeds of all varieties was determined as sweet (Table 5).
Table 5. Kernel weight, width, length and taste values of the varieties in 2019
Varieties
Kernel weight
(g)
Kernel width
(mm)
Kernel
length
(mm)
Seed taste

0,8
10,65
17,06
Sweet
Korolevskiy
0,6
11,50
16,68
Sweet
-kulskiy
0,8
13,02
17,2
Sweet

0,4
9,13
16,17
Sweet
Water Soluble Dry Matter Amount of Varieties (% Brix)
The water-soluble dry matter amounts of the varieties in the experiment were given in Figure 2.
              
-kulskiy with 21,3% and Korolevskiy with 19,6%, and the lowest value in terms of
this feature was determined in Kra7,9%.
Khadivi-Khub and Khalili (2017) found that the brix content of 73 genotypes ranged from
15,00% to 23,00%. Cross et al., (2018) determined that the brix content of 12 superior genotypes
ranged from 16,30% to 22,60%.
Brix contents of the varieties included in this experiment were also found to be compatible
with these values.
203
Figure 2. The graph of Water Soluble Dry Matter values of the varieties
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Within the scope of the thesis, phenological criteria such as bud swelling, first blooming,
full blooming, fruit setting and fruit ripening and pomological values such as fruit weight, width,
lenght, height, seed weight, width, lenght, fruit top color, ground color and fruit flesh color, kernel
weight, width, length and taste, and water-soluble dry matter (brix) amount were recorded in the
parcel with apricot varieties in 2019.
When the phenological observations made in apricot varieties were evaluated in general, in
-kulskiy as, bud swelling between March 12-15,
beginning of blooming between March 16-17, full blooming on March 25, fruit set between April 3-
4 and fruit ripening between June 26 - July 17 were recorded.
When the pomological analysis of the varieties included in this study was evaluated, the
largest fruits in terms of fruit weight were the -kulskiy variety with 34,0 g. The variety with the
lowest fruit size 6 g. The seed size of this variety was found to be
bigger than the other varieties. he
-kulskiy variety attracted attention with its completely hairless peel. The kernels of all varieties
were determined as sweet, and the water-soluble dry matter values were between 22,0-17,9%.
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22% 21,30%
17,90%
Medovıy Korolevskiy Isık-kulskiy Krasnoşekiy
Suda Çözülebilen Kuru Madde
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204
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Ba
205
DETERMINATION OF POMOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF SOME LOCAL APPLE GENOTYPES GROWN IN
KYRGYZSTAN
1,2, N. Begimbaeva1
1Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture,
Bishkek / Kyrgyzstan


Abstract
This research was carried out in 2019 to determine some pomological characteristics of
some local apple genotypes grown in Kyrgyzstan.      -
   Tomkins King, Zahatoy    - 
grown in the region were examined in terms of fruit characteristics. Varieties were evaluated in
terms of fruit weight, fruit width, fruit length, fruit stem thickness, stem length, fruit peel color,
seed number, weight of one seed, fruit taste. According to the results of the research, it was
determined that the average fruit weight of the examined varieties was between 159,3 to 69,8 g,
fruit width was between 73,2-53,2 mm, fruit length was between 61,6-42,7 mm, fruit stem length
was between 23,5 and 11,2 mm, fruit stem thickness was between 2,6 to 1,7 mm, and seed number
was between 11 and 7,3.
Keywords: Apple, pomology, Kyrgyzstan
INTRODUCTION
In botany, apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is a type of fruit from the Rosales order,
Rosaceae family and it is cultivated. It is known that its name, known as "alma" in ancient Turkish,
comes from "al" (red), which is the color of the fruit. It is believed that the apple first appeared in
Northern Anatolia, Southern Caucasus, the regions in the southwest of Russia and around Central
Asia. According to the Russian Botanical scientist Vavilov, there are eight gene centers on Earth.
Of these gene centers, China, Central Asia and the Near East are shown as the gene center of apple,
and with the addition of North America, which is the spreading area of different species and
      M.
domestica (Phipps et al., 1990) and Malus x domestica Borkh. (Korban and Skirvin, 1984) are
known as cultivated apples, and M. sieversii is known as wild apples in Central Asia.
Central Asia was reported to contain the largest diversity of Malus, and this area also
appears to be the main gene center of cultivated apples (Janick and Moore, 1996). This is in line
with Vavilov's hypothesis that wild apples and their close relatives in Central Asia were precursors
to cultivated apples (Harris et al., 2002). Currently, M. sieversii, which grows wild in Kazakhstan
and Kyrgyzstan, is thought to be the main progenitor species (Pereira-Lorenzo et al., 2009). Malus
sieversii has very high similarity to M. × domestica in its morphology and fruit taste. According to
observations made in extensive picking rounds, it was determined that M. sieversii contains all the
fruit qualities in cultivated apples (Forsline, 1995). Similarly, Cornille et al. (2012) identified M.
sieversii as the main species and M. sylvestris as the second important species for the evolution of
cultivated apples. It was also reported that M. sieversii is the primary progenitor for cultivated
varieties apples, and there is great interest in this species for genetic diversity studies by botanists
(Zhang et al., 2015).
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Wild apple genetic resources in Central Asia are extremely important, as choices for desired
features in commercial apple varieties narrowed genetic diversity. Apple populations in Central
Asia can form an important gene pool to tackle various problems such as resistance to biotic and
abiotic stress conditions, fruit quality features, tree growth forms, and some other unresolved
problems (Forsline et al., 2003).
Kyrgyzstan is one of the important gene centers of apples. In addition to walnut, peanut and
almond species, there are important apple populations and forests in different parts of Kyrgyzstan.
However, there are serious anthropogenic losses in these materials and they may disappear
completely in the near future (Dzunusovavd., 2008). There are naturally three types of apples in
Kyrgyzstan which are (Malus sieversii (Ledeb.) M. Roem, (Malus kirghisorum) and (Malus
niedzwetzkyana (Dieck). C.K. Schneid)) and they are also known as the source of cultivated apples.
Malus sieversii naturally spreads to the dry and mountainous parts of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
China, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. Malus kirghisorum is genetically close to Malus
sieversii, but it differs in fruit shape, color and other characteristics. In Malus niedzwetzkyana
species, there are pink-purple pigmentations on leaves, flowers and fruits. These two species can be
found in the same regions, but Malus sieversii is more common (Volk et al., 2009).
The development of new apple varieties is a process requiring time and money because a
variety must have adequate and regular yield, commercial fruit quality, good post-harvest
storability and shipping quality, high consumer demand, and finally, resistance to diseases, pests
and storage defects (O'Rourke, 2003). Recently, demands from consumers gained more importance
in variety development research. According to Pereira-Lorenzo (2009), important features to be
considered are fruit size, shape, color, acidity, sweetness, taste, disease resistance, abiotic stress,
harvest time, storability and shelf life.
According to the data of 2018, world apple production was realized as 86,142,197 tons from
4,904,305 ha area. Although many countries have a share in this production amount, China alone
meets 45,55% of world apple production with 39,235,019 tons of apple production in 2,071,674 ha
area. USA realized 5,4% of world apple production with 4,652,500 tons of apple production on
117,844 ha area. Poland realized 4,6% of the production with 3,999,523 tons on 161,790 ha area.
Turkey realized 4,2% of the production with 3,625,960 tons on 174,690 ha area. Iran, Italy, India,
Russian Federation, France and Chile are countries that produce significant amounts of apples
(Anonymous, 2020).
Although Kyrgyzstan is the homeland of the species which are the ancestors of apple, it
unfortunately lagged behind the world and neighboring countries in apple cultivation. Among the
neighbors of Kyrgyzstan, China had the highest apple production in 2018 with a production of
39,235,019 tons on 2,071,674 ha area. This was followed by Uzbekistan with a production value of
1,130,335 tons in 98,117 ha area, by Tajikistan with a production value of 98,117 tons and by
Kazakhstan with a production value of 34,680 tons. Kyrgyzstan ranked 5th and last with 144,889
tons of production on 27,748 ha area (Anonymous, 2020).
Since China and Central Asia are in the working area of gene centers, the richness of apple
variety in Kyrgyzstan is quite high. Furthermore, the introduction of new varieties from abroad,
especially in recent years, brought the danger of local varieties to disappear. It is important to
determine the local varieties of apples, which have an important value in the fruit production sector
of Kyrgyzstan, to select the ones with superior characteristics and to carry out studies to prevent
them from disappearing.
With this study, it was aimed to determine the pomological characteristics of some apple
varieties grown in Kyrgyzstan.
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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
This research was carried out using Aport (Isik- Tomkins King, Zahatoy
    (Isik-  varieties in the laboratories of the Department of
Horticulture, the Faculty of Agriculture, Kyrgyzstan-Turkey Manas University. Varieties were
sourced from local markets.
Methods
20 randomly picked fruits were measured from the fruit samples brought to the laboratory to
represent each variety, and the obtained values were averaged. The following parameters were
evaluated for each variety.
Fruit weight (g) : The fruit weight of randomly selected fruits from each variety was determined
by weighing with a scale with a sensitivity of 0.01 g.
Fruit width (mm) and fruit length (mm) : The fruit width and length of the fruits selected
randomly from each variety were determined by measuring with a digital caliper.
Fruit stem length and thickness (mm): The fruit stem length and fruit stem thickness of randomly
selected fruits from each variety were measured with a digital caliper.
Fruit peel color: It was determined by observing and comparing.
Number of seeds (piece): It was determined by seeds extracted from each fruits and counting them.
One seed weight (g): The weight of one seed extracted from each variety of fruits was determined
by weighing on a sensitive scale.
Flavor and aroma of fruits: The aroma was determined by sensory observations and the taste was
determined by scoring 1-5.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Fruit weight
The fruit weights values of 6 varieties were shown in Table 1. When the varieties were
compared in terms of fruit weight, the highest value was in the Semerenko variety with 159,3 g, and
with 69,8 g. Other varieties were between these two.

reported that the fruit weight was between 59,79 g (Kava-1) and 273,41 g (Watermelon). In their
study in Iran (Mashhad), Farrokhi et al., (2011) found that fruit weight varied between the lowest
7,1 g and the highest 181,67 g. 
Serbia, it was stated that fruit weights varied between 70,00-193,33 g. In the study conducted by
  ulation in the district of Persembe, fruit weight was found to be
between the lowest 76,24 g and the highest 247,23 g. As a result of his analysis on ripe fruits at
harvest time, Zawli (2019) found that fruit weight ranged from the lowest 41,4 g (Nazuk Badan-6)
to the highest 142,8 g (Atri-3),.
There are similarities and differences between the values obtained by researchers in their
studies and the values obtained from this study. This situation is thought to be due to the difference
in the varieties and ecologies used.
Fruit width (mm)
According to the data obtained, it was determined that the width of the fruit varies between
.
In the study conducted by Karakaya et al. (2015) to determine the phenological and

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fruit width was between 59,51-87,62 mm. In their study conducted u
et al. (2016) reported that fruit width varied between 5,07-7,59 cm
Fruit length (mm)
The findings on the fruit lengths of the 6 apple varieties examined were shown in Table 1.
Fruit length values of the varieties varied between 61,6 and 42,7 mm (Table 1).
In a study they conducted in the United States of America and Canada, Miller et al. (2004)
reported that the average fruit length of the apples was between 65-80 mm. In a study conducted by
              they
               
Afghanistan, Zawli (2019) determined the lowest fruit length as 34,38 mm (Maliki) and the highest
62,84 mm (Atri-3).
Table 1. Fruit weight, fruit width and fruit length values of the apple varieties used in the
experiment in 2019
Varieties
Fruit weight
(g)
Fruit width
(mm)
Fruit length
(mm)
Aport (Isik-l)
128,6
70,2
55,3
Prevoskod
124,0
73,2
61,6
Tomkins King
121,2
65,6
57,3
Zahatoy Ranet
144,9
72,2
58,2
Semerenko
159,3
68,4
58,7
 (Isik-

69,8
53,2
42,7
Fruit stem length (mm)
Fruit stem length value of the varieties was given in Table 2. According to the table, the
highest value in terms of stem length was determined in the Prevoskod variety with 23,5 mm and
the lowest value in Semerenko variety with 11,2 mm. Other varieties were between these two
varieties (Table 2).
In a study conducted between 2002 and 2005 in the Camili region of Artvin province in
Turkey by Serdar et al. (2007), they found the fruit stem length of 32 local apple varieties between
7,6 and 22,3 mm. kaya (2013)
determined the fruit stem length in the range of 8.31 mm and 27.26 mm.
In our studies, it was observed that fruit stem lengths of apple varieties were in parallel with
the stem lengths of both local and foreign varieties in other regions.
Fruit stem thickness (mm)
Fruit stem thickness values of the varieties included in the experiment were given in Table
2. Fruit stem thickness values of the varieties were found between 2,6 and 1,7 mm. The highest
value in terms of this feature belonged to Zahatoy Ranet variety.
Fruit peel color
Fruit peel color was evaluated visually. When the fruit peel color of the varieties was
examined, it was determined that the upper color of the 
color and it was dark red           variety. In these two
varieties, yellow ground color was found in places. Preveskod variety is a type in which red top
color is dominant. The Tomkins King variety has red stripes on the yellow ground color, while the
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Zahatoy Ranet variety is a variety with a light green ground color and a red top color in places. In
Semerenko variety, completely light green-yellow color is dominant (Table 2).
Table 2. Fruit stem length, stem thickness values and fruit peel colors of the apple varieties used in
the experiment in 2019
Varieties
Fruit stem
length
(mm)
Fruit stem
tickness
(mm)
Fruit peel color
Aport (Isik-
21,8
2,1
Yellow ground, red top color
Prevoskod
23,5
1,8
Dark red
Tomkins King
15,9
1,7
Light yellow ground, top color
with red stripes
Zahatoy Ranet
14,6
2,6
Light green ground, slightly
light red top color
Semerenko
11,2
2,5
Light green
 (Isik-

17,9
1,9
Light red top color
Seed number (piece)
In terms of the number of fruit seeds, it was determined that the highest number of fruit
seeds ranged between 11,0 (Semerenko) and the lowest number of fruit seeds 7,3 (Tomkins King).
These values of the varieties were given in Table 3.
Weight of one seed (g)
One seed weight value of the varieties was given in Table 3. Accordingly, in terms of this
feature, Aport variety had the highest value with 0,2 g, and Tomkins 
the lowest value with 0,04 g.
In his study entitled determination of phenological and pomological properties of some
apple vari
(2010) determined that the number of seeds in fruits ranged from 6,66 pieces (Fuji) to 8,66 pieces
(RedChief, Starking Delicious) According to their determination in some standard and local apple
(Malus communis            
determined the number of seeds ranging from the lowest starking-1 to 3,85 pieces, the highest
starking-2 to 8.70 pieces, and the seed weight from 0,04 g to 0,07 g in all varieties.
Table 3.The number of seeds, weight of one seed and fruit taste values of the apple varieties used in
the experiment in 2019
Varieties
Number of
seeds (piece)
Weight of
one seed (g)
Fruit taste
(1-5
scoring)
Aport (Isik-

10,0
0,2
2
Prevoskod
8,3
0,05
3
Tomkins King
7,3
0,04
2,5
Zahatoy Ranet
8,0
0,07
3,5
Semerenko
11,0
0,05
4
 (Isik-

9,0
0,04
2
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Fruit taste and aroma
The taste and aroma of the fruit were determined sensory. As a result of 1-5 taste
evaluations made by a group of 10 people, the highest score was given to Semerenko (4) and the
 
taste (Table 3). It was stated that the Aport variety was a scented apple and the Preveskod variety
was a flavored variety. Moreover, it was determined that the waxy layer on the peel surface of
Semerenko variety was more prominent than other varieties.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Consequently, some pomological characteristics of 6 apple varieties grown in the ecological
conditions of Kyrgyzstan and purchased from local markets were investigated in this study. The
results obtained were summarized below.
Aport (Isik-, Preveskod, Tomkins King, Zahatoy     (Isik-
 apple varieties were used in the experiment. Fruit weight values of the varieties were found
between 159,3 and 69,8 g, fruit width between 73,2 and 53,2 mm, and fruit length between 61,6 and
42,7 mm. The stem length of the varieties was determined to be between 23,5 and 11,2 mm and the
stem thickness between 2,6 and 1,7 mm. The number of seeds was found between 11-7,3 and
weight of one seed between 0,2 and 0,04 g. The tastes of the varieties, which were subjected to 1-5
scoring as a result of the sensory analysis, were determined between 2 and 4.
Although Kyrgyzstan is one of the homeland regions of apples, the production is very low
there. The following suggestions should be taken into account in order to improve apple cultivation
in the country.
In order to have a place in the world markets, it is obligatory to obtain varieties suitable for
the demands of the market and high quality marketable products.
It is beneficial to dismantle old and small gardens that are out of date and modernize them
with new varieties and systems for export, and to establish new gardens with the correct, certified,
spur varieties and dwarf or semi-dwarf clonal rootstocks. In these gardens, planting systems and
cultural maintenance procedures should be applied correctly and without residue and harvested at
the right time.
Climate change affects Kyrgyzstan as much as the world. For this reason, many local
varieties that are resistant to biotic and abiotic stress conditions, that have high fruit quality and
long storage period should be taken under protection and evaluated in breeding studies.
For qualified fruit storage, the number and capacities of mechanical cooling and controlled
atmosphere storages must be increased and standardization and packaging in the product must be
modernized.
Producers, public and private sector publishers and consultants, pruners and warehouse
managers should receive in-service training on capping and modern garden establishment,
management and post-harvest storage for quality fruit production and high yield.
R&D activities (in the fields of variety and rootstock breeding, cultivation and preservation
techniques etc.) should be improved.
Especially in apples, precautions should be taken against venturia inaequalis and inside
worm.
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DETERMINATION OF MORPHOLOGICAL AND AGRONOMIC
PROPERTIES OF SOME F1 MELON POTENTIAL VARIETY
CANDIDATES
Necibe Kayakab, cb, Abdurahman Yaa
b, Musa Seymenb
Science and Technology, Konya / Turkey
y
c: Siirt University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Siirt / Turkey
Necibe Kayak, ORCID No:0000-0001-7104-8-0002-3806-6465
-0002-3447--0001-9782-
 0000-0003-3574-4993, -
0003-3218-6551 Musa Seymen, ORCID No: 0000-0002-2742-137X
*Corresponding author: mseymen@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract
In this study; some morphological and agronomic characteristics of 83 F1 melon variety
candidates were determined. The results obtained in yield and fruit characteristics were subjected to
PCA analysis. As a result of the study, the study was explained as high as 68.1% in three
components with PCA. In respect to fruit parameters, the highest positive correlation was found
between fruit weight, shell thickness and seed cavity width. On the other hand, the highest negative
correlation was found between yield per plant and seed cavity height. When PC1 and PC2 were
evaluated together, considering the fruit quality parameters, the F1 39 was found promising
potential candidate hybrid.
Keywords: Cucumis melo, fruit characteristics, morphologic features, PCA, yield.
1. Introduction
Melon (Cucumis melo L.) is a vegetable species belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family and has
high morphological diversity and high polymorphism in terms of fruit structure (Fanourakis et
al.,2000; Soltani et al., 2010). Approximately 28 million tons of melons are produced in the world.
When countries are considered China is the first (15322.900 tons), while the Turkey is second
(1760.426 tons), and Iran ranked third (1678.775 tons) and they are important melon production
countries (FAO, 2018). Melons in Turkey, due to the show high morphological polymorphism, it
has been reported that Turkey has rich melon genetic reso      
Solmaz, 2007). Therefore Turkey is also known as the secondary gene center in melon (Pitrat et al.,
1999). Melon is a type of vegetable that is at the forefront of human nutrition with its different
consumption patterns, nutritional content, and unique aroma. Although the protein content and
calorie amount are not very high, its importance in nutrition is mostly due to its richness in sugars,
vitamins, and mineral substances (Pitrat, 2008). They are a good dietary source which especially in
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minerals, vitamin-A and C (Lester, 1997). Agricultural production aims to obtain the highest yield
by providing the necessary inputs for the plant to reach its yield potential. For this purpose, the use
of hybrid varieties in melons has increased in recent years. In hybrid varieties, significant success
has been achieved in the development of desired varieties in terms of yield, quality, endurance,
adaptation, disease and pest resistance, and seed production.
          k district,
and villages and their characteristics such as fruit weight, fruit length, fruit diameter, fruit shape
index, SSCM, fruit shape, fruit flesh color, peel color, were examined according to UPOV criteria.


In another study, they collected 64 local melon genotypes from provinces, districts, and villages
engaged in melon cultivation by conducting survey studies from Southeast Anatolia, Central
Anatolia, Aegean, Mediterranean, Marmara-Thrace regions. As a result of the study, the
morphological characteristics of 10 fruit characteristics (length, diameter, the shape of the
longitudinal section, ground color at maturity, secondary colors in the shell, seal size, cracking in
the fruit, and rickety) were determined and recorded. Significant differences were found between

In this study, some morphological and agronomic characteristics of 83 melon F1 hybrid lines
obtained as a result of the hybrid breeding program were determined. The results obtained in yield
and fruit characteristics were subjected to PCA analysis and it was aimed to determine the
important parameters that distinguish the hybrids and to reveal the hybrids that are productive and
high fruit quality in terms of these parameters.
2. Materials and Methods
The research was carried out with 83 hybrid lines were obtained from controlled pollination between
qualified pure lines. The seeds of each hybrid line were sown by throwing a single seed into each sowing pit
in the seedling growing trays filled with sterile peat moss on May 04, 2020. Until the seeds germinated and
reached the planting size (2-3 true leaves), cultural practices were carried out regularly and on time in a
controlled greenhouse conditions. The seedlings, which reached the planting size, were planted on the open
         
distance, and 10 plants were located from each hybrid. After planting the seedlings, they were irrigated with
drip irrigation, and during the vegetation period, cultural operations such as hoeing, throat filling;
fertilization, disease, and pest control were carried out regularly. Morphological characteristics of hybrid
lines were determined according to the International Union for the Conservation of New Plant Varieties
(UPOV) parameters during the plant development period. Fruits the hybrid lines were harvested on 01
September 2020 and were weighed and the yield in the field was determined. The yield per plant (kg/plant)
was determined with the rate per plant in the plot. Fruit weight (kg), fruit length (cm), fruit width (cm), seed
cavity length (cm), seed cavity width (cm), rind thickness (mm), flesh thickness (mm) in four fruits
determined from each hybrid line and water soluble dry matter (Brix) measurements were realized.
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3. Results and Discussion
In the study, characterization studies were performed on 83 melon hybrid lines and the differences between
them were evaluated with UPOV parameters. In terms of leaf character, it was determined as 29.06% single,
34.88% five, and 36.04% triple. In terms of leaf shape, it was observed as 51.16% pointed and 47.6% heart.
Leaf lobe is 56.97% medium, 25.58% shallow, 17.44% deep. When the leaf color was examined, it was
determined that 89.53% dark green and 63.95% dark green, 22.09% light green, 13.95% green. Leaf stem
length was found as 91.86% long and 8.13% medium. When the genotypes were examined in terms of
flower structure, it was determined that they were all andromonoic and mostly male flowers in the ratio of
female to male flowers. The flower bud shape is 97.6% middle, flower bud size and flower size is 98.83%
middle. The shape of the flower ovary is 98.83% round.
When the fruit is examined in terms of the longitudinal section, it is 41.6% round, 26.1% elliptical, 11.9%
flattened, 10.7% broad elliptical, 3.5% ovoid, 2.3% inverted egg, and dominant. The fruit surface's main
color is green in 70 genotypes (83.3%). Fruit speckle density was determined as 63% medium, 25% no or
very little, 2.3% sparse and 8.3% dense. No warts were observed in all genotypes. Groove structure in fruit is
weak in 78 genotypes (92.8%). Fruit net structure and net shape were observed as 96.4% absent in 81
genotypes and only punctate. Fruit flesh color is greenish-white in 73 genotypes (86.9%), orange in 7
genotypes (8.3%), white in 2 genotypes (2.3%), and green in 1 genotype (1.1%). The highest yield per plant
was found to be 74 (9.84), 25 (7.52) and 1 (7.42). The highest fruit weight was determined as 16 (5.44), 39
(4.9), 82 (4.02). In terms of fruit length, 16 (31.67 cm) and 75 (26.14 cm) had the longest fruits, while
genotypes 23 (14.43 cm) ad the shortest fruits. The highest fruit diameter was found in 61 (19.63 cm) and 33
(18.20 cm), while 2 (13.08 cm) and 6 (13.46 cm) had the shortest fruit diameter.
While the length of the seed cavity was the highest in 14 (14.14 cm) and 2 (14.12 cm), it was the lowest in
37 (7.93 cm) and 23 (7.93 cm). While the width of the seed cavity was highest in genotypes numbered 78
(10.47 cm) and 65 (10.07 cm), it was lowest in 2 (6.92 cm) and 6 (6.18 cm). Fruit thickness was found the
highest in 77 (14.57 cm) and 15 (16.80 cm), while it was found the lowest in 6 (6.41 cm) and 22 (5.96).
While fruit rind thickness was found the highest in 1 (42.93 cm) and 39 (45.35 cm), on the other hand 2
(21.67 cm) and 64 (28.15 cm) produced the lowest. In respect to water-soluble dry matter (SSC), the highest
  the lowest mean values were

In a study conducted by collecting from different locations, it was reported that the melon genotypes had a
Brix range of 19.4-melon study collected from the lake region, it
    . Dal et al., (2016),
Turkey's collected from different regions and S4 step up spontaneously updates made melon (Cucumis melo
L.) accessions of his study to determine the morphological diversity, the fruit forms 49% of the global% 39.6
ovals, 5.6% preform, 3.75% acorn, 1.8% flat, and dominant fruit skin colors; 45.2% was green, 41.5% was
brown, 9.4% was pale green, 1.8% was light yellow, 1.8% was blackish green. Crying in the fruit was stated
as low in 77.3%, medium in 1.8% and high in 3.7%. The flesh was found to be cream-yellow in 52.8%,
white in 16.9%, orange in 15% and green in 15%. Krasteva (2002) determined that 138 of the 206 melon
genotypes grown in Bulgaria have a fruit weight of 3.6-5.5 kg and a rind thickness of 0.6-1.5 cm in 151. In

been determined that fruit length varies between 39.70-20.45 cm and fruit diameter between 29.13-20.00 cm
Studies show that there are morphological and agronomic differences in melon
genotypes.
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Yield and fruit characteristics measurements obtained from melon hybrid lines were subjected to PCA (Table
1). As a result of the PCA, the study explained as high as 68.1% in three components. Studies have reported
that in order to use PC analysis, more than 25% of the first two components of the study should be disclosed
(Mohammadi and Prasanna, 2003). The strong disclosure of PCA is clear that this analysis will yield
important conclusions about the usability and parameters being looked at. As a result of PCA, the first
component (PC1) explained 38.6% of the study, and fruit weight, fruit length, fruit width, seed cavity width,
rind thickness and fruit flesh thickness parameters were the most positively explained parameters. The
second component (PC2), on the other hand, explained 16.8% of the study, while fruit width and solubility
were the highest positively explained parameters, while fruit length and seed cavity size parameters were
negatively explained. On the other hand, the third component (PC3), explained 12.7% of the study, and the
size of the seed cavity and the SSC were the parameters explained in the positive direction and the seed
cavity width in the negative direction.
Table 1.PCA results obtained from fruit measurements of F1 melon variety candidates
PC1
PC2
PC3
Eigenvalue
3.47
1.51
1.14
Variance%
38.6
16.8
12.7
Total variance %
38.6
55.4
68.1
Eigenvectors
Yp
-0.07833
0.20829
0.28380
FW
0.43908
0.04031
0.20980
FS
0.42835
-0.37290
0.22107
FW
0.43297
0.30374
-0.26453
CHS
0.27404
-0.59369
0.30107
CHW
0.34316
0.09908
-0.57194
CT
0.36112
0.05094
-0.11597
FFT
0.32521
0.37379
0.27346
WSDM
0.03329
0.46806
0.50060
Yp- Yield per plant; FW- Fruit weight; FS- Fruit size; Fw-Fruit width; CHS-Core house size; CHW- Core
house width; CT- Crust thickness; FFT- Fruit flesh thickness; WSDM- Water soluble dry matter
Using PC1 and PC2 components, a loading plot chart was created to examine the mutual relationship
between yield and fruit characteristics (Figure 1). It has been reported that there is a positive relationship if
the angle between the vectors in the figure is <90o, there is a negative relationship if the angle is> 90o, and if
the angle between the vectors is 90o, there is no significant relationship (Yan and Kang, 2003; Yavuz et all.,
2020). When the figure was examined, the highest positive correlation was found between fruit weight, shell
thickness and seed cavity width. On the other hand, the highest negative correlation was found between yield
per plant and seed house height.
216
Figure 1. PCA obtained from the fruit characteristics of F1 - Seed house
width; KK- Skin thickness; MEK- Fruit flesh thickness; SSKM- Water soluble dry matter)
A score plot graph was created to evaluate 83 hybrid melon lines by using PC1 and PC2 components (Figure
2). When the figure is examined, G16, G39 and G78 were the genotypes that gave the best results in terms of
fruit weight, fruit length, fruit width, seed cavity width, rind thickness and fruit flesh thickness parameters
found in PC1. On the other hand, G72, showed significant results in terms of fruit width, solubility, fruit size
and seed cavity length. When PC1 and PC2 are evaluated together, the G39 hybrid line, which is in the
positive region of both, shows important results and is explained in terms of fruit quality parameters,
emerged as promising.
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Figure 2. Score plot graph obtained from PC1 and PC2 as a result of PCA made from fruit characteristics of
F1 melon variety candidates
4. Result
The morphological and agronomic characteristics of 83 hybrid lines in melon were evaluated and genotypes
were interpreted. As a result of the study, some differences occurred in terms of morphological features in
leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Important differences have emerged between yield and fruit measurements,
which are important in melon varieties. As a result of the PCA, the study explained as high as 68.1% in three
components. The highest positive correlation between melon fruit parameters was found between fruit
weight, shell thickness and seed house width. On the other hand, the highest negative correlation was found
between yield per plant and seed house height. When PC1 and PC2 were evaluated together, the G39 hybrid
line, which showed important results in terms of fruit quality parameters, emerged as promising. Hybrid
lines, which have shown important results in the study, should be taken to yield trials in wider land and their
performance should be explained more clearly.
5. Resources
            Yerel Kavun (Cucumis melo L.)

218
Erdo 
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. 
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STATISTICAL ANALYSIS OF MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURES
OF LOCAL BEAN POPULATIONS
Necibe Kayakabbabb, Arif
b, Musa Seymenbb, Ertan Sait Kurtarb
*1: necibe.kayak@gmail.com
a: Horticultural Departments, Graduate School of Natural Sciences, University, Konya-Turkey
-Turkey
ABSTRACT
In our country, bean genetic resources are an issue that has not been studied sufficiently in
breeding studies, the number of cultivars and production amount developed are not at a sufficient
level. For this reason, it is very important to reveal the existing richness in terms of bean gene
resources in our country through researches and to use them in developing new varieties and
modern agricultural systems. The research aims to provide the basis for future breeding studies with
the characterization data of 29 bean genotypes developed for fresh consumption. In the study,
measurements, and observations were taken in the plant, flower, pod, seed, and productivity
according to the UPOV criteria. As a result of the study, the results obtained in yield and fruit
characteristics were subjected to PCA analysis. The total variance of working with PCA was
explained with a rate of 57,840%. The PCA graph shows the similarities reflecting the genotypes in
the table in terms of the measured variables. The PCA graph shows the similarities reflecting the
genotypes in the table in terms of the measured variables. When the cluster analysis is examined; It
has been determined that genotypes are divided into two groups on the axis of PCA1 and PCA2. It
was seen that the genotypes numbered 6, 8, and 23 were different from the others in the cluster. As
a result of the research, it was revealed that genotypes differ from each other in terms of
morphological features.
Keywords: Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), Diversity, PCA
1. Introduction
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.); Leguminosae or Fabaceae (legumes) family is included in the
genus Phaseolus. It has been reported that there are around 230 species of beans in the world and 20
of them can be used in human nutrition and the most cultivated species is P. vulgaris. The fresh
broad bean production in the world is 24,752,675 tons on 15,677,394 hectares and 30,434.28 tons of
dry broad bean production are 34,495,662 hectares. World production of beans in the first place,
while China, Turkey with 580 949 tonnes of world production of 2.3% takes place in the fourth
reputation by satisfying (FAO, 2018).
Among the legumes, beans are the third most important plant species in the world (Blair et
al., 2009). Beans are an important source of minerals (calcium, iron, phosphorus), vitamins (B1 and
B2), and protein (18-31.6%) . The daily protein consumption per person in the
220
world is 79 grams as of 2011. 48 grams of this is of vegetable origin. The daily protein consumption
per capita in Turkey as of the 2011 year is 103 grams. 72 grams of this is of vegetable origin (FAO,
2018). The grain legumes, meet 33% of the protein needed by humans. Although Turkey beans
gene center, a large number of regional characteristics different from each other has grown and
genetic material. The genetic potential uncovering of bean types in Turkey and to determine
whether it has changed with the environmental influences are important. Variation in plants can be
determined by differences in morphological, biochemical, and DNA levels (Svetleva et al., 2003).
Knowing and defining the morphological features of variations is extremely important for classical
breeding studies. The relationships of these variations with each other help in defining the genetic
characteristics of the population     . The morphological characteristics of
different types of fruits in the family of Leguminosae in the world and in our country are examined
in studies that have been examined according to UPOV (International Association for the Protection
of New Plant Varieties) criteria. In comparing plant and fruit characteristics of varieties with each
other, principal component analysis is widely used, and with these data, characteristics that define
and distinguish genotypes are determined, as well as genotypes that show superior characteristics in
terms of distinctive features (Panayotov et al., 2000).
Seymen et al. (2010), using 8 commercial varieties, namely Nadide, Massay, Nova, Gina,
 Bourgondia, and Goffora, to determine the yield and some quality elements of
some dwarf green bean varieties under Konya conditions, the yield, and yield elements differ
           1 kg/da)

first in yield per plant and the number of pods per plant.
Erdinc (2012) obtained from different regions of Turkey 125 bean genotypes have done their
work aimed at determining the diversity between various plant characteristics evaluated genotypes.
In genotypes, emergence time, growth type, flowering time, fresh pod harvest time, middle leaflet
shape, flag color, bracke color and length, number of flower buds and pods in cluster, ground color
of the pod, second color in pod, crispness, stringiness, pod length and width, hundred grain weight,
seed shape, the main color in seed and dominant second color were examined. It has been
determined that there is a wide variation among genotypes in terms of traits. It has been determined
that the genotypes are strikingly grouped as South American (Andean) and Central American
(Mesoamerican) origin, especially according to the weight of the hundred grains. In the study, it
was determined that there is a wide variety in terms of the plant characteristics examined among the
genotypes.
In our study, some morphological and agronomic characteristics of 29 bean genotypes
developed for fresh consumption were determined. The results obtained in yield and fruit
characteristics were subjected to PCA analysis to determine the important parameters that
distinguish genotypes, and it was aimed to reveal the high fruit quality hybrids in terms of these
parameters.
221
2. Materials and Methods
The trial was conducted in the Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture Application Site in
2020. A total of 29 genotypes were used as plant material in the experiment.
The trial pattern was set up with 3 replications and 10 plants per repeat with trial random
blocks. The study was started on May 29, by planting seeds at 50x100 cm distances. In the
experiment, weed control was regularly carried out by hoeing, and irrigation was carried out with
drip irrigation. The first harvest ended on 20 August, the second harvest on 15 September and the
last harvest on 27 September. The morphological characteristics of hybrid lines were determined
according to the International Union for the Conservation of New Plant Varieties (UPOV).
3. Results and Discussion
In the study, characterization studies performed on 29 bean genotypes were evaluated with
UPOV parameters, and the differences between them were evaluated.
In the study, average pod length (13.96 mm), pod width (13.16 mm), pod meat thickness
(1.62 mm), pod beak length (6.83 mm), number of seeds in fresh pod (5 pieces), thousand seed
weight (385.10 gr), seed length (11.69 mm), seed width (5.65 mm), seed height (4.22 mm), average
fruit number (8).
In the study, characterization studies performed on 29 bean genotypes were evaluated with
UPOV parameters and the differences between them were evaluated. When all the data on UPOV
observations are used, it was determined that it was possible to explain all variation in the data
using a total of 42 components. However, the high number of components makes it difficult to
show the analysis results. To determine the acceptable number of dimensions in Principal
Component Analysis (Kaiser, 1961), it was emphasized that Principal Components with loading
value (Eigenvalue) above 1 should be taken into account in explaining the change in standardized
data. For this reason, 12 features have been analyzed.
Yield and fruit characteristics measurements obtained in bean genotypes were subjected to
PCA. Studies have reported that to use PCA analysis, more than 25% of the first two or three
components should be disclosed (Mohammadi ve Prasanna, 2003). As a result of the analysis, the
first three components explained 26.383%, 18.298% and 13.159% of the variance, respectively. As
a result of principal components analysis, the total variance is 57.840%. As a result of the PCA,
222
26.383% of the first component (PC1) study was explained, and the thousand grain weight, seed
length, seed width, seed height parameters were the most positively explained parameters. The
second component (PC2), on the other hand, explained 18% of the study, and the stringiness was
the highest parameter in the positive direction and the pod length was the highest parameter in the
negative direction. The third component (PC3), on the other hand, explained 13.15% of the study,
and the number of seeds in fresh pods was the highest parameter that was positively explained
(Table 1).
Table 1. PCA results obtained from the measurements of Bean Genotypes
PCA1
PCA2
PCA3
Eigenvalue
3.165
2.195
1,579
Variance %
26.383
18.298
13.159
Total Variance %
26.383
44.681
57.840
G
0.09578
0.22172
-0.4158
K
-0.08056
0.52935
-0.1257
BB
0.12167
-0.46425
-0.2307
BE
-0.11524
-0.07986
0.53210
BET
0.21920
-0.09457
-0.1672
BGU
-0.06138
0.33772
-0.2852
TBTS
-0.27926
-0.03610
0.39585
BTA
0.50263
0.02059
0.28865
TB
0.38411
-0.24791
-0.1736
TE
0.49484
0.13412
0.13241
TY
0.42540
0.29821
0.25239
OMS
0.02100
-0.39449
-0.1190
G: brittleness, K: stringiness, BB: plant height, BE: plant width, BET: pod thickness, BGU: Pod Beak Length
TBTS: Number of Seeds in Fresh Pod, BTA: Weight of thousand grain, TB: Seed Size, TE: Seed Width, TY:
Seed Height, OMS: average number of fruits
Using PC1 and PC2 components, a loading plot chart was created to examine the mutual
relationship between yield and fruit characteristics (Table 2). It has been reported that there is a
positive relationship if the angle between the vectors in the figure is <90o, there is a negative
relationship if the angle is> 90o, and if the angle between the vectors is 90o, there is no significant
relationship(Yan and Kang, 2003; Yavuz et al., 2020). When the figure was examined, the highest
positive correlation was found between seed width, thousand grain weight and seed height. On the
other hand, the highest negative correlation was found between curliness, pod beak length and pod
length.
223
Table 2. PCA result from fruit characteristics of bean genotypes. Loading plot graph obtained from
PC1 and PC2.
(G: Brittleness, K: Fishbone, BB: Pod Size, BE: Broad Bean Width, BET: Pod Meat Thickness, BGU: Pod Beak
Length, TBTS: Number of Seeds in Fresh Pod, BTA: 1000-seed weight TB: Seed Size, TE: Seed Width, TY: Seed
Height, OMS: Average Fruit Number)
Score plot graph was created to evaluate 29 bean genotypes using PC1 and PC2 components
(Table 3). When the figure is examined, the genotypes with the number 23, 8, 6 in terms of seed
width, thousand grain weight and seed height parameters have emerged as the best results in PC1.
Genotypes numbered 65, 4, on the other hand, showed significant results in terms of curl, pod beak
length and pod length.
Table 3: PCA result obtained from fruit characteristics of bean genotypes, Score plot graph
obtained from PC1 and PC2
4. Result
Genotypes were interpreted by evaluating the morphological and agronomic characteristics
of 29 genotypes in beans. As a result of the study, some differences occurred in terms of
224
morphological features in fruits and seeds. Significant differences emerged between yield and fruit
measurements, which are important in bean varieties.
As a result of the PCA, the study explained as high as 57,840% in three components.
Genotypes number 23,8,6 were found to be promising. Hybrid lines, which showed important
results in the study, should be taken to yield trials in wider land and their performance should be
explained more clearly.
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225
BLACK GARLIC (Allium sativum L.) AND BIOLOGICAL
ACTIVITIES
O. Tomar1 2
1Kocaeli University, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Science, Arslanbey Campus, Kocaeli,
Turkey
2Afyon Kocatepe University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering,
Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
oktaytomar@hotmail.com, omeristek@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Black garlic is actually a processed food. Fresh garlic (Allium sativum L.) is obtained as a
result of fermentation under certain temperature and dehydration conditions. As a result of these
reactions, the bitter taste and smell of the garlic is lost. There is also an increase in nutritional
values. Studies have shown that black garlic is superior to the biological activity of fresh garlic. It
stands out especially with its antioxidant activity. The resulting black garlic functions such as anti-
cancer, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulator, anti-allergic, hepatoprotective,
cardioprotective, and oxidative stress syndrome. In addition, it is known to have beneficial effects
in terms of memory and nervous systems. In this review, investigations were made about the
characteristics and biological activities of black garlic.
Keywords: Black garlic, biological activity, fermentation, antioxidant, anti-obesity.
INTRODUCTION
Garlic (Allium sativum L.), a member of the Alliaceae family, is a popular food product used
in table, traditional and modern medicine. Not only does it have a strong flavor and distinctive
flavor, but also in its content; There are various bioactive organosulfur compounds including allicin,
diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide, S-allyl-cysteine, S-allyl-mercaptocysteine, alixin, 1-propenyl
allyl thiosulfate. Therefore, garlic; It has been reported as an important source of healing in many
literatures due to its various health benefits such as anticancer, antioxidant, antibiotic, antilipidemic,
antidiabetic, anticoagulant, antimicrobial, anti-constipation, antiparasitic, diuretic and
hepatoprotective effects (Ried et al., 2013; Adaki et al., 2014; Bayan et al., 2014). Also, in
traditional medical practices; garlic is used to treat amoebic and bacillus dysentery, wound
infection, chronic bronchitis, hypertension, whooping cough and pinworm infection (Tran et al.,
2019). In addition, it has been shown that bioactivity and garlic components differ considerably
between different cultivars (Chen et al., 2013; Iloki-Assanga et al., 2015). Garlic, direct or black
226
garlic, smoked garlic, garlic oil, garlic oil macerate, extract, powder, supplement pill, garlic juice,
alcoholic tincture, etc. including food processing or beer products (Santos and Carvalho, 2014).
Among the garlic processing products, black garlic is emerging as one of the best-known
functional foods on the market. Compared to raw garlic, black garlic has a typical black color,
sweet taste, and chewy texture with no offensive odor. In addition, black garlic has been found to
have various bioactivities, including anticancer, anti-obesity, immunomodulatory, hypolipidemic,
antioxidant, hepatoprotective and neuroprotective effects (Kimura et al., 2017).
BLACK GARLIC AND ITS PRODUCTION
People from Asian countries such as Thailand, South Korea, and Japan have been producing
black garlic as a traditional food for centuries. However, it has entered the global market in recent
years. Black garlic is produced by fermentation of whole fresh garlic at high humidity and
temperature. This results in the transformation of garlic to black through a series of non-enzymatic
browning reactions such as the Maillard reaction, oxidation of phenols and caramelization. When
garlic undergoes fermentation, not only does the physicochemical properties of the garlic change,
but also the concentration of bioactive compounds increases (Kimura et al., 2017).
Choi et al. (2014) reported in their study that the moisture and pH of garlic decreased with the
fermentation process, whereas reducing sugar and total acidity increased. In addition, the color
spectrum and composition of amino acids of black garlic changed compared to fresh garlic. The
resulting black garlic has an elastic and chewy texture. In addition, a new sweet taste is created
without the irritating garlic flavor. In addition, black garlic compared to fresh garlic; Organosulfur
compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, tetrahydro--carboline derivatives, S-allyl-cysteine
and S-allyl-mercaptocysteine and antioxidant compounds have increased values.
In their research; When black garlic and fresh garlic were compared, it was reported that the
total polyphenols and flavonoids value of black garlic increased 9.3 and 1.5 times, respectively
(Kim et al., 2013). It has been demonstrated that the concentration of S-allyl-cysteine, one of the
most important organosulfur bioactive compounds of garlic, increases between 4.3 and 6.3 times in
black garlic depending on the heating process (Bae et al., 2014).
In recent years, black garlic has increased in consumption demand due to its delicious and
bioactive compounds. It is also among the prominent products in the functional food market. In
addition, black garlic is not only attracting the attention of its consumers, but also by its researches
and producers in improving the production procedure and innovation of processing products. Black
garlic production processes; Different programming is done depending on temperature, relative
humidity, time and materials (Zhang et al., 2016).
227
HEALING EFFECTS OF BLACK GARLIC
Anticancer Effect
Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. It is a disease caused by uncontrolled
or abnormal growth of cells and tissues in our body. Due to the reports that black garlic has
anticancer effect in recent years, some researchers suggest that black garlic can be used in meals to
prevent and treat cancers from stomach cancer to leukemia. The mechanism of anticancer effects of
black garlic in different cancer diseases, induction of apoptosis, cell cycle arrest, and inhibition of
tumor growth and invasion have been demonstrated (Tran et al., 2019).
Wang et al. (2012) suggest that aqueous extracts of black garlic may induce apoptosis of
human gastric cancer cell line SGC-7901 in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, it has been
found that black garlic has an inhibitory effect on tumor growth in tumor-bearing mice.
Dong et al. (2014) reported that black garlic shows anticancer effects on colon cancer cell
lines. It has also been found that the cell cycle of the HT29 human colon cancer cell line can be
stopped when treated with an alcoholic extract of black garlic.
Effect on Dyslipidemia and Anti-obesity
Obesity is an important problem in Western and developed countries, causing various
metabolic syndromes and chronic diseases and threatening public health. Obesity can be prevented
by a combination of a healthy nutritional balance between physical activity, energy intake and
expenditure. Black garlic is known to be a prominent lipid and weight-reducing component
(Finimundy et al., 2014).
Ha et al. (2015) found that diets supplemented with 1.5% black garlic extract can only reduce
weight in high-fat models. It has also been reported to reduce kidney and epididymal fat. Also,
black garlic extract alleviates dyslipidemia caused by a high-fat diet. In their study, it was observed
that black garlic has a lowering effect on plasma total lipid, total cholesterol and triglyceride levels.
In contrast, the high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) of the black garlic group was found to be
higher than the high-fat diet group. Treatment with black garlic has been shown to reduce both
glucose and insulin in plasma levels on a high-fat diet.
Chen et al. (2014) suggested that the anti-obesity effect of methanol extract of black garlic
may be related to lipogenesis, adipokine biosynthesis, fatty acid oxidation, fatty acid and glucose
transport, and lipolysis in both adipose tissue and liver.
228
Antioxidant Properties
Black garlic contains abundant antioxidant compounds, including polyphenols, alkaloids,
flavonoids, S-allyl-cysteine, and antioxidant intermediates derived from the reaction in Mail (Choi
et al., 2014; Kimura et al., 2017). In the studies of
Wang and Sun (2017), it was determined that black garlic ethanol extract has the same DPPH
 ml-1. In addition, Lee et
al. (2009) A diet supplemented with 5% black garlic extract reduces oxidative stress and diabetes
complications. A strong antioxidant capacity is exerted through the ABTS radical activity of black
garlic, four times higher than raw garlic, and the suppression of oxidative stress.
The antioxidant effect of black garlic has been proven in clinical studies. In the previous
study, Wang et al. (2012) conducted a double-blind, parallel design study with an untrained male
population of similar age and body mass index for 14 days to compare the effect of black garlic and
placebo on exercise-induced oxidative stress and recovery.
Liu et al. (2018) reported that black garlic has a beneficial effect on coronary heart disease
patients. Black garlic exhibits an increase in chronic heart failure by increasing the left ventricular
ejection fraction value and quality of life scores and circulating antioxidant levels, while brain
natriuretic peptide (BNP) precursor N-terminal decline is a biomarker for its severity.
Anti-inflammatory Effect
Inflammation is the process by which our immune system responds to injury, infection, and
toxin. Inflammation plays a vital role not only in the wound healing and repair process, but also in
protecting our body from foreign invaders, including viruses and bacteria. However, chronic
inflammation can have a negative impact on our health, which manifests itself in various chronic
diseases, from heart disease to rheumatoid arthritis and lupus (Galland, 2010).
In recent years, black garlic comes to the fore in the treatment of inflammation and
septicemia-related diseases. Aqueous extract of black garlic inhibits the production of pro-
            
prostaglandin (PG) -E2 (Oh et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2014).
Zhang and Jilg (2017) in their study; It was concluded that five different black garlic extracts,
including hot aqueous extract, ethanol supernatant extract, ethanol precipitate extract, deproteinized
ethanol supernatant extract and deproteinized ethanol precipitate extract, improved the regulatory
effect. It has been found that due to the effect of LPS on macrophage growth inhibition, it also
-
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Neuroprotective Effect
It has been reported that black garlic has beneficial effects on memory and nervous system
through its antiamnesic effect, improving cognitive impairment and preventing neuroinflammation
and neurotoxicity (Tran, 2020).
Nurmasitoh et al. (2018) demonstrated that ethanol extract of black garlic strongly protects
the murine medial prefrontal cortex from oxidative stress induced by monosodium glutamate by
improving working memory performance and preventing pyramidal neurons from modification of
neuronal architecture.
In different studies, it has been found that various doses of black garlic extracts (2.5 to 10 mg
200 g-1 body weight) also inhibit the detrimental effects of monosodium glutamate on spatial
memory and total pyramidal neurons in the CA1 region of the hippocampus (Hermawati et al.,
2015). In addition, the protective effect of black garlic on the nervous system has been documented
as a curative effect on neuroinflammation and cognitive impairment, a pathological evidence of
Alzheimer's disease (Nillert et al., 2017).
Hepatoprotective Effect
The liver is a vital organ that performs biochemical production related to detoxicity, protein
biosynthesis and digestion. However, the liver is vulnerable to drugs, chemicals, alcohol, solvents,
infection, and nutritional supplements. It has been demonstrated that black garlic protects the liver
from side effects such as hepatoxicity and apoptosis of the anticancer drug cyclophosphamide
(Ahmed, 2018).
Ahmed (2018) reported that black garlic supplementation (200 mg kg-1 body weight)
improved histological change, DNA damage and biochemical parameter change in blood (bilirubin,
alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST)) and increased hepatic antioxidant.
One explanation for the hepatoprotective effect of black garlic is that it has been reported that
black garlic can improve cell death and reduce lipid peroxidation, oxidative stress and inflammation
through regulation of the JNK signaling cascade. It has been found that black garlic shows
hepatoprotective effects not only in acute toxicity, but also in chronic conditions (Kim et al., 2011).
Shin et al. (2014) reported that black garlic supplementation not only protected the liver from
acute toxicity induced by carbon tetrachloride or D-galactosamine, but also improved lipid profile
and liver damage in the hepatic steatosis model.
230
CONCLUSION
Black garlic is a well-known garlic preparation that is fermented at high humidity and
temperature, arranged to not only remove the strong and unpleasant aroma of fresh garlic, but also
improve its nutritional composition, bioactivity and taste values. After its introduction over the past
few decades, black garlic has become a functional food that has arisen due to its wide-ranging
biological functions, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, hyperlipidemia-lowering,
anti-obesity, hepatoprotective and neuroprotective effects. Their bioactivity and therapeutic benefits
have been the subject of numerous extensive studies at both the in vitro and in vivo levels.
Recently, there are only a few clinical studies proving the health benefits of black garlic on
cardiovascular diseases. Therefore, more research focusing on the safety aspect and other medical
applications of black garlic is needed to provide a comprehensive overview of the therapeutic
effects of black garlic.
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DETERMINATION OF THE ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECT OF
EXTRACTS OF PEACH TREE (Prunus persica L.) RESIN IN
DIFFERENT SOLVENTS
O. Tomar1 2
1Kocaeli University, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Science, Arslanbey Campus, Kocaeli,
Turkey
2Afyon Kocatepe University, Engineering Faculty, Department of Food Engineering,
Afyonkarahisar, Turkey.
oktaytomar@hotmail.com, omeristek@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Peach tree resin (Prunus persica L.) is known as exus gum from the Rosaceae family. The
leaks that this tree secretes for the purpose of closing and repairing the slits formed in its branches
and bark are defined as peach resin. The peach tree, which is native to China. It also has an
antibacterial properties in content due to the phenolic component of naringen. In this study, ethanol
obtained from peach tree resins, Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579), Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC
51774), Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922), Enterobacter aerogenes (ATCC 13048), Salmonella
Typhimurium (ATCC 14028), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(ATCC 15442) antimicrobial effect against 7 different foodborne pathogenic bacteria such as disc
diffusion method. Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactercidal concentration
(MBC) values on pathogenic bacteria were also detected. As a result of the research; The highest
antibacterial effect was observed in the methanol extract of peach tree resin against Staphylococcus
aureus     Listeria monocytogenes were found to be
followed by ethanol e   
values were found to be 0.070 mg L-1 and 0.047 mg L-1 respectively against Staphylococcus aureus
in peach methanol extract. The results are compared to the reference values of Eucast, CLSI and the
National Microbiology laboratories; Staphylococcus aureus was found to be susceptible to ethanol,
Listeria monocytogenes' ethanol extracts. Salmonella Typhimurium, on the other hand, was found to
be resistant to methanol and distilled water extracts.
Keywords: Peach resin, antibacterial, naringenin, MIC, MBC.
INTRODUCTION
The resin produced from the fruit and trunk of trees as a result of mechanical injury or
microbial invasion is composed of polysaccharides with complex structures (Simas-Tosin et al.,
2010; Qian et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2018). In the polysaccharide components of the resins, it is
reported that arabinose, xylose, galactose, glucose and uronic acids (Stephen, 1983).
Peach (Prunus persica L.), whose homeland is China, belongs to the Prunus genus, which
belongs to the Prunoideae subfamily, of the Rosaceae family of the order Rosales. Turkey is a
country suitable for growing peaches aspect of climate and soil structure. Especially in our country,
233
the province of Bursa and the Mediter
al., 2018).
The polysaccharides of peach resin belong to the acidic group of arabinogalactans.
Polysaccharide content consists of arabinose (50%), galactose (37%) and uronic acid (13-14%)
(Qian et a
2016). Naringenin component shows antimicrobial properties, it has been found to be quite
effective in inhibiting gram-negative bacteria (Han and You, 1988).
In this study; Resins collected from peach trees in orchards in Bursa city center and districts;
The antimicrobial effects, minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal
concentration (MBC) values of methanol, ethanol and distilled water extracts on some food
pathogenic bacteria were determined.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Peach tree resin (Prunus persica L.) used in the study was collected by hand from the trunks
of trees in orchards in Bursa city (Turkey) center and its districts. The collected resins were dried in
aled and colorless bottles.
As gram positive bacteria used in the study; Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538), Listeria
monocytogenes (ATCC 51774), Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579) species and as gram negative
bacteria Salmonella Typhimurium (ATCC 14028), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 15442),
Escherichia coli (ATCC 13048) strains were used.
Methods
Preparation of Peach Resin Extracts
      C were pulverized by passing through a laboratory type mill.
Taking 50 grams of powder resins, 190 ml (w v-1) of methyl alcohol, 85% ethyl alcohol and
distilled water were added as solvent in three separate samples. The prepared solutions were shaken
in a 120 rpm shaker device (Wiseshake SHO-2D, Witeg, Germany). Then the solutions were
filtered with the aid of sterile filter (Whatman No:32) papers. The solvent and extracts were
removed with a rotary-evaporator (Heidolph, Germany). The extracts obtained were sealed in
colorful bottles in a way that is not airtight. It was stored in a dark and cool environment until the
, 2018).
234
Determination of Antimicrobial Activity, MIC and MBC Values
Disk diffusion method was used to determine antimicrobial activity. 10 ml of extracts
prepared by using three different solvents (methanol, ethanol and distilled water) were taken into
-Disc) (Akarca et al.,
2019). For inoculum, growing from non-selective media in an overnight culture was taken from
single falling colonies with the aid of a sterile loop. The recovered colonies were suspended in
physiological saline until a homogeneous turbidity formed. The inoculum density of the
suspensions was adjusted to equal the 0.5 McFarland standard (Bauer et al., 1959; Bauer, 1966).
The prepared Mueller Hinton Agars (Merck 1.05437) were made in 15 minutes from the inoculum
with a swab bar in three directions. After the medium was left to absorb the inoculum for 10
minutes, the extracted discs were placed in separate plates at distances that would not touch each
other (Bauer et al., 1959; Bauer, 1966). Later, it was left for incubation at appropriate temperatures
and times according to Table 1 (Anonymous, 2018). The inhibition diameters formed were
measured in mm with the help of a digital caliper.
Table 1. Bacteria used in the study and incubation conditions (Anonymous, 2018).
Bifold dilution method was used to determine the MIC values. 1 ml of nutrient broth (Merck
1.05443) was placed in six sterile tubes separately for each peach resin extract. Separately, 2 ml of
peach resin extracts were added into a tube. 1 ml was taken from the tube containing peach resin
extract, added to the tube containing 1 ml nutrient broth and mixed homogeneously with Vortex aid
(IKA MS-3, Germany). Then, 1 ml of the contents of this tube was taken and transferred to the next
tube. The process was continued in the same way until the last tube. 1 ml extract-medium was taken
from the last tube number 6 tube and discarded. In this way, equal amounts of dilutions were
obtained in each tube, but the concentrations were halved compared to the previous one. In this
way, equal amounts of dilutions were obtained in each tube, but the concentrations were halved
compared to the previous one. Accordingly, the concentration of the resin extract in the first tube is
800 mg L-1, in the following tubes the concentration is respectively; It was provided to be 400, 200,
Bacteria
Incubation conditions
Staphylococcus aureus
Aerobic 16-
Escherichia coli
Salmonella Typhimirium
Enterobacter aerogenes
Bacillus cereus
Aerobic 24- 
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Listeria monocytogenes
Air and 5% CO2 mixture at 3-20 hours
235
100, 50 and 25 mg L-1. In addition, positive control tubes containing only 1 ml of nutrient broth and
negative control tubes containing 1 ml of extract and 1 ml of Nutrient broth were 
(106 cfu ml-1 adjusted for 0.5 McFarland turbidity) pathogenic bacteria were individually inoculated
into all tubes except the negative control. The tubes were left to incubate for 16-20 hours at a
suitable temperature according to the pathogens and bacteria they contain. At the end of the period,
half of the total of the previous tube concentrations that improved with the concentration of the tube
without any visible microbial development in the tubes was accepted as the MIC value (Abubakar,
2009; Aamer et al., 2014).
In determining the MBC effect of peach tree resin extracts on pathogenic bacteria used in the
f each tube was taken from each tube with no microbial growth in MIC analysis, and it
was planted in Mueller-Hinton agar plates using the smear plate method. Afterwards, the medium
was allowed to absorb the sample for 10 minutes. It was left to incubate for 24 hours under
appropriate conditions. The lowest concentration with no improvement after incubation was
determined as the MBC value of peach resin extracts against the bacterial species tested (Dhiman et
al., 2011; Owuama, 2017).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the antimicrobial effects of extracts of peach tree resin prepared using different
solvents on seven different pathogenic bacteria are shown in Table 2. Zone diameters after
incubation were evaluated as mm. It was made in 4 separate parallel and calculated by taking its
arithmetic mean.
Table 2. Antimicrobial Effects of Prepared Peach Tree Resin (Prunus persica L.) Extracts on Some
Pathogen Bacteria (mm zone diameter).
Zone Diameters (mm) / Std Deviation
Bacteria
Methanol
Ethanol
Distilled Water
Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 51774)



Enterobacter aerogenes (ATCC 13048)



Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538)



Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922)



Salmonella Typhimirium (ATCC 14028)



Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579)



Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 15442)



The MIC and MBC values of peach tree resin extracts on some pathogenic bacteria are given
in Table 3. Values are determined in mg L-1.
In our research; The antimicrobial effect of the extracts obtained by using some solvents
(methanol, ethanol and distilled water) of peach tree resin on gram positive and negative bacteria
236
was determined using disk diffusion method. According to the data obtained, the most antimicrobial
effect of methanol extract was on Staphylococcus aureus 
and the least effect was; It was found to be on Salmonella Typhimurium with a zone diameter of

The greatest effect of ethanol extracts; It was determined that it was on Listeria
monocytogenes          least effect was on Salmonella
Typhimurium in had
               
effect against Escherichia coli and Enterobacter aerogenes      
     obtained results are compared with
reference values of EUCAST and CLSI laboratories; It has been determined that all extracts are
sensitive to Staphylococcus aureus, whereas Enterobacter aerogenes are resistant (Anonymous,
2018).
Table 3. MIC and MBC values (mg L-1) on some pathogen bacteria of extracts of prepared peach
tree resin (Prunus persica L.).
MIC and MBC Values (mg L-1)
Methanol
Ethanol
Distilled Water
Bacteria
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
MIC
MBC
Listeria monocytogenes (ATCC 51774)
0.281
0.188
0.141
0.094
0.375
0.250
Enterobacter aerogenes (ATCC 13048)
0.563
0.375
0.563
0.375
0.750
0.500
Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538)
0.070
0.047
0.281
0.188
0.375
0.250
Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922)
0.563
0.375
0.375
0.250
0.750
0.500
Salmonella Typhimirium (ATCC 14028)
>0.750
>0.750
0.563
0.375
>0.750
>0.750
Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579)
0.188
0.125
0.281
0.188
0.141
0.094
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 15442)
0.563
0.375
0.563
0.375
0.563
0.375
It was determined that the lowest MIC value was Staphylococcus aureus (0.070 mg L-1) in the
methanol extract of peach tree resin, whereas the highest value was against Salmonella
Typhimurium (> 0.750 mg L-1) in methanol and distilled water extracts (Table 3).
As a result of our research; The lowest MBC value was found to be 0.047 mg L-1 on
Staphylococcus aureus species of methanol extracts of peach tree resin. On the other hand, the
highest MBC values were determined to be > 0.750 mg L-1 in Salmonella Typhimurium versus
methanol and distilled water extracts (Table 3).
Yao et al. (2013) studied the antibacterial effect of oligosaccharides obtained from peach
resin. In this study, inhibition diameters of oligosaccharides on some bacteria Bacillus subtilis,
Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli were reported as 9.01 mm, 10.12 mm and 11.04 mm,
237
respectively. There is a difference between the study and our research. This is due to the different
antibacterial material used.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the antimicrobial effects of extracts of peach tree resin in different solvents on
some pathogenic bacteria were investigated. The study found that methane extracts have a more
antimicrobial effect and lower MIC and MBC values than other solvents.
Most of the unnatural antimicrobial preservatives used in its production are one of the biggest
problems for food producers. Consumers are uncomfortable using chemically derived additives in
food production. Because there are concerns about some undetermined side effects. Therefore,
manufacturers are looking for alternatives in additives.
For this reason, research is being carried out on antimicrobial effects on plants and by-
products to prevent the development of foodborne pathogenic bacteria and it has been revealed that
they have high levels of effects.
The results of our research are thought to be used for this purpose of peach tree resin (Prunus
persica L.). It is also predicted that it will contribute in other studies. Tree resins are easy to obtain
in our country, abundant and cheap compared to other alternatives. The addition of peach tree resin
for its use as a preservative in foods is important for both manufacturers and consumer groups.
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239
GENOME WIDE AND GENE SPECIFIC EPIGENETIC
ANALYSES IN Fusarium SPECIES
1, 21,211*
11Istanbul Yeni Yuzyil University, Faculty of Arts and Science, Department of Molecular Biology
and Genetics, Istanbul, Turkey
2Istanbul University, Institute of Science, Program of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Istanbul,
Turkey
*Corresponding author: ozlem.sefer@yeniyuzyil.edu.tr
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum are the predominating causal agents of the head blight
and crown rot diseases of all small grain cereals worldwide. In this study, the relationship between
epigenetics characteristics with phenotypic and genetic traits in Fusarium isolates from Turkey have
been investigated. The asexual and sexual reproduction characteristics of the isolates were achieved
with counting macroconidium and linear growth rate analyses. Genomic and epigenetic profiles
were revealed by RAPD and CRED-RA methods. Non-digested, MspI-digested, and HapII-digested
gDNA samples were subjected to polymorphism analysis with RAPD primers. Bands with range of
131-172 were obtained in totally six different analyses. Average similarity values were determined
as %42.7, %48.4 and %49.2 with %49.65, % 58.15 and %57.5 respectively in RAPD, HapII-
digested and MspI-digested analyses in F. graminearum and F. culmorum isolates, respectively.
The Top1, Mgv1, Chs1, RED, URA, tri6, tri101-tri5 genes were amplified from non-digested, HapII
digested and MspI digested gDNA samples. The Type I - Tip IV methylation differences were
determined in all the genes except for Chs1. RED, URA, tri5, tri6, Top1, and Mgv1 genes were
subjected to gene expression analysis in two or four samples. Lower levels of similarity for gene
expression values were detected among isolates with contrast epigenetic profiles. Fungal isolates
with closely related epigenetic profiles were found to be similar genetical characteristics in RAPD
assays at a crucial level. The data obtained in the study suggest that epigenetic typing may be a
powerful tool in distinguishing complex phenotypic traits for plant pathogen Fusarium species.
.
Keywords: Fusarium culmorum, Fusarium graminearum, Epigenetics, CRED-RA, PCR.
INTRODUCTION
Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum cause head blight and crown rot diseases of small
grain cereals worldwide. The epidemics of Fusarium diseases have been increasing due to the
changes in climatic conditions and crop rotations (Yli-Mattila et al., 2013; Miedaner et al., 2008).
The detailed characterization of F. graminearum and F. culmorum has become important more than
ever since these species have high levels of genetic and phenotypic diversities (Miedaner et al.,
2008; Chung et al., 2008). In this content, species specific identification of these species by SCAR
markers was carried out successfully (Schilling et al., 1996; Nicholson et al., 1998). However,
several isolates from different regions of the world have not been identified at species level by these
SCAR markers. Similarly, subspecies or species complex member diagnosis investigations resulted
in confusing data (Carter et al., 2000, 2002; Waa
et al., 2015). These findings reveal that novel approaches in detailed characterization for Fusarium
species are needed in near future.
F. graminearum is a hemi-biotrophic fungus predominating causal agent of head blight
worldwide. The haploid genome consists of four chromosomes with total size of 36.1 Mb, 13937
genes and 48.33%GC content (Bai and Shaner, 2004; Cuomo et al., 2007; Trail, 2009). F.
culmorum is a necrotrophic fungus as major agent of crown rot. The draft genome size was reported
as 39 Mb with four chromosomes. However, detailed annotations for F. culmorum genome is
missing from the literature currently (Saharan et al., 2004; Urban et al., 2016). F. graminearum and
F. culmorum produce trichothecenes, zearalenone and fusarin C. Class B-trichothecenes are main
mycotoxins produced by these fungi (Desjardins and Proctor, 2007). 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol (3-
240
ADON), 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol and nivalenol (NIV) have been accepted as three chemotypes of
Fusarium species producing class B-trichothecenes. 15-ADON and 3-ADON were the
predominating chemotypes for F. graminearum and F. culmorum, respectively (Pasquali and
Migheli, 2014). The core tri5 gene cluster and additional genes are responsible for NIV, 3-ADON
and 15-ADON synthesis. There are missing points related to chemotyping and gene expression
analysis related to trichothecene synthesis. The several findings obtained from generic PCR tests
have not been consistent with chromatographic analysis (Gilbert et al., 2001; Pasquali and Migheli,
2014). Thus, novel approaches are needed in the obtaining reliable and precise data related to
genetic characterization of Fusarium isolates.
The investigations related to epigenetics and epigenomic characterization of F. graminearum and
F. culmorum are missing from the literature. Methylation differences-based profiling analysis could
be used in detailed characterization of Fusarium isolates. The correlation between several important
traits which are important in disease management such as host, chemotype, sample collection year,
geographic regions could be constructed more efficiently as compared to data obtained from
genetics analysis. In this study, it was aimed to reveal the genome wide and gene specific
differences in methylation profiles for Fusarium isolates from Turkey.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Fungal materials and in vitro Cultivation
22 F. graminearum and 37 F. culmorum  
University culture collection and F. graminearum H-11 reference strain from Seoul National
University culture collection (Table 1). All isolates were cultured in potato dextrose broth (PDB)
and potato dextrose agar (PDA) at room temperature for 7 days. Cultures were used for spore count,
linear growth rate (LGR), RNA and genomic DNA isolation. Identification of all isolates was

Table 1. Fungal materials used in this study. Isolates with no asterisk belong to F. graminearum,
F. culmorum isolate
Isolate
Spore
Quantity
LGR
Isolate
Spore
Quantity
LGR
Isolate
Spore
Quantity
LGR
Isolate
Spore
Quantity
LGR
F1*
6
9,625
9F*
6
11,50
15-5TR*
x
x
3F
6
11,63
F2*
1,57
11,38
10F*
5
8,750
14-8TR*
6
12,25
4F
6
12,00
F3*
6
10,25
11F*
5
6,625
12-1TR*
5
11,25
5F
5
14,13
F4*
6
10,50
12F*
5
11,88
09-2TR*
5
10,50
6F
6
11,75
F10*
5
9,375
13F*
3.96
14,63
14-9TR*
x
x
7F
6
11,63
F12*
6
9,875
17F*
7
11,63
10-2TR**
x
x
14F
6
12,25
F14*
6
9,875
18F*
5
10,50
09-1TR*
6
8,250
15F
x
x
F15*
4
11,13
19F*
6
10,63
15-2TR*
6
11,88
14-4TR
x
x
F16*
6
10,75
20F*
6
10,13
F5
6
13,63
14-5TR
6
13,13
F17*
6
11,38
14-1TR*
6
11,38
F6
5
14,13
14-6TR
4
13,75
F19*
7
13,38
14-2TR *
6
12,00
F7
6
11,13
14-7TR
4
17,25
F20*
5
11,00
15-1TR *
6
12,25
F8
7
9,750
15-6TR
x
x
F21*
6
10,75
14-3TR *
6
11,50
F9
6
11,00
10-1TR
x
x
F24*
6
10,25
15-3TR*
6
13,75
1F
6
13,00
13-1TR
x
x
8F*
6
10,25
15-4TR*
6
12,50
2F
4.66
12,63
H-11
5x106
10,38
Analyses of asexual and linear growth ability of fungal cultures
2 mm2 agar pieces from PDA of 7 days old cultures were inoculated to 10 ml PDB and
iod cultures were filtered
and spores were counted by using Thoma lam. Linear growth rates were measured by agar dilution
technique.
Genomic DNA isolation and CRED-RA analyses
For CRED-RA analyses genomic DNAs were isolated from 7 days old fungal cultures by DNA
isolation kit (Bio basic, Canada). 100 mg Mycelium were harvested and pulverized in liquid
           
The quality of DNAs was controlled with a 1% agarose gel and the quantity of DNAs was measured
spectrophotometrically. CRED-RA analyses were carried out with nondigested, MspI digested and
241
HpaII digested genomic DNA of 57 Fusarium isolates. Genomic DNA digestion reactions with
MspI and HpaII (Takara, Japan) w      
RAPD PCR of CRED-RA analysis, 17 RA       
        2, 0.5
Taq 
amplification conditions 

 
min. PCR products were resolved in 2% agarose gel electrophoresis at 100 V for 2 hours. The
dendrogram and genetic similarity analysis were carri-
efficient using MVSP 3.1 software.
Analyses of gene specific methylation profiles
Methylation profiles of seven genes (Top1   Mgv1   Chs1
  tri6    tri101  tri5 
 RED   URA       
biological pathways of F. graminearum ve F. culmorum were analyzed with amplification of MspI
and HpaII digested genomic DNA using gene specific primers. Sequences of these 7 genes (Top1,
Mgv1, Chs1, tri6, tri5, URA and RED) were obtained from NCBI data base and variations at MspI
and HpaII restriction sides in fungal isolates were screened and primers were designed by using
ontains 1X PCR
   2           

 

gel electrophoresis at 80 V for 1 h and compared according to absence or presence of interested
bands. Data were statistically evaluated by two-way ANOVA as the rearing system, the line of the
birds and their interaction were included in the model. The Fit model procedure of JMP v.7
software package was used to perform the statistical analysis (JMP Version 7, SAS Institute Inc.
Cary, NC).
Table 2. Fungal materials used in this study. Isolates with no asterisk belong to F. graminearum,
F. culmorum ws isolate added to study after epigenetics assays.
Gene
name
Primer name
Primer sequence
Band
size
(bp)
Gene
name
Primer name
Primer sequence
Band
size
(bp)
Top1*
spanTopo1F
ttcagatcccagtccctgac
1062
Top1**
ST6 F
aaatttatgatattgataatttttttatat
410
spanTopo1R
tcactctcgcttgccttctt
ST6 R
cactattaatttatacttaaactcatacc
Chs1*
spanChs1F
tttgaactcgggctacgaac
1230
Top1**
AT F2
attgatattaaaggtagttggttaataa
504
spanChs1R
agggggttgaacagcttctt
AT R2
tattaaaacttatattatcattcaaaaaat
tri6*
spantri6F
taccaatcgtgtcccctctc
874
RED**
Red2-F
tggttgtgtttgaccgaaaa
780
spantri6R
cgccaaactcgtcatcattt
Red2-R
gagtttggcttctggtgctg
URA*
spanUra1F
ccgaccaacttcattccatt
1080
β-
tubulin**
QPCRBTUBF
agggtcattacaccgagggt
121
spanUra1R
Cgctcaatccaatcctgaat
QPCRBTUBR
gtaccaccaccaagagagtgg
RED*
spanREDF
tggttgtgtttgaccgaaaa
1380
Mgv1**
mgvrtf
aggttcaacgattccgacag
100
spanREDR
gtcgcactcctccaatcaat
mgvrtr
gaccattaccctgaggcaga
Mgv1*
2spanmgvF
tgcattgctcctgtttcatc
1842
tri5**
Tox5-1
gctgctcatcactttgctcag
658
2spanmgvR
tctcttctcattccaggcatt
Tox5-2
ctgatctggtcacgctcatc
tri5*
Tri5FullF
atggagaactttcccaccgagtatt
1187
URA**
ura2f
atgattaatgttatgattagggtggtataa
466
Tri5Full2R
ttactccactagctcaattga
ura2r
tacaaaaacttaaaaaaaccctcctatt
Fungal materials and in vitro cultivation
Two F. graminearum (10-2 and 14-7) and two F. culmorum (10F and 11F) isolates that show higher
similarity in their CRED-RA analysis, were chosen for gene expression analysis. In addition, two isolates
(F4 and 7F) that have lower similarity with these 4 isolates, were included also. RNA isolation of these 6
242
isolates were carried out with Tripure reagent (Roche) from 100 mg mycelium. Fungal materials were
tructions.
Quality and quantity of RNAs were controlled and cDNA were synthesed by cDNA synthesis kit (Vivantis,
Malaysia). Real-Time PCR analysis were perform       
se and 5 pmol forward primers (see Table 2). The reaction
was c
    -log dilution series were used to construct standard graphics and 2-
formula was used to evaluate the gene expression patterns (Livak and Schmittgen, 2001).
Two fungal isolates, F. graminearum 14-7TR and F. culmorum 10F, were used as positive
calibrators to determine proportional changes in gene expressions. Significance (p<0.05) of Real-
Time PCR results were analyzed by GraphPad Prism 5.0 software (Dr. Harvey Motulsky, A.B.D.).
One-way ANOVA and Tukey multiple variance analysis were performed for statistical verification
 values were used in colon graphic for evaluation
of significant differences. Confidence interval is 0.05 (95%).
RESULTS
Results of sexual and asexual reproduction analyses
59 Fusarium isolates were subcultured in PDA and 51 of the isolates were able to be grown
effectively (Figure 1, Table 1). F. graminearum H-11 reference strain was also used as positive
control for sexual and asexual reproduction analyses. The lowest spor production amount (4x104)
was detected in F. graminearum 14-6TR isolate while the highest (4.8x107) in F. culmorum 17F
(Table 1). The average linear growth value of effectively reproducing isolates was determined as
11.497 mm/day and reference strain H-11, as 10.38 mm/day. F. culmorum 11 F isolate showed
minimum linear growth rate (6.625 mm/day) while F. graminearum 14-7TR isolate maximum
(17.25 mm/day). 10-2TR isolate which was not efficiently grown on PDA was integrated to further
studies after epigenetics analysis.
Figure 1. In vitro reproduction profiles of seven days old fungal cultures.
RAPD and CRED-RA analyses
Different band patterns in all isolates were obtained with 10 of 17 primers in RAPD and
CRED-RA analyses. However, 7 primers were not able to give positive results. In F. graminearum
isolates, the highest band numbers (23 bands) were obtained from the reaction of OPA04 with
nondigested DNA while lowest (6 bands) by OPA08 with HpaII-digested DNA. Similarly,
maximum (23 bands) and minimum (8 bands) band numbers were observed in F. culmorum isolates
from the reaction of OPA01 with nondigested DNA and from the reaction of OPA08 with MspI-
digested DNA respectively. Total band numbers in F. graminearum from the reaction of
nondigested, HpaII-digested and MspI-digested were determined as 172, 131 ve 154 respectively.
In F. culmorum total band numbers were 166, 131 and 149 in nondigested, HpaII-digested and
MspI-digested reactions respectively.
243
UPGMA
Nei & Li's Coefficient
F5.MSP
F8.MSP
4F.MSP
F9.MSP
1F.MSP
14-4.MSPTR
6F.MSP
7F.MSP
F6.MSP
F7.MSP
5F.MSP
14F.MSP
14-5TR.MSP
14-6TR.MSP
14-7TR.MSP
10-2TR.MSP
2F.MSP
15F.MSP
3F.MSP
0,28 0,4 0,52 0,64 0,76 0,88 1
UPGMA
Nei & Li's Coefficient
F5.HPA
1F.HPA
14-4TR.HPA
F8.HPA
F9.HPA
4F.HPA
2F.HPA
7F.HPA
6F.HPA
F6.HPA
14-5TR.HPA
14-6TR.HPA
14-7TR.HPA
10-2TR.HPA
5F.HPA
14F.HPA
F7.HPA
3F.HPA
15F.HPA
0,28 0,4 0,52 0,64 0,76 0,88 1
Average similarity was found as 42.7% in RAPD analyses of F. graminearum isolates. In
addition, HpaII-digested and MspI-digested RAPD reactions were resulted 48.4% and 49.2%
average similarity in F. graminearum isolates. In F. culmorum isolates, average similarity of RAPD
performed with nondigested, HpaII-digested and MspI-digested DNA were found as 49.65%,
58.15% and 57.5% respectively. UPGMA based dendograms, based on the similarity matrices,
showed 2 major subbranches in nondigested, HpaII-digested and MspI-digested group profiles of
both species (Figure 2). 10-2 and 14-7 were determined as closest isolates in F. graminearum while
10F and 11F in F. culmorum. When these 4 isolates were taken as reference, 3F and 7F isolates of
F. graminearum showed the lowest similarity. Among the F. culmorum isolates, 09-1 and F4
showed the lowest similarity.
Figure 2. Dendograms obtained from gDNAs of F. graminearum isolates. HpaII-digested (right)
and MspI-digested (left).
Gene specific methylation profiling analyses
Methylation analyses were carried out for 7 genes (Top1, Mgv1, Chs1, tri6, tri5, URA and RED) by PCR
of nondigested, HpaII-digested and MspI-digested genomic DNA with gene specific primers.
Expected lengths fragments of all seven genes were successfully amplified from nondigested gDNAs with
gene specific primers (Table 3). However, PCR of digested DNAs either with HpaII or MspI resulted in
different patterns with respect to isolates and genes. Two isolates of F. culmorum, 10F and 11F, showed
same amplification profiles with HpaII-digested PCR. Similarly, F. graminearum isolates, 10-2TR and 14-
7TR, had same profiles in HpaII-digested PCR. In spite of similar results of HpaII profiles, PCR of MspI-
digested gDNA showed dissimilarities between isolates of same species (Table 3). All results of gene
specific methylation essay proved that except Chs1, other six genes have Type I-Type IV epigenetic
profiling differences.
Table 3. Gene specific methylation analyses by PCR of nondigested (N), HpaII-digested (H) and
MspI-digested (M) gDNA. Presence (+) and absence (-) of PCR products.
RED
Mgv1
Tri6
Chs1
Top1
URA
tri5
N
H
M
N
H
M
N
H
M
N
H
M
N
H
M
N
H
M
N
H
M
10F
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
11F
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
+
+
10-2TR
+
-
+
+
-
-
+
-
+
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
+
+
-
+
14-7TR
+
-
+
+
-
-
+
-
+
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
+
-
-
244
Gene expression analyses
Proportional changes in gene expressions of F. graminearum 14-7TR and F. culmorum 10F isolates were
               
Higher and lower Cp values of Mgv1, RED, tri5 and URA genes were determined as 18.97-24.62, 28.58-
35.42, 24.26-32.21 and 23.86-34.32 respectively. Average proportional change values of RED expression in
10-2TR was found as 0.017 while 5.59 in 11F. 10-2TR and F4 isolates had minimum (0.02) and maximum
(18.57) average proportional change values of URA expression. The lowest (0.04) and highest (0.3) values of
Mgv1 were determined in 7F and 11F isolates respectively. 10-2TR and 11F isolates had minimum (0.005)
and maximum (0.67) average proportional change values of tri5 expression. In F. culmorum Top1 gene and
in F. graminearum tri6 gene showed undetermined Cp value.
One-way ANOVA analyses proved that isolates of both species have significant differences in Mgv1
expression when compared with positive calibrators (p<0.001). Statistical analysis of tri5 gene expression
showed that 11F isolate do not has any significant differences while F4 (p<0.01), 10-2TR (p<0.001) and 7F
(p<0.001) have. Real-Time PCR analysis of RED gene revealed that F. graminearum have significant
differences (p<0.01) while F. culmorum do not have. URA gene did not show any significant differences in
the isolates (p>0.05). Consistent with the epigenetics analyses results of 10F and 11F isolates that showed
similar pattern in all genes except RED, expression profiling was also similar (Figure 3). Similarly, F.
graminearum isolates, 10-2TR and 14-7TR that showed high similarity in their epigenetics analyses, all
genes except RED, expression profiling was also similar when compared with 7F isolate (Figure 3).
Figure 3. 2- values of 10F ve 14-7TR isolates as positive calibrators
DISCUSSION
Genotyping analysis is important step in the struggling with F. graminearum and F. culmorum. Moderate
and/or high level of morphological and genetic diversity have been reported for worldwide collections
(Miedaner et al., 2008; Pasquali and Migheli, 2014). The common fungicides have been frequently used in
disease management. This strategy provides short term solution to overcoming the diseases. The sexual
recombination and high level of diversity could be possible explanations/reasons for fungicide resistance in
homothallic F. graminearum. But detailed knowledge is needed for the reason of fungicide resistance in
monophyletic species F. culmorum (Miedaner et al., 2008). The evaluation of genomics and epigenomics
diversity in these two species was aimed in this study. The precise correlation was detected between LGR
capacity, sample collection years (the years 2006-2014) and hosts characteristics was detected by CRED-RA
analysis. In terms of LGR, collection year and host characteristics, isolates with similar epigenetic or
epigenomic profiles were co-clustered in dendrograms. 10-2TR and 14-7TR F. graminearum isolates yielded
highly similar HapII and MspI digestion profiles. This similarity was found at the gene-specific analysis.
These two isolates had low level of LGR and spore values whereas 3F and 7F isolates had higher LGR and
245
spore values. The isolates were co-clustered in HapII and MspI digestion analysis in terms of the collection
year. Similar precise correlation was detected among F. culmorum isolates (10F/11F and F4/09-1TR) in
terms of collection year, LGR and spore values. It could be assumed that Type I-IV methylation patterns
could be linked to phenotypic characteristics of isolates.
Type I-IV epigenetics variation were found at gene-specific methylation analysis. While Type I and Type
IV methylation differences were detected for RED and tri6 genes, four methylation pattern differences were
found for remaining genes but chs1. Alterations for expression levels of Mgv1, RED, tri5 and URA genes in
real time PCR analysis. The correlation as in CRED-RA assays were detected between selected isolates in
gene expression analysis but RED gene. No significant difference was found at URA expression according to
positive calibrator. In terms of gene expression and gene specific methylation analysis, URA gene does not
provide correlation for Type I-IV patterns among selected isolates. RED gene provides positive correlation
between selected isolates in for gene expression analysis not for gene specific assays. However, positive
correlation between selected isolates of two species were detected via gene expression and gene specific
methylation analysis for Mgv1 and tri5 genes. The findings showed that PCR and RT-PCR based
methylation analysis could provide powerful tool for discrimination and comparison of fungal isolates with
distinct characteristics.
CONCLUSIONS
In this study, epigenetic differences patterns in F. graminearum and F. culmorum isolates were
investigated at the gene and genome levels. Especially as a result of the data obtained, the year and
aggressiveness criteria are thought to be in close relationship with epigenome analysis. In the meantime, this
study reveals that Mgv1, tri5 and URA genes may be useful in detecting differences in epigenetic levels in
species belonging to the genus Fusarium and even establishing correlations between direct aggressiveness
and collection years. To make an assessment in terms of host and geographic region, it may be preferable to
work with more samples in epigenome analysis and study with other genes. Generally, this study showed
that epigenetic/epigenomic screening studies could be adaptable to Fusarium isolates as well as other
biotrophic, necrotrophic and hemi-biotrophic fungi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was supported by TUBITAK by Project number 116Z871.
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247
MODELLING THE SEASONAL PRODUCTIVITY OF
NATURALISED PASTURE IN THE SOUTH OF CHILE
P. Flores1* 2-4 2 3-4
1 
Obispo Vielmo 62, Coyhaique, Chile.
2Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
3 Institute of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Science, Universidad Austral de Chile, casilla
567, Valdivia, Chile.
4Research Center on Volcanic Soils, Universidad Austral de Chile, casilla 567, Valdivia, Chile.
*Corresponding author: Paulina G. Flores paulina.flores@uaysen.cl
Abstract
In the last few decades, considerable research has been conducted on pastures in the
south of Chile; most of it related with pasture production. There is a large amount of data
providing a very useful resource to develop models for pasture production. The aim was to
evaluate decision tree models for predicting seasonal pasture production and the effects of
environmental factors and management inputs on pasture production. Decision tree models
for seasonal pasture production were developed on naturalized pastures. Environmental data
collected included pasture management variables as well as soil chemical analysis attributes,
soil physical properties and climatic variables (rainfall [annual, spring, summer, autumn and
winter]). A traditional regression modelling approach was also used to provide a comparison
for the performance of the decision tree model. The highest Spring productivity (4746 kg/ha)
was found with a rainfall equal or more than 91.3 mm. The highest Summer productivity
(2712 kg/ha) was found with soil pH more than 5.6. The highest Autumn productivity (3172
kg/ha) was with a rainfall equal or more than 131.4 mm, and the highest Winter productivity
(3012 kg/ha) was under low soil aluminum saturation. The decision tree model showed a high
correlation between the predicted and the observed value. The successful integration of the
most important variables influencing pasture production with the decision tree models
provided a new approach to understand the effects of environmental factors and management
inputs on pasture production in humid temperate regions, such as the south of Chile.
Keywords: decision tree, modelling, predicted value, pasture productivity, temperate climate
INTRODUCTİON
Accumulated herbage mass in temperate regions, have been research subject of great
relevancy for pastoral grazing systems (Balocchi and 
2014). The seasonal accumulated herbage mass can be modified by agronomical decisions and
management, as well as, by environmental factors (Flores et al., 2017). All these contribute to the
sustainability of grazing systems. Therefore, variables such as climate (temperature, rainfall and
radiation), soil (slope and texture, nutrients and porosity) and the grazing animals determine
seasonal pasture growth.
248
In the south of Chile, 91% of pastures are naturalized, with grass species such as Bromus
valdivianus Phil., Holcus lanatus L. and Dactylis glomerata L. spontaneously growing, while 9% of
the pastures are cultivated with species such as Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L. (Teuber,
2009). A large percentage of the naturalized pastures (48%) have a degree of degradation and are
colonized by species such as Agrostis capillaris L., Anthoxanthum odoratum L., Leontodon
nudicaulis (L). Porter and Hypochaeris radicata L., with negative productive, environmental and
social consequences. The application of fertilizer, the sowing of seeds and grazing management
have been applied to restore degraded pastures. As a result of these inputs, significant changes have
occurred in the accumulated herbage mass towards a more productive plant community with better
forage value.
The challenge is to determine how all environmental factors, such as climate and management
factors (e.g. soil temperature, rainfall, fertilizer application strategies) influence pasture productivity
in the pasture ecosystem. One approach to determine the relative effect of environmental factors on
pastures species is by using meta-analysis with a complex data set that contains potential
environmental factors and measurements of the abundance of species (Erickson and Nosanchuk,
1992). Decision tree is a data mining method that can be applied in environmental modelling for
sustainable ecological management of pasture (Corson et al., 2007; Duff et al., 2012; Zhang et al.,
2005; Wan et al., 2009). A Decision tree model has been used to predict species abundance (Zhang
et al., 2005), pasture production (Zhang et al., 2006), vegetation classification (Yang et al., 2003)
and nitrogen utilization efficiency in pastures (Zhang and Tillman, 2007) showing its ability to
predict the relative importance of factors involved in pasture management.
In this study, a decision tree modelling approach was used to model the seasonal pasture
productivity in the south of Chile. A traditional regression modelling approach was also used to
provide a comparison for the performance of the decision tree model. The aim of the study was to
identify environmental variables that strongly affect the seasonal pasture productivity.
2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 Study area
The pasture data were collected at the Santa Rosa Research Station of Universidad Austral
 W) 9 km east of Valdivia city, Chile, at 25 m a.s.l., with 2350
mm of average annual rainfall. The soils are classified as Duric Hapludand (IREN et al., 1978). On
April 2010, three methods of pasture improvement were established on a degraded naturalized
pasture. The study was finished in April 2013. There were four treatments: a) Naturalized fertilized
and limed pasture (FP) composed by Agrostis capillaris L., Leontodon nudicaulis L. Banks ex
Lowe, Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L.; b) L. perenne and Trifolium repens L. sown
mixture pasture; c) Sown diverse pasture comprised of L. perenne, T. repens, Holcus lanatus L.,
Dactylis glomerata L. and Bromus valdivianus Phil.; and d) Naturalized pasture without lime or
fertilizer addition (NFP). Each pasture occupied 400 m2 plots, distributed according to a complete
randomized block design with three blocks.
All the sown pastures received the same annual amount of fertilizer and lime as the NFP: 180 kg N
ha-1 year-1, 120 kg P2O5 ha-1 year-1, 120 kg K2O ha-1 year-1 and 2 t ha-1 year-1 of lime. Each plot

              
2.300 kg DM ha-1. Postgrazing residual herbage mass target was about 1.000 to 1.200 kg DM ha-1
(Matthews et al., 2004). The maximum length of defoliation interval was 60 days.
249
2.2 Dataset
Environmental data included soil pH in both water and CaCl2, soil organic matter, mineral
nitrogen, Olsen-P, aluminum saturation, soil penetration resistance and climatic variables (annual
and seasonal rainfall). Sensors placed at 10 cm of soil depth registered annual and seasonal mean
daily available soil water and mean daily soil temperature. Pasture productivity was assessed using
the rising plate method (Earle and McGowan, 1979) with a calibrated equation: y=174,76x + 232,04
(R2 0.8). The trim technique (Radcliffe et al., 1968) was used with a 0.1 m2 quadrat and cutting the
pasture to a soil level.
Soil fertility level was determined in each plot. Soil samples were taken from the plots for chemical
analysis (0-20 cm depth), such that five soil subsamples comprised one plot sample. Soil samples
were air dried and analyzed for pH, organic matter, soil mineral nitrogen, Olsen P, aluminum
saturation following Sadzawka et al., (2006) method. Soil mineral nitrogen was measured as N
NO3 and NNH4 using KCL as extract and Kjeldahl digestion method (Bremner et al., 1996).
Olsen P was determined by extraction with sodium bicarbonate (Olsen, 1954). Soil resistance in the
field was evaluated with a penetrometer (06.01 Hand Penetrometer, Eijkelkamp, Agrisearch
Equipment, Giesbeek, The Netherlands). Thus, penetrometer measurements of the first 10 cm of
soil depth were taken in each plot and the soil mechanical strength determined for each case. Soil
water content and temperature were measured (3 repetitions per plot) with a TDRs (SM200 soil
moisture sensors, Delta T Devices, Burwell Cambridge, United Kingdom and Pt100 soil
temperature sensors, ZIEHL Industrie Elektronik GmbH + Co KG, Stuttgart, Germany). The soil
water and temperature sensors were installed in December 2010 at 10 cm depth in each treatment.
The TDR sensors were calibrated following the technique in the SM200 User Manual 1.1 (Delta-T
Devices Ltda., 2006). Weather variables, such as rainfall, were measured at a meteorological station
located in the study area (Table 1). There was a total of 26 variables, which included 21 input
variables (independent variables) and 4 target variables (dependent variables; Table 1).
250
Table 1. Input variables used in the decision tree and regression analyses
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--
-
    

3. RESULTS
3.1 Decision trees models
Soil mineral N, Spring rainfall, pH, soil penetration resistance and Spring mean daily soil
temperature were the most significant variables influencing Spring pasture productivity. The
greatest Spring productivity was 4746 kg DM ha-1season-1 found in pastures with Spring rainfall
greater than 91.3 mm. The lowest Spring productivity (1161 kg DM ha-1season-1) was observed
when soil mineral N was less than 31.7 mg kg-1, with a low pH (<5.6) and soil penetration
resistance more than 1648 kpa (Figure 1a).
251
Pasture Summer production was strongly determined by pH, soil mineral N and Olsen P, Summer
mean daily soil and temperature, Spring and Summer rainfall and Summer mean daily soil water
content. The greatest pasture Summer production (2712 kg DM ha-1season-1) was observed when
the soil had a pH greater than 5.6 and levels of soil mineral N larger than 50.8. The lowest Summer
production (1257 kg DM ha-1season-1) was associated to soil pH lower than 5.6, with low Summer
mean daily soil temperature minor than 1-1 (Figure 1b).
252
Fig. 1 The decision tree models for seasonal productivity (kg DM ha-1season-1). Shaded rectangles contain an input variable and split point.
Predicted productivity (kg DM ha-1y-1) is in unshaded rectangles. Prediction goes to the left-side branch (-) if the splitting variable is less than the
split-point, and goes to the right-side branch (+) if the splitting variable is equal to, or more than split point; a) Spring; b) Autumn; c) Winter; d)
Summer. See Table 1 for variable symbols and unit descriptions. See the caption of Fig.1 for the description of decision tree model interpretation.
-+
N_mineral
31.7
2050 4658
pH
5.6
Rain_sp
91.3
4179 4746
T_sp
16.2
4058 4253
1492 2655
Pntr
1648
2023 1161
a) b)
c) d)
253
Pasture production during Autumn was strongly determined by the rainfall levels, Summer mean
daily soil temperature, soil aluminium saturation, pH and Olsen P, Autumn mean daily soil
temperature and soil penetration resistance (Figure 1c). The lowest Autumn pasture production
(1322 kg DM ha-1season-1) was observed with low Autumn rainfall (<131.4 mm) and high soil
aluminium saturation (>7.4 mg kg-1). When the Autumn rainfall was greater than 131.4 mm, the
predicted Autumn pasture production was 3172 kg DM ha-1season-1, which constituted the greatest
pasture production observed for this season. Variables determining pasture winter production were
soil aluminium saturation, Winter rainfall, Winter mean daily soil temperature, soil mineral N and
soil penetration resistance. The highest Winter productivity (3012 kg DM ha-1season-1) was
measured in pasture growing in low soil aluminium saturation and high Winter rainfall. The lowest
pasture production was associated to high soil aluminium saturation (>7.4 mg kg-1) and Winter
mean daily soil temperature less than 8.8 1d).
4. DISCUSSION
The decision tree models obtained were able to predict in a good manner pasture production. The
models had a high correlation between the predicted values and the observed values indicating a
high predictive accuracy, which was better than the regression models (Table 1, Figure 2).
Similarly, to Zhang et al., (2006), the decision tree models were predictive of the effect of
environmental variables on seasonal pasture production revealing the relative importance of
environmental and management variables and their interaction.
The models showed that N, pH and aluminium saturation importantly determine seasonal pastures
production. These three variables are related to pasture management. Nitrogen stimulates plant
establishment and growth as has been positively correlated to pasture herbage mass production
(Malhi et al., 2011) especially of fast-growing species such as Lolium perenne (Tharmaraj et al.,
2008).
Nitrogen is a key mineral nutrient in pasture systems. In temperate grasslands, perennial legumes
are very important for the biological N fixation (Nyfeler et al., 2011) that would otherwise need to
be added with N fertiliser.
Rainfall has been recognised as a key factor stimulating pasture production (Zhang et al., 2006),
which was an important factor for Autumn pasture growth. In Autumn when rainfall was equal or
more than 131 mm could be possible achieve 3172 kg DM ha-1. In Autumn the range of mean daily
soil temperature (8.1-    -68.8%) allows achieve a range of pasture
growth rate between 661-6890 kg DM ha-1, because tiller regrowth is recovery after a Summer
drought period (Tomlinson and    N fertiliser application can accelerate the
tillering process in these times of the year (Pakiding, 2012). It has been reported for mixed pasture
(grass/legume) that L. perenne produced 5613 tillers m-2 in Autumn compared with 4816 tillers m-2
in Summer (Yu et al., 2008), and a natural fertilised pastures registered 9372 tillers m-2 in Autumn
compared with 8654 tillers m-2 in Summer for L.perenne. The combined effects of temperature and
soil moisture in Autumn have strong influence on pasture production and may reflect a change on
pasture species composition.
In Winter, when mean daily soil temperature decreases the growth rate of the pasture there is a
slowdown (Hennessy et al., 2008). During this season, leaf tissue turns over, leaf appearance rate
and leaf senescence also slows down (Hennessy et al., 2006). From the point of view of soil
aluminium saturation around 7.4% is considered high, constituting a permanent constraint to plant
254
ction is restricted by low
soil temperatures, which decrease soil microbial activity and plant metabolic activity. The higher
pasture yield was reached in spring with a possitive effect giving by N fertiliser (40 kg N ha-1
season-1), soil temperature and rain. The relationship between N, soil temperature and rain showed
an important robustness in pasture production modelling on temperate climate. The pastures in
southern Chile have seasonal period of growth when N deficiency limit pasture growth.
After Winter N deficiency results from N leached from the wet soil. The strategic N application on
Spring may stimulate the fast establishment of new species. In Summer to achieve a pasture
production prediction of 2712 kg DM ha-1 is necessary a soil pH equal or more than 5.6 and N soil
mineral equal or more than 50.8 mg kg-1 when there is drought conditions and high temperatures.
The fertiliser applied in Spring would predict Summer production in terms of dry matter.
The models selected the soil penetration resistance as a predictor variable of low pasture
productivity on Spring, Autumn and Winter (predictive values of 1648, 2211 and 2385 kpa,
respectively). Studies showed that soil resistance decrease as a function of soil water content
increase in a time scale (Lapen et al., 2004; Dec et al., 2011) and has been positively correlated with
 
with soil water content in grazing pastures due to animal hooves compact, deform, kneaded and
homogenize to soil (Peth and Horn 2006; Dec et al., 2011; K
2013). Dec et al., (2011) concluded that grazing animal generate irregular soil compaction causing
high spatial variability of penetration resistance not related to changes in water content. The
interacting effects of environment and pasture management on seasonal production are of interest to
producers and researches. The reasonable agreement between pasture management variables, soil
properties, climatic variables and decision tree models contribute to sustainable pasture
development.
Conclusions
The decision tree models developed in this study revealed the importance of the environmental
variables influencing seasonal productivity in humid temperate pasture in the south of Chile. Soil
mineral nitrogen, pH and aluminum saturation were the most important variable influencing
seasonal growth, except by rain, which was the most important in Autumn. The decision tree model
had better performance than regression models for predicting pasture productivity with respect to
model fit because had a high correlation between the predicted and observed value.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was sponsored by Fund for the Scientific and Technological Development (Fondecyt),
Chile, Project No. 1100957. The principal author thanks the Chilean National Council of Science
and Technology (Conicyt) Doctoral Fellowship and Postgraduate Studies Direction of Universidad
Austral de Chile
255
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258
USE OF BIOCHAR IN AGRICULTURE
Raziye KUL
Ataturk University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Erzurum
Abstract
Biochar, which has very promising potential for sustainable agriculture and ecology has attracted the
attention of researchers, entrepreneurs, and other stakeholders, recently. Biochar is a solid biological material
that synthesized through pyrolysis of different biomass sources. It can be derived from different potential
sources of biomass such as agricultural waste, bioenergy crops, forest residues, kitchen waste, sewage
sludge, and animal refuse. In this review, remarkable findings of studies conducted on investigating the
biochar application on improving crop productivity, soil fertility, and mitigating abiotic stress have been
examined. The effect of biochar on soil fertility, plant growth, and alleviating stress interactively determined
by the properties of the applied biochar and the soil, the application dose, and the requirements of the applied
product. However, numerous studies have been published reporting that biochar has on potential direct or
indirect benefits in agriculture. In studies reviewed has been put forward that biochar using improves the
physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the soil. Also, biochar has been proven that increase the
yield and quality of cultivated plants to have high potential in agricultural use.
Keywords: Biochar, Crop productivity, Soil fertility, Alleviating abiotic stress, Sustainable agriculture
INTRODUCTION

9,7 billion people by 2050, the food demand of the booming population estimated to would present a
growing challenge in the next ten years (UN DESA, 2019). This situation causes a lot of pressure on the
al practices
that centered to maximize production to meet this demand are based on the have intensely used of synthetic
fertilizers, pesticides, energy, hybrid seeds, water, and agricultural machinery. These practices result in direct
and indirect environmental impacts such as loss of soil fertility, soil erosion, greenhouse gas emissions, the
degradation of freshwater ecosystems, and loss of biodiversity (Gowdy and Baveye 2019).
Sustainable agriculture which aims to minimize the environmental damage of intensive land use in
conventional agriculture also attempts to find conservation agricultural practices that may mitigate adverse
impacts (Saha and Bauddh, 2020). A lot of sustainable practices like the application of compost,
vermicompost, biofertilizer, and biochar, etc., have been investigated as fertilizer and soil conditioner and
found substantially effective. Biochar is produced by processes, involving thermal conversion of biomass,
such as pyrolysis, combustion, torrefaction, flash carbonization, gasification, and hydrothermal
carbonization, (Kumar and Bhattacharya, 2020). The most preferred method of biochar production is
pyrolysis because of the efficiency and simplicity of the process (Cha et al., 2016). Terra Preta soils, which
are very fertile and with a high content of organic carbon, have inspired the artificial production of biochar
and its use in agricultural lands. Terra preta known as "Amazonian dark earth" or "Indian black earth" and
produced artificially by mixing charcoal with manure, compost, faeces, bones, and plant residues at low-
temperature is owed its characteristic black color to its weathered biochar content. Researchers have
259
emphasized that discovery of the nutritional significance of Terra preta developed the interest in the
application of worldwide as soil amendment of biochar (Novotny et al., 2015).
Biochar production carries out using a wide range of feedstock (biomasses) such as agricultural waste,
bioenergy crops, forest residues, kitchen waste, sewage sludge, and animal refuse (Mazac 2016). The
resulting biochar during the conversion is largely retained the mineral content of the feedstock. Therefore,
the mineral ash content of different feedstock and has been reported that can be a relationship between that
and productivity of biochar added to the soil (Oni et al., 2019). The resulting biochar has a conversion to
predominantly stable, recalcitrant organic carbon (C) compound, when the feedstock is heated to
ero) oxygen concentrations (Xie et
al., 2015). Biochars are characterized by a total organic carbon (3070%) at high concentration depending on
the pyrolysis conditions and feedstock type. It is also reported to have features such as high pH, and high
electrical conductivity, high mineral contents and very porous (Qayyum et al., 2015). Biochar added to the
soil has many aspects, from increasing soil fertility to increasing yield, carbon retention, improving soil
texture, pollution control, enhancing nutrient absorption, and hosting useful microbial communities
(Gunarathne et al., 2017). In many studies, it has been stated that biochar applied to the soil contributes to the
increase of crop and soil fertility (Zhang et al., 2020). At present, however, very little biochar is used in
agriculture because its agronomic value in terms of crop response and soil health benefits has not yet been
measured, and the mechanisms that increase soil fertility are not fully understood (Elad et al., 2011). But it
has been supported by many studies that biochar can to be prove a key and accessible input for sustainable
agriculture by improving soil fertility, crop productivity, and mitigate global warming (Semida et al., 2019).
However regional conditions such as climate, soil chemistry, and soil condition are known that influence the
agronomic benefits of biochar. In addition to these, the effects of biochar application on soil fertility, plant
growth, and crop yield varies according to crop varieties, biochar application rates, biochar physical and
chemical properties, c
of research opportunities to evaluate the responses of different plants to different biochar. Therefore, long-
term data in relation to specific plants and specific soil parameters is crucial to promote biochar use in plant
productivity.
1. Effects of Biochar Application on Soil Properties and Plants Growth
Intensive farming practices have reduced the quality and fertility of the soil, and eliminated the self-
cleaning feature, removing the soil from sustainability. The biochar application is a sustainable approach to
combating this problem. Studies have shown that biochar improves the chemical, biological, and physical
properties of the soil, and additionally, it has been found to directly provide nutrients to the soil (Buss et al.,
2016). Biochar is found more effective than other organic matter like compost and manure as it has a greater
capacity of retaining nutrients for the plants. Various studies have shown that biochar increasing crop yield
and improving soil quality (Laird et al. 2009). Characteristics of biochar materials will vary depending on the
biochar feedstock and pyrolysis conditions (McBeath et al., 2015). Biochar's positive impact on plant growth
can be explained by expanded the surface area of soil, healing of soil physical, chemical, and biological
properties, providing nutrients to plants, and thus the increase in the absorption of nutrients by the plant
(Nigussie et al., 2012). Biochar has a large surface area due to its very porosity. This porous surface creates a
great home for many beneficial microbes (Kolton et al., 2011). Besides, the porous surface of biochar
increases the water holding capacity of the soil to which it is added, and thus the water needed by the plant
can be stored in the soil for a long time. Biochar amendments can reduce bulk density in the soil, thus can
allow the uptake of nutrients from the soil solution by increasing root penetration (Lehmann and Joseph,
2015). Increased cation exchange capacity with biochar application is an important parameter that might
cause increases in the retention of the nutrients like phosphorus and nitrogen in the soils. In addition, it holds
nutrients in the soil to help reduce the leaching of nutrients into groundwater (Biederman and Harpole,
260
2013). It is reported that the effect of biochar on the soil and plant varies depending on the feedstock
derived-biochar, the properties of the applied soil, and the plant species (Prapagdee and Tawinteung, 2017).
2. Effects of Biochar Application on Mitigation of Abiotic Stress
Abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, and the presence of excess levels of heavy metal in the soil
lead to a decrease in the productivity and growth of cultured crops worldwide (Taylor and Korstad, 2020).
Recently biochar has gained popularity due to its favorable effects on soil which include: increasing organic
carbon of the soil, decreasing the acidity of the soil, mitigating salinity of the soil, improving drought
condition of the soil, reducing the heavy metal concentration of the soil (Taylor and Korstad, 2020). Several
studies have been found that application of biochar to the soil enhances the physicochemical and biological
properties of soil and overcome the negative effects created by the stressed conditions. Application of
biochar to mitigate the impacts of major abiotic stresses especially drought, salinity, and heavy metal has
been found very effective (Kumari et al., 2020). Drought stress is an important environmental factor
responsible for the reduction in the growth and yield of cultivated plants (Bodner et al. 2015). Researchers
have reported that be beneficial effects of biochar application to mitigate the negative effects of drought
(Akhtar et al., 2014; Paneque et al., 2016). For example, it has been reported that biochar applications
increase the leaf area and plant height of okra (Batool et al. 2015) and maize (Haider et al. 2015). Some
studies have been found that biochar significantly improve the growth and yield of plants under drought
conditions (Mannan and Shashi, 2019). Biochar application produced an increase in the plant growth and
seed yield of tomato (Agbna et al., 2017) under water deficit conditions. Salt stress is reported to be one of
the other important agricultural problems limitings crop production, especially in arid and semi-arid regions
(Hussain et al., 2019). Biochar balances air porosity in soils and water holding capacity, thus it promotes
benefits in plant growth in saline soils by reducing oxidation stress and osmotic stress (de Vasconcelos,
2020). Several studies observed that the application of biochar has been shown to be effective in reducing
salinity stress by improving soil physicochemical and biological properties directly related to Na removals
(Dahlawi et al., 2018). Heavy metal accumulation in the soil is another concern threatening agricultural
production. Heavy metals contaminated plants cause losses in crop production and risks for human and
animal health. The immobilization of toxic elements in soil is among the potential properties of biochar
(Yang et al., 2020). Biochar has a porous structure and negatively charged surface including functional
groups such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, and phenoxyl (Uchimiya et al., 2011). The porous structure of
the biochar surface and the presence of functional groups there gives adsorption potential for toxic
substances, such as lead (Pb), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As) in heavy metal
contaminated soils. These properties give biochar an important adsorbent feature, when applied to the soil
(Nartey and Zhao, 2014). Biochar, which has excellent absorption capacity, acts as an important binding
phase for different pollutants in the environment. Researchers have suggested that biochar is an effective
sorbent for a variety of dangerous inorganic and organic pollutants due to its functional and sorptive
properties (Bashir et al., 2017).
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the above studies reviewed that biochar has potential direct or indirect benefits in
agriculture. It has been put forward that more field-based and longer-term studies should be done needed to
observe the reaction of biochar in time and the adaptation of the environment to its addition in soil. As a
result, biochar is a sustainable alternative to the existing chemical fertilizers by improving its long-term
impacts on soil quality and fertility.
261
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263
THE EFFECTS OF Hyphantra cunea ON SOME PARAMETERS
OF MAIZE
R.YAVUZ 1
1 Provincial Directorate of Agriculture and Forestry, Duzce, Turkey
Abstract:
This research was conducted to reveal the effects of Hyphantria cunea Drury on some
               
parcels in 2020. Dekalp 6777 maize variety was sowned on the parcels on 2 July 2020. During
the production season, weed control, fertilization, 2 times sprinkler were carried out. As of
September 14, 2020, Hyphantria cunea Drury have reached maize plants in the northwest of the
area and have fed with their leaves. The average plant height measured in samples taken from
areas not reached by Hyphantria cunea Drury is 2.65 cm, the cob length is 22.6 cm, and the
diameter of the cob is
4.83 cm. The plant height measured in the areas it reaches is 2.06 cm, the cob length is 18.6 cm,
and the diameter of the cob is 4.2 cm. According to the data obtained, statistically significant
difference was found between the areas reached and not reached by Hyphantria cunea Drury. It
has been determined that Hyphantria cune is fed with corn leaves to delay the harvest of maize
for silage.With this study, it was concluded that it is necessary to fight against Hyphantria cunea
Drury in maize areas sowned as the second crop in D ecologies.
Keywords: Damage, Duzce, Harvest, Second crop, Yield
INTRODUCTION
Posing an agricultural and economic threat, Hyphantria cunea is significant due to its high
polyphagy, which puts a wide variety of plant species at potential risk. According to the FAO
(2007) a female fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) may lay up to 500/600 eggs at a time and
there can be up to four generations of the moth in a single year.
The facility of the larvae to withstand starvation for up to 2 weeks means that they can easily
be transported on vehicles to different areas and survive to initiate new infestations. Hyphantria
cunea can spread with vehicles, packing material, host plant material, etc (Smith et al. 1992).
The fall web worm (Hyphantria cunea) can impact a wide variety of crop and cultivated
broadleaf plant species. In Europe it is a serious pest in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, former
Yugoslavia, Russia and northern Italy. Hyphantria cunea the first time in 1975 in Turkey, Edirne,
Tekirda

264
According to Biosecurity New Zealand heavy feeding by the caterpillars over time, can lead
to defoliation (leaf loss) and limb and branch dieback. Trees/plants are often totally defoliated by
the late-instar larvae, particularly in the second generation. Environmental impacts are likely
given the high polyphagy and impact on individual plants. H. cunea is a threat to orchards,
ornamentals and forest trees in some regions in Central and eastern Europe, as well as in eastern
Asia. It is particularly damaging to ornamentals (Wittenberg, R. (ed.) 2005).
Newly emerged larvae immediately begin to spin a silken web over foliage on the terminal
portions of the branches. The larvae feed on the leaves within the webs. As the larvae grow, webs
enlarge and enclose more foliage. Large portions of tree branches are commonly enclosed by
such webs, and are most apparent from mid- to late-summer. Early stage larvae feed on the upper
surfaces of the leaves, and late instar larvae eat entire leaves except for larger veins and midribs.
Experiments showed that sixth-instar larvae of H. cunea 
of fresh ash foliage while seventh-insta
1992).
Hyphantria cunea , which has two generations per year in Turkey, has become an important
pest of almost all fruit trees, especially in large hazelnut fields in the Middle Black Sea Region,
wh

Sakarya, and on Populus species in Selek (1998) Sakarya and Kocaeli.
This research was carried out to reveal the effects of Hyphantria cunea Drury on some
 
similar ecologies. In Turkey, there is no research about the damage to the Hyphantria cunea the
corn plants. This study has the potential to be a reference for future studies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The adult fall web worm (Hyphantria cunea) has a wingspan of 25-31mm and is snowy white,
usually with dark spots on the wings. Larvae are brownish-grey, 25 - 30/40mm long, and have 12
small warts surmounted by characteristic tufts of hair, Their silk nests enclosing a number of
leaves are characteristic. Eggs are small, yellow or light green, and usually located in hair-covered
masses on the underside of leaves. Mature larvae are 25-31mm long and covered with silky hairs.
Colour varies from pale yellow to green, with a black stripe on the back and a yellow stripe on
each side. Head colour varies from red to black. Pupation occurs in thin cocoons usually spun in
265
the duff or just beneath the surface of the soil (Wittenberg, R. (ed.) 2005).
In Central Europe there are usually 2 generations per year. Pupae overwinter in the bark cracks
or in the soil. Adults fly in April-May and lay eggs in groups, usually on the underside of leaves.
Larvae usually have 7 instars, but up to 11 can be observed. Early instars are gregarious and build
colonial silk nests enclosing leaves, in which they live to the fifth to sixth instars when they
become solitary and disperse. Then, they pupate in refuges and emerge for a second generation,
which flies in July-August In North America from May to July, adult moths lay their eggs. Eggs
hatch within two weeks and the larvae immediately begin feeding and constructing webs. Larvae
feed and webs continue to enlarge for four to eight weeks. There are at least two generations per
year in the South (Wittenberg, R. (ed.) 2005).
The research was carried out in   District 266, 403 and 726 parcels in 2020. Dekalp
6777 variety was used. With its plant and cob structure, it is a silage corn seed that is both wet
and good in silage yield and suitable for enterprises aiming to increase milk yield. It is in the
FAO 700 group. Second crop is suitable for cultivation in June to July.
Dekalp 6777 maize variety was sowned on the parcels on 2 July 2020. During the production
season, weed control, fertilizaton, 2 times sprinkler were carried out.
Figure 1. Feeding with maize leaves of H. cunea. Figure 2. Damage of Hyphantria cuna
As of September 14, 2020, Hyphantria cunea Drury have reached maize plants in the
northwest of the area and have fed with their leaves (Figure 1 and Figure2).
266
Figure 3.Damage of maize leaves. Figure 4. Damage of maize leaves
Hyphantria cunea damages by eating the leaves of the maize (Figure 3 and Figure 4). The
area around 100 meters long and 20 meters wide was affected by the pest (Figure 5 and Figure 6).
Its detrimental effect lasted until October 14th. With the onset of the cold, the pest went to
wintering.
Figure 5. Areas affected by Hyphantria cunea. Figure 6. Areas affected by Hyphantria cunea.
Maize plant areas that the pest cannot reach (Figure 7 and Figure 8). Total planted
area was 2 hectares. Plant height, cob length and cob diameter were measured, representing the
areas reached and not reached by Hyphantria cunea Drury. The distance between the exit point of
the tassel from the soil level of 10 plants randomly selected from each plot was measured as plant
height (cm). After the leaves of 10 cobs randomly selected from each plot were stripped, the
267
distance between the cob stalk and the end of the cob was measured as the length of the cob (cm).
The diameter of the cob was determined by measuring with a caliper from the middle points of the
cobs whose length was measured. The data obtained were analyzed using the SPSS statistical
package program.
Figure 7. Areas undamaged from H.cunea. Figure 8. Areas undamaged from H. cunea.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The average plant height measured in samples taken from areas not reached by Hyphantria
cunea Drury is 2.65 cm (a). The plant height measured in the areas it reaches is 2.06 cm (b).
The difference between the measurements was found to be statistically significant.
Figure 9. Parcel of Control Parsel Figure 10. Parcel affected by Hypantria cunea
268
Figure 11. Lengths and diameters of cob
The cobs on the left side of the photograph, unaffected by the Hyphantria cunea, measured 22.6 cm
(a) in length. The cobs on the right side of the photograph, affected by the Hyphantria cunea,
measured 18.6 cm (b) in length. The difference between the measurements was found to be
statistically significant.
The cobs on the left side of the photograph, unaffected by the Hyphantria cunea, measured 4,83 cm
(a) in diameter. The cobs on the right side of the photograph, affected by the Hyphantria cunea,
measured 4,2 cm (b) in diameter. The difference between the measurements was found to be
statistically significant.
Figure 12 . Harvest maturity for silage Figure 12. harvest maturity for silage
269
It has been determined that in areas where there is no Hyphantria cunea damage, the milk line
in the grains is between 1/3 and 50%, whereas in the areas with Hyphantria cunea damage, the milk
line has not yet started to form, so Hyphantria cunea is fed with the leaves of the corn and delayed
the harvest of silaged corn.
According to the data obtained, statistically significant difference was found between the areas
reached and not reached by Hyphantria cunea Drury. Other cultivated plants such as grapevine,
maize or soyabean can be attacked by Hyphantria cunea (Wittenberg, R. (ed.) 2005). The results
obtained correspond to those reported by Wittenberg (2015).
CONCLUSION
In Duzce and similar ecologies, green leaves decrease in forest and fruit trees in August and
September. It has been observed that this has caused the second generation of Hyphantria cunea to
move towards the second crop maize fields with large green leaves.
With the data obtained as a result of this study, it was determined that the second generation of
Hyphantria cunea negatively affected the plant height, cob length and diameter of the second crop
maize and delayed the harvest maturity.
With this study, it was concluded that it is necessary to fight against Hyphantria cunea Drury in

This study demonstrated for the first time that Hyphantria cunea damage the maize in Turkey. It
has a resource potential for future studies. It is thought that research should be continued in larger
areas.
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         Hyphantria cunea    
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271
EFFECTS OF WATERLOGGING ON SOME
MORPHOLOGICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND
PHOTOSYNTHETIC PARAMETERS IN BARLEY
1*2
1 Vocational School of Mut, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
2 Vocational School of Technical Sciences, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
*Corresponding author: srtncvk@gmail.com
Abstract
Waterlogging is an important abiotic stress factor that can affect a large part of the
cultivated areas. Due to this stress, serious losses occur in agricultural production. As it is difficult
to predict waterlogging, it is also difficult to take precautions in this regard. The prediction that the
frequency of waterlogging will increase with the effect of global warming increases the importance
of the studies to be carried out in this regard.
The barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) plant is an important grain product produced intensely in
the world and, like all other agricultural plants, is highly affected by waterlogging. In this study, the
changes occurring in barley exposed to waterlogging stress for 15 days were examined by
morphological, physiological and photosynthetic analyses. According to our results, waterlogging
significantly suppressed the growth and development of barley plants. In particular, photosynthetic
parameters remarkably affected. Leaf water potential increased with waterlogging. There are
different results in the literature related to this situation and the subject is open to study. As a result,
it can be said that waterlogging affects the development of barley plants, especially by suppressing
photosynthesis efficiency.
Keywords: Waterlogging, Barley, Photosynthesis, Plant development
Introduction
Plants are exposed to environmental stresses in their natural habitats or fields throughout
their lives. These environmental stresses categorized as biotic and abiotic stress factors cause
serious product losses in plants. The published reports reveal that environmental stress-induced
product losses can be up to %50. One of the factors that cause serious product losses is
waterlogging (Martinez et al., 2019; Ashraf, 2012). Waterlogging is a stress factor that negatively
affects %10 of the total cultivated land on earth. Waterlogging cause anoxia conditions in the soil,
            
Scientists investigating climate change have reported that waterlogging will occur more frequently
in the near future (Bansal and Srivastava, 2015). This situation increases the importance of the
measures to be taken against waterlogging. Perhaps the most important of these measures is to try to
understand the mechanisms that plants develop against to the waterlogging situation.
Barley has been grown since ancient times and is the fourth most grown grain product in the
world after wheat, corn and rice (Tricase et al., 2018). Although barley is mostly used for industrial

2019). The increasing need for barley in the world day by day makes the issue of reducing the
environmental stress pressure on barley production a much more important today.
272
In this study, we aimed to reveal the changes caused by waterlogging stress in barley plants
by morphological, physiological, and photosynthetic analyses. The results revealed that
waterlogging significantly decreased the growth of barley plants, especially by negatively affecting
photosynthetic activity. The data obtained from this study may provide important clues for the
extensive molecular studies to be carried out to reduce the productivity loss caused by waterlogging
in barley plants.
Material and Methods
Plant Material and Waterlogging Stress Treatment
Hordeum vulgare 
pots containing %70 torf and

m2 s1 light for 5 days. After that, waterlogging treatment exposed for 15 days. The water in the
waterlogged containers was maintained at 1
were well-irrigated in every other day.
Figure 1. Barley plants exposed to waterlogging stress.
Morphological, Physiological and Photosynthetic Analysis
Ten plants were used for all measurements in control and waterlogging stressed groups. The
stem diameter at 2 cm above the soil surface was measured for waterlogging-stressed and control
plants by using a digital caliper (Figure 2). Leaf water potential (L   
using the PMS Instrument Model 1000 pressure chamber (Figure 3).
273
Number of leaves and plant height were determined for both stressed and control plants.
For the measurement of seedling lengths, the part from soil level to the growth tip in seedlings was
measured in centimeters (cm) with a ruler. 10 seedlings from control and waterlogging stressed
plants were cut from soil level and weighed on a sensitive scale and their fresh weights were
determined. These plants were then kept in an oven for 48 hours 
to determine their dry weight.
Leaf chlorophyll concentration was determined using a portable SPAD-502 meter
(Minolta, Japan). Readings were taken from the leaves of ten replicates at the end of the experiment
(Figure 4).
Figure 4. Measurement of leaf chlorophyll content by using SPAD meter.
To determine Photosystem II efficiency   
Quantum yield in light adapted leaves) was measured by a portable fluorimeter (FluorPen FP100,
Photon System Instruments Ltd, Drasov, Czech Republic).
Figure 2. Measurement of stem
diameter by using digital
calimber.
Figure 3. Measurement of leaf
water potential by using pressure
chamber.
274
Statistical Analysis
     deviation (SD). Significant differences between
control and waterlogging-
Results and Discussion
Barley (Hordeum vulgare, L.) plants were exposed to waterlogging stress for 15-days.
Waterlogging stress affected differently all morphological, physiological and photosynthetic
parameters measured in this study.
Waterlogging negatively affected development and growth in barley plants (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Effect of waterlogging stress on development of barley plants.
Waterlogging stress significantly decreased average number of leaves, stem diameters, fresh
and dry weights and plant height in barley plants (Table 1). As seen in Table 1, the percentages of
the decreases were quite striking; %32 in stem diameter, %41 in plant height, %25 in leaves
numbers, %55 in fresh weight, %39 in dry weight.
Table 1. Effect of waterlogging stress on stem diameter, plant height, leaf numbers, stem fresh
weight, stem dry weight in Hordeum vulgare L. The values (mean and standard deviation) followed
by different letters are significantly different at least significant difference test (p<0,05).
Control
Waterlogging Stress
Stem diameter (mm)
a
1,75b
Plant height (cm)
15,48a
9,14b
Number of leaves
4,7a
3,5b
Stem fresh weight (gr)
0,508a
0,23b
Stem dry weight (gr)
0,062a
0,038b
Plant height was significantly decreased by waterlogging. Similar results also reported by
other researchers in different plants (Barickman et al., 2019). In the literature, different theories
275
have been proposed regarding the reduction of plant height under waterlogging. Aldana et al. (2014)
suggested that lack of phytohormones synthesized in the root system such as cytokinins and
gibberellins may be reason of this decreasing. Low oxygen transport (Dennis et al., 2000) and
nutrient uptake (Kuswantoro, 2011) also reported in other papers as factors for plant growth
inhibition under waterlogging conditions. All these reasons may affect plant development but also,
according to our photosynthetic parameter results; reducing photosynthesis activity may also cause
inhibition of plant growth. Stem diameter was significantly reduced by waterlogging in this study,
similar results also reported by Promkhambut et al. (2011) on sorghum at different growth stages.
Waterlogging also decreased plant fresh and dry weight in this study. Some researchers
reported that waterlogging creates an anaerobic condition in soil, these conditions may lead to an
increase in the soil some elements like P, Fe, Mn (Kozlowski and Pallardy, 1997; Baracaldo et al.,
2014). Despite increasing of element concentration in soil under waterlogging conditions, some
researchers also showed low element concentration in roots and leaves (Morad and Silvestre, 1996;
Steffens et al., 2005). Steffens et al. (2005) conducted an experiment to explain this confusing
situation, and they showed that even if there were enough minerals in the soil, there must be enough
oxygen for these minerals to be absorbed by the root. In the light of these findings, we can say that
waterlogging may have reduced the fresh and dry weight of barley by preventing mineral uptake to
the roots.
Plant water status was the other parameter that affected by waterlogging stress in this study.
Waterlogging stress increased leaf water potential (LWP) compared to control plants. LWP was -
4,750 MPa in control, -3,375 MPa in waterlogging stressed plants (p<0,05) (Figure 6). Different
results have been reported by researchers about leaf water potential under waterlogging conditions.
Some researchers have found that waterlogging has reduced leaf water potential (Ashraf
and Rehman, 1999; Yi et al. 2006; Barickman et al., 2019), while others have reported, on the
contrary, increased (Jackson et al., 1978; Liao and Lin, 1994) or not changed (Oosterhuis et al.
1990; Ahmed et al. 2002; Ashraf and Arfan, 2005). Naidoo (1983) reported that the 10-day
waterlogging stress did not change the water potential in the Bruguiera gymnorhiza, the plants
under 20 days of stress had higher LWP compared to control, but when the duration of the stress
was over 40 days, the LWP was much lower than the control plants. This may an indication that the
LWP may change depending on the duration of the waterlogging stress. Else et al. (2001) showed
that the leaf water potential decreased significantly within the first few hours after the waterlogging
stress, but the stress and control group values were close to each other since the 24th hour of
waterlogging. Zeng et al. (2013) emphasized that the leaf water potential increased in barley plants
under waterlogging and LWP may change depending on the genotype and soil content. Taken
276
together all of these literature, changes in LWP under waterlogging should be investigated through
extensive studies.
Figure 6. Effects of waterlogging stress on leaf water potential in barley plants. The values (mean
and standard deviation) followed by different letters are significantly different at least significant
difference test (p<0,05).
Photosynthesis related parameters also decreased in waterlogging-stressed plants. Leaf chlorophyll
content (Figure 7) and PS II efficiency (Figure 8) were significantly decreased by the 15-days
waterlogging treatment in barley plants. Similar results also reported by other researchers (Wang et
al., 2017; Barickman et al. 2019). Chlorophyll has a vital role in the photosynthesis mechanism
(Barickman et al. 2019). The reduction of chlorophyll content may also cause a decrease in the
photosynthetic rate. However, the decline in PS II efficiency indicates that waterlogging damage to
PS II, this may reduce the photosynthesis potential energy of PSII and result in decline
photosynthetic rate (Ren et al., 2016). Some researchers showed that waterlogging causes stomatal
closure in plants (Bradford and Hsiao, 1982, Else et al., 2009, Aldana et al., 2014). Closing of
stomata reduces intercellular CO2 concentration, transpiration, and photosynthesis. Yordanova et al.
(2005) found that only within the first few hours of waterlogging, fast and strong stomata closure
have been observed in barley plants. This finding may indicate that stomata of barley plants respond
very quickly to waterlogging.
277
Figure 7. Effects of waterlogging stress on Leaf chlorophyll content in barley plants. The values
(mean and standard deviation) followed by different letters are significantly different at least
significant difference test (p<0,05).
Figure 8. Effects of waterlogging stress on PS II efficiency in barley plants. The values (mean and
standard deviation) followed by different letters are significantly different at least significant
difference test (p<0,05).
Conclusion
The present study compares the morphological, physiological and photosynthetic parameters
of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) under waterlogging stress. When all measurements were taken into
consideration, waterlogging stress reduced growth and development of barley by affecting
photosynthesis mechanism. However, there are different results about LWP under waterlogging
conditions. We think that extensive molecular and physiological studies should be conducted to
reveal changes in LWP under waterlogging in barley.
278
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279
POSTHARVEST UV-C TREATMENTS TO MAINTAIN COLD
STORAGE QUALITY OF BLACKBERRY FRUITS
F. K. Sabir1, S. Unal1, M. K. Aslan2 And D. Metin2
1 Horticulture Department, Agriculture Faculty, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
2 Graduate School of Natural and Applied Science, Selcuk University, Konya, Turkey
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV-C) treatment is one of the alternative strategies against chemical uses in
extending postharvest quality of the horticultural fruits. The bla    
commercial maturity was subjected to UV-C radiation with various application duration (0, 5 and
   relative humidity for 10 d.
Weight loss, total soluble solid, titratable acidity, pH, visual quality, total phenol and total
antioxidant analyses were performed initially on 4th, 7th, or 10th day of storage to compare the
effectiveness of treatments. UV-C treated fruits were higher in titratable acidity, and exhibited less
biochemical changes than the control fruit at the end of storage. UV-C treatment reduced the weight
loss and exhibited markedly better visual quality with greater effect at 5 min than 10 min.
Considering the overall findings, this study revealed that postharvest 5 min UV-C treatment
maintained the storage-life and conserved the valuable marketing features of blackberries over 10 d
in cold storage.
Keywords: Blackberry, UV-C, postharvest, quality
INTRODUCTION
Blackberry production is increasing worldwide to meet a growing demand from consumers,
especially in the fresh market (Lawrence and Melgar, 2018). Blackberry is a fruit that has multiple
valuable compounds such as anthocyanins and polyphenolic compounds that make it a highly
desirable fresh produce. Moreover they are rich nutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats,

To get the maximum quality at harvest and maintain this quality during transport and
commercialization until the fruit is consumed, it is essential to harvest berries at the optimum stage
of maturity (Kumar et al. 2018). Blackberry is a highly perishable fruit and have a short postharvest
life influenced by the presence of fungal pathogens (Vilaplana et al., 2020). Besides, postharvest
life of blackberries is also limited by their sensitivity to water loss, softening and physical injuries
(Sabir et al., 2019) Therefore, blackberry fruits destined for fresh markets became unmarketable
after 2 or 3 days when stor
UV-C treatment (180280 nm) has been evaluated as a postharvest treatment for fresh fruits
and vegetables including to reduce pathogen growth (Pristijono et al., 2019). The US Food and
Drug Administration approved the UV-C irradiation treatment as a postharvest method of
280
horticultural crops (FDA 2002), which is effective against harmful microorganisms of entire
organization by inhibiting DNA replication, and not only the surface of food (Xu and Liu, 2017).
Studies have shown that UV-C irradiation can improve the activity of defense enzyme, inhibit
bacterial growth, and induce gene expression of disease resistance, thus delaying the maturity and
senescence of postharvest fruits and vegetables (Xu et al., 2016). Postharvest UV-C treatment has
the potential to become a low cost, low technology treatment for reducing fruit and vegetable loss in
the supply chain (Pristijono et al., 2019).
The objective of this work was to select appropriate UV-C application duration (0, 5 and 10
min) and to evaluate the effect on postharvest quality attributes of blackberry during storage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Blackberries (Rubus fructicosus 
and selected for uniformity of shape size and peel color (100% of the surface with black color). The
pedicels of all the blackberries were cut with a sharp scissor leaving 12 mm of cap stem.
The fruits were randomly distributed into three groups for treatments. First group was
evaluated as a control group untreated while two groups were assigned to different application
duration of UV-C radiation (5 and 10 minutes). Blackberry fruits were irradiated using eight
germicidal, low-pressure vapor lamps as described by El Ghaouth et al. (2000). The UV lamps were

After irradiate, about 250 g of each fruit sample was put in a rigid polypropylene cup and
wrapped with film. Fruits were st90% R.H.). Weight
loss, total soluble solid, titratable acidity, pH, fruit color, visual quality, total phenol and total
antioxidant analyses were performed initially on 4th, 7th, or 10th day of storage.
The weight loss (%) during postharvest storage was determined by periodical weighing, and
calculated by dividing the weight change during storage by the initial weight:
Weight loss (%) = [(Wi             
examined time.
SSC of blackberry samples of each package were blended for 30 s. SSC in the juice were
determined using a refractometer (Atago, Tokyo, Japan) and results were expressed as %. Titratable
acidity (TA) was determined by titrating 5 mL of juice using 0.1 N NaOH to pH 8.1, and expressed
as % citric acid.
Visual attributes of the fruit (color, firmness, injuries and general appearance) were evaluated
by five panelists for the general acceptability with the following scales: 9 (best quality) to 1 (worst).
5 point was evaluated the limit of acceptance of fruits.
Total phenol was determined according to the method of Singleton et al. (1999) with slight
modifications. The 0.1 mL extract, 6.0 ml distilled water and 0.5 ml Folin-Ciocalteu reagent were
mixed and vortexed. The mixture were incubated for 3 min and then 20% sodium carbonate
solution was added and volume was made up to 10 ml by adding distilled water. The solution was
incubated at room temperature for 2 h and the absorbance was measured at 760 nm. The total
281
phenol content was calculated on the basis of the calibration curve of gallic acid and was expressed
as mg 100 g-1 FW.
Antioxidant activity was determined by the ferric reducing ability antioxidant power (FRAP)
according to the procedure described act and

was measured at 593 nm on a UV-vis spectrophotometer. Standard curve was prepared using
different kg-1.
Statistical tests were performed in triplicate (replication) on three different treatments. The
averages and standard deviation were calculated. Data from analyzed parameters were subjected to
analysis of variance separately. Sources of variation were treatment, storage time and their
    -      
version 5.1 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The percentage of weight loss increased during prolonged storage for control and both UV-C
treatment durations while the effect of treatments on weight loss was found statistically significant.
At the end of the cold storage, the greatest loss in weight occurred in non-treated control fruits
(1.93%), while the lowest value was obtained from 5 min UV-C treatment (0.99%). Weight loss is a
prime issue potentially devaluing defects in fresh blackberry fruit (Perkins-Veazie et al. 2000; Sabir
et al.,2019 ), occurring quickly as blackberries have high transpiration rates (Joo et al., 2011)
although these rates are often moderated by immediate cold storage (Meneghel et al. 2008). Besides
cold storage condition, additional treatments such as UV radiation has been suggested for a more
effective storage. UV-C treatment for 5 min was considerable effective on maintaining the turgidity
of the blackberries during the 10 day storage.
Figure 1. Effects of UV-C treatments on weight loss (%) of blackberry fruits during cold storage.
Data with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05).
In general, SSC underwent a slight but insignificant increase through the storage (Table 1). At
the harvest, SSC contents of fruits were 10.93%. These values increased during the storage
282
regardless from treatments. At the end of the storage, the highest SSC was observed in control
(12.13%), while the least value was recorded in 5 and 10 min UV-C treatment (11.33%). General
increment in SSC is a common issue seen in horticultural commodities due to loss in weight along
with the prolonged cold storage (Moggia-Lucchini 1990) as well as gluconeogenesis pathway could
also let to increase in SSC (Famiani et al. 2009) as the fruits such as blackberries store organic acids
in vacuoles of the flesh cell. Delaying the conversion of such molecules could slow down the
postharvest senescence of the produces.
Table 1. Effects of UV-C treatments on SSC (%), TA and pH of blackberry fruits during cold
storage
Treatments
Storage (days)
0
4
7
10
SSC
Control
10.93
11.07
11.70
12.13
5 min UV-C
10.90
11.33
11.33
10 min UV-C
11.03
11.10
11.33
TA
Control
1.547a
1.076b
0.789f
0.678g
5 min UV-C
1.112b
0.841f
0.759f
10 min UV-C
0.997c
0.872de
0.889d
pH
Control
2.96g
3.51e
3.87b
3.94a
5 min UV-C
3.29f
3.75c
3.75c
10 min UV-C
3.59d
3.71c
3.76c
LSD for SSC: N.S.; TA: 0.044; pH: 0.06. Data with different letters are significantly different
(P<0.05)
As illustrated in Table 1, decrease in the TA value was recorded with the prolonged storage
time and the differences between the treatments were statistically significant. At harvest, TA was
1.457%. At the end of the cold storage, the highest TA value was obtained from the fruits of the 10
min UV-C treated fruits (0.889%), while the lowest value was measured in the control fruits
(0.678%). Fruit juice pH value was 2.96 at harvest and tended to increase during the cold storage
across the applications. At the end of the experiment pH values were 3.94, 3.76 and 3.75 for
control, 10 min UV-C and 5 min UV-C treatments, respectively (Table 1).
During the first four days of the storage period, no significant change occurred in visual
quality, except for control where little reduction was detected. Later, the fruits belonging to control
group underwent a noticeable decrease in visual quality around the 7 days. UV-C treatment,
regardless of treatment durations, was capable of maintaining the visual quality up to the 10th day.
At the end of the storage, control fruits had the lowest visual quality score (5.0) with significant
difference from both of 10 min (6.3) and 5 min UV-C (7.0) treatments (Figure 2).
283
Figure 2. Effects of UV-C treatments on visual quality of blackberry fruits during cold storage.
Data with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05)
Total phenol was 1.36 mg 100 g-1 at harvest with a slight change up to 4th d. Then it
displayed progressive increase during the storage. However, UV-C treatments significantly retarded
the change in total phenol. At the end of the cold storage, the highest total phenol was detected in
the control fruits while the treatments have remarkable effects (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Effects of UV-C treatments on total phenol of blackberry fruits during cold storage. Data
with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05)
      -1 at harvest. Increase in the total antioxidant
activity was recorded with the prolonged storage time and differences between the treatments were
statistically significant (Figure 4). At the end of the cold storage, the highest total antioxidant
activity was obtained from the fruits of 10 min UV- l kg-1), while the lowest
-1). Blackberries are praised as being a good
source of antioxidants. Change in functional properties like antioxidants is inevitable in blackberries
as they are still alive after harvesting and keep respiring by taking up O2 and releasing CO2 and the
respiration rate varies inversely with storage and shelf life as previously stated by Peretto et al.
(2014).
284
Figure 4. Effects of UV-C treatments on total antioxidant activity of blackberry fruits during cold
storage. Data with different letters are significantly different (P<0.05)
CONCLUSION
Blackberries have a short postharvest life influenced by the presence of fungal pathogens and
its susceptibleness to mechanical damages, softening, and water loss. UV-C, known to be an
effective tool on extending the postharvest quality of horticultural commodities, was tested at
various treatment durations (0, 5 and 10 min) for effectiveness on postharvest quality maintenance
of blackberry stored at cold storage conditions.
UV-C treated fruits were higher in titratable acidity, and exhibited less biochemical changes
than the control fruit at the end of storage. UV-C treatment reduced the weight loss and exhibited
markedly better visual quality with greater effect at 5 min than 10 min. Considering the overall
findings, this study revealed that postharvest 5 min UV-C treatment maintained the storage-life and
conserved the valuable marketing features of blackberries over 10 d in cold storage. UV-C irritation
may be recommended as a low cost, environmental friendly and sustainable method for extending
postharvest quality of blackberry cold storage, without significant adverse effect on produces.
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286
THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT ROOTSTOCK AND GRAFTING
METHODS ON PLANT GROWTH AND YIELD IN TOMATO
S. Unal1, M. Paksoy1
1Selcuk University Agriculture Faculty Horticulture Department, Konya, Turkey
Abstract
The study was carried out in Antalya Grow Fide      
Selcuk University in greenhouses in order to determine the suitability of different rootstock and
grafting methods in tomato. As plant materials Fantastic 14 -
RZ and 61-53; as grafting methods cleft graft and tongue graft were used. The experiment was

rate, rootstock diameter, scion diameter, seedling height, callus formation, plant height, stem
diameter, number of leaves, total yield, average fruit weight of fruit, total soluble solid content, pH,
titratable acidity and fruit quality classification.
In the study, it was determined that there were no significant differences in terms of
rootstocks and grafting methods. Therefore, it was concluded that both rootstocks and grafting
methods could be preferred.
Keywords: Vegetables, Grafting, Rootstocks, Scion, Grafting Methods
INTRODUCTION
Total greenhouse area in Turkey reached 789,604 decares as of 2019. Total of the products
grown in greenhouse is 7,814,543 tons of vegetables and 4,083 tons of these vegetables are
tomatoes (TUIK, 2019). Mediterranean Region in Turkey, especially has a suitable ecology for
greenhouse agriculture. Greenhouse vegetable cultivation in Antalya, which has been in the
Mediterranean zone since the 1960s, has an important agricultural activity in the region.
The use of grafting and grafted seedlings in vegetable growing started in countries such as Japan
and Korea and then spread to some European and Asian countries. The first graft process was
initiated in the late 1920s by grafting watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) on a gourd (Lagenaria
siceraria) rootstock in Korea and Japan to prevent a decrease in yield due to Fusarium wilt
(Edelstein, 2004). For the first time, vegetable grafting procedure are tackled in a study on grafting
eggplant on tomato in 1987 in Turkey. The effects on yield and quality were investigated by
grafting two hybrid eggplant varieties on two different tomato rootstocks. As a result, more yield

Studies with grafted seedlings production has increased in recent years in Turkey. Seedlings
grafted on eggplant, tomato, cucumber, melon and watermelon are produced by some private
seedling companies and given to the producer. The cost of grafted seedlings is approximately three
times higher than ungrafted seedlings due to the use of hybrid seeds for the grafting process, the
287
application of the graft by experienced personnel, a good technical infrastructure, a larger area and
time in the plantation.
Grafted seedlings are used for resistant to soil borne diseases and nematodes, extended harvest
period as a result of stronger growth of plants, tolerance to adverse soil conditions such as salinity
and moisture, effective intake of water and nutrients from the soil, more resistant to biotic and
abiotic stress conditions, earliness an
al., 2003). There are also negative aspects such as the need for extra time, area and material in graft,
the need for experience and conflict problems. Since the vegetables have 80-90% water in their
forms, the success rate in graft is lower than perennial plants.
In this study, it is aimed to reveal the effects of Fantastic l44 F1 tomato variety grafted on 7-RZ and
61-53 rootstocks on fruit yield and quality.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Seedling g
part of the research was carried out in Research and Application Greenhouses belonging to Selcuk
University Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture. In the experiment, as plant material
Fantastic 144 F1 tomato variety, as rootstock 61-53 (Kemerit) and 7-RZ were used. Seedlings were
grafted with cleft graft and tongue graft. The scalpel was used in making grafts. After the grafts
were made, the rootstock-scion was attached properly with the help of a clip. In order to grow
seedlings, rootstock and pen seeds were seeded in viols at certain time intervals and covered with
vermiculite and taken to the germination room. Seedlings were kept in germination rooms until the
time of graft.
After grafting, the seedlings were kept for a week in the germination room at 22-23 0C
temperature, 80-90% relative humidity and the graft retention rates (%) were determined. The
seedlings were planted in the seedling planting areas determined according to the trial plan so that
the grafting point remains on the soil. The trial random blocks were set up with 4 replications
according to the trial pattern. Before planting the seedlings in the greenhouse, the root throat
diameter of the rootstock was measured as "mm" with the help of a caliper under the grafting point.
Before the seedlings were planted in the greenhouse, the diameter of the pen was measured in "mm"
under the grafting point with the help of a caliper. The grafted seedlings' heights were measured in
"cm" with a ruler. Callus formation at the graft site was examined in 24 seedlings for each graft
method. Callus formation amounts at the graft site were measured with a caliper and the results
were determined in mm. In plant development, the plant height (cm) was determined by measuring
every 20 days in 10 plants in each parcel and the average was taken. The stem diameter (mm) of 10
plants in each plot was measured with a caliper every 20 days and their averages were calculated.
The number of leaves (number) of the plants in each parcel was recorded every 20 days and their
average amounts were taken. The total yield (kg/da) and the total number of fruits (pieces/da) were
determined by using the fruit weights and numbers obtained from each parcel in productivity. The
average amounts of fruit yield (kg/da) and fruit numbers (units/da) obtained each month by using
weekly harvests were determined. Taking into account the parcel yield and the number of plants,
the yield per plant (g/plant) was calculated and the average amounts were recorded. In terms of
product quality, the average fruit weight was found by taking 10 fruits randomly from each parcel
during the harvest period and weighing and dividing the number by 10. The amount of water
soluble dry matter (%), pH and titratable acidity values were determined in 5 fruits randomly taken
288
from each parcel. Fruit flesh firmness was determined in 5 fruits from each parcel that could
represent the parcel. In addition, according to TSE standards, fruits were categorized as extra, l. and
2nd class. Costat statistical program was used to evaluate the numerical data obtained in the study.
The averages were compared at 1% and 5% levels with the Tukey test.
RESULTS
Fifteen days after graft, the plants that grafted and continued to grow were counted and
success rates (%) were calculated. The highest graft survival rate was obtained from 61-53
rootstock, followed by 7-RZ rootstock. According to the graft method; while the tongue graft was
89.8%, it was found 87.3% in the cleft graft. The effect of rootstocks, graft and rootstock x graft
interaction on seedlings rootstock diameter was found to be insignificant. The diameters of 61-53
and 7-RZ rootstocks in seedlings are 4.11 mm and 4.47 mm respectively, while the rootstock
diameters of cleft and tongue graft are 4.49 mm and 4.13 mm. While the effect of seedlings on
scion diameter was not statistically significant compared to rootstocks and rootstock x graft
interactions, it was found to be significant compared to graft techniques. The scion diameters in
seedlings were 4.41 mm in 7-RZ rootstocks, 4.03 mm in 61-53 rootstocks, while the scion diameter
of seedlings was 4.63 mm in the cleft grafting technique and 3.83 mm in the tongue grafting
technique. As a result of the variance analysis applied to average seedling sizes, rootstocks, graft
and rootstock x graft interactions were found to be insignificant at 5% level. It was observed that
the seedling length obtained with 7-RZ rootstock was 19.92 cm, and the seedling length in 61-53
rootstocks was 19.18 cm. According to the graft techniques, it was observed that the seedling length
was 19.84 cm for the cleft grafted seedlings and 19.25 cm for the seedlings grafted without tongue.
As a result of the variance analysis applied to average callus formation, rootstocks, graft and
rootstock x graft interactions were found to be insignificant at 5% level. It was observed that the
callus formation obtained from the 7-RZ rootstock was 2.97 mm, the callus formation in the 6I-53
rootstock was 2.28 mm. According to the graft techniques, callus formation of the cleft-grafted
seedlings is 2.57 mm, and the callus formation of the seedlings without the tongue is 2.63 mm
(Table 1).
Table 1. Graft retention rate of rootstocks and grafts, rootstock diameter of seedlings, scion
diameter, seedling length values and callus formation
Rootstocks and
Grafts
Graft
survival
rate
(%)
Rootstock
diameter of
seedlings
(mm)
Scion
diameter of
seedlings
(mm)
Seedling
length
(cm)
Callus
formation
(mm)
61-53
96.30
4.11
4.03
19.18
2.28
7-RZ
94.30
4.47
4.41
19.92
2.97
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Cleft graft
87.30
4.49
4.63 a
19.84
2.57
Tongue graft
89.80
4.13
3.83 b
19.25
2.63
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
-
N.S.
N.S.
Plant heights were measured at 20 days intervals from planting to harvest. As a result of the analysis
of graft with average plant heights, the average plant height for rootstocks, grafts and rootstock x
graft interactions were found to be insignificant, mostly at 5% level. Although not statistically
289
significant, the average plant height average values obtained with 61-53 rootstocks are higher than
the plant height average values of 7-RZ rootstock (Table 2).
Table 2. Plant height values of rootstocks and grafts
Rootstocks
and Grafts
Dates
31.05
20.06
10.07
30.07
20.08
10.09
30.09
20.10
61-53
47.41
94.99
111.67
126.92
146.78
167.24
186.16
205.40
7-RZ
45.26
89.03
105.44
123.60
143.99
161.49
179.28
194.68
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Cleft graft
46.63
91.27
109.19
124.00
140.89
155.41
172.52
187.49 b
Tongue graft
46.04
92.76
107.91
126.52
149.89
173.32
192.92
212.59 a
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
-
Stem diameters of rootstocks, grafts and plants related to rootstock x graft interactions were
statistically insignificant. Stem diameter values of rootstocks and grafts are presented in Table 3.
Although the largest average stem diameter values were not statistically significant, they were
generally higher in 7-RZ rootstock than 61-53 rootstocks. In grafts, the stem diameter values of the
tongue vaccine were higher than the stem diameter values of the cleft graft.
Table 3. Stem diameter values of rootstocks and grafts (mm)
Rootstocks
and Grafts
Dates
31.05
20.06
10.07
30.07
20.08
10.09
30.09
20.10
61-53
9.70
10.25
10.46
10.62
10.84
11.10
11.39
11.68
7-RZ
9.56
10.34
10.52
10.69
10.86
11.15
11.53
11.47
Cleft graft
9.54
10.27
10.42
10.60
10.76
10.99
11.44
11.41
Tongue graft
9.72
10.32
10.56
10.71
10.94
11.25
11.48
11.74
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
According to the results of the graft analysis made with the average values obtained from the leaf
count in plants, rootstocks, grafting techniques and rootstock x graft interaction were found
insignificant. The average number of leaves of the plants measured at 20 day intervals according to
rootstocks and grafting techniques are given in Table 4. Although not statistically significant, the
number of leaves of 61-53 rootstock was found to be higher than the number of leaves of 7-
RZ rootstock. Although the leaf count values of the cleft graft was not statistically significant, it
was determined that the tongue graft was higher than the leaf number values.
290
Table 4. Leaf number values of rootstocks and grafts (number)
Rootstocks
and Grafts
Dates
31.05
20.06
10.07
30.07
20.08
10.09
30.09
20.10
61-53
12.62
18.81
24.77
29.84
34.86
40.27
42.47
45.06
7-RZ
11.99
18.20
22.71
28.12
32.55
36.97
39.15
40.96
Cleft graft
12.11
18.20
22.62
28.03
32.07
36.47
38.21
39.86
Tongue graft
12.5
18.81
24.86
29.92
35.34
40.77
43.41
46.16
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
As a result of the variance analysis performed with the obtained total yield values rootstocks, grafts
and rootstock x graft interactions were found to be insignificant at 5% level. Although it is not
statistically significant, the total yield of 61-53 rootstocks (12028.14 kg/ha) was found to be higher
than the total yield of 7-RZ rootstock (11422.92 kg/ha). This difference means 5.03% efficiency.
Likewise, the total yield of the tongue graft was found to be lower than the total yield of the cleft
graft, although it was not statistically significant. This represents a 0.14% low yield. The yield
values of the plants in July, August and September were not statistically significant compared to
rootstocks and grafts. Although it is not statistically significant, the yield of August and October is
higher on 61-53 rootstock than 7-RZ rootstock. The yield of September was higher in 7-RZ
rootstock than 61-53 rootstock. Although it is not statistically different, according to the graft
techniques, the fruit yield of the plants in which the tongue graft was applied in August and
September was found to be higher than the fruit yield of the cleft graft applied plants. On the other
hand, the yield in October was found to be higher in the cleft graft compared to the tongue graft
(Table 5).
Table 5.Total yield of rootstocks and grafts (kg/da) and distribution of yield by months (kg/da)
Rootstocks
and Grafts
Yield distribution by months (kg/da)
Total yield
(kg/da)
August
September
October
61-53
3898.69
2569.48
5559.97
12028.14
7-RZ
3451.21
2866.94
5104.77
11422.92
Cleft graft
3597.32
2563.96
5572.70
11733.98
Tongue graft
3752.58
2872.46
5092.04
11717.08
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
As a result of the analysis of variance applied to the findings on average fruit weight, rootstocks,
grafts and rootstock x graft interactions were found to be insignificant at 5% level. Average fruit
weight obtained with 7-RZ rootstock is 124.87 g and average fruit weight in 61-53 rootstock is
121.53 g. According to the grafting techniques, it is seen that the average fruit weight of the cleft
grafted plants is 128.07 g and the average fruit weight of the tongue grafted plants is 118.33 g.
According to the results of variance analysis performed with the water soluble dry matter values
(SSC) measured in fruits, rootstocks, grafts and rootstock x graft interactions were found to be
insignificant at 5% significance level. Although it was not statistically significant, SSC of 61-53
291
rootstocks was 4.27% and SSC of 7-RZ rootstock was 4.35%. Likewise, in the grafting techniques
it was observed that the SSC of the tongue inoculated plants was 4.37% and the SSC of the cleft
grafted plants was 4.24%. pH values in tomato juices were measured with pH meter, and as a result
of analysis of variance applied on average values rootstocks, grafts and rootstock x graft
interactions were found to be insignificant at 5% level. The pH value obtained with the 7-RZ
rootstock was 3.88, and the pH value in the 61-53 rootstock was 3.98. According to the graft
techniques, the pH value of the cleft grafted plants was 3.9, and the pH value of the tongue
inoculated plants was 4.07.
Titratable acidity values (TA) were measured in the fruit juice obtained after the juice was extracted
from tomato fruits and as a result of variance analysis applied on average values, rootstocks, graft
and rootstock x graft interactions were found to be insignificant at 5% level. In plants, TA of 61-53
and 7-RZ rootstock is respectively 0.26 mg / 100 ml and 0.27 mg / 100 ml. TA of the cleft and
tongue graft appears to be 0.26 mg / 100 ml and 0.27 mg / 100 ml (Table 6).
Table 6. Effect of rootstocks and graft on fruit weight, SSC, pH and TA value
Rootstocks and
Grafts
Fruit weight
(g)
SSC
(%)
pH
TA
(mg/100ml)
61-53
124.87
4.27
3.98
0.26
7-RZ
121.53
4.35
3.88
0.27
Cleft graft
128.07
4.24
3.90
0.26
Tongue graft
118.33
4.37
4.07
0.27
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Tomato fruits are classified as extra, 1st quality and 2nd quality according to TSE and calculated by
weighing. Rootstocks, grafts and rootstock x graft interactions were not found to be statistically
significant in the analysis of variance on extra and 1st quality fruits. In the 2nd quality fruits, fruit
number values and yield were statistically significant in rootstocks and grafts. According to the
rootstocks, the number of extra, 1st quality and 2nd quality fruits in 61-53 rootstocks was found to be
higher than the number of fruits of 7-RZ rootstock. According to the graft techniques, the values of
extra, 1st quality and 2nd quality fruits of the tongue graft were higher than the fruit number values
of the cleft graft. According to rootstocks, extra, 1st quality and 2nd quality fruit yield values of 61-
53 rootstocks were found to be higher than 7-RZ rootstock. According to the graft techniques, the
extra, 1st class and 2nd class fruit yield values of the cleft graft were found to be higher than the
fruit yield values of the tongue graft (Tables 7 and 8).
Table 7. Effect of rootstocks and grafts on the number of classified fruits (total)
Rootstocks
and Grafts
Fruit classification (total)
Extra
1st quality
2nd quality
61-53
35232.40
66750.10
20190.90
7-RZ
34958.10
48602.30
12353.40
Cleft graft
31039
51737.5
11561.30
Tongue graft
39151.6
63614.90
20982.9
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
292
Table 8. Effect of rootstocks and grafts on classified fruit yield (kg/da)
Rootstocks
and Grafts
Fruit classification (kg/da)
Extra
1st quality
2nd quality
61-53
5838.85
6512.38
862.75
7-RZ
5089.87
5172.02
590.82
Cleft graft
6386.43
6073.11
882.82
Tongue graft
4624.44
5929.13
570.69
LSD (%5)
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
DISCUSSION
The graft retention rate was between 87.3% and 96.3% according to the graft techniques and
rootstocks. The morphological structure of the variety and the graft method effect the graft retention
rate. In the graft method, the graft retention rate of the tongue graft was higher than the cleft graft.
In this combination of grafts, the cut parts make better contact with each other, thus increasing the
nmaz (l989) who
conducted research on eggplant grafting on tomato rootstock. This can be attributed to the close

2006). The scion diameter in seedlings was not found to be different according to the grafting
techniques (4.63 mm in the cleft graft and 3.81 mm in the tongue graft) and rootstocks. These
results Traka-Mavrona et al. (2000) parallels the findings of melon grafting on melon rootstocks.
, rootstock and scion diameters affected significantly depending on the
rootstock, but did not change significantly in graft techniques. This also differs with the findings in
the study. The size of the seedlings did not differ according to the rootstock diameter in the
seedlings, the number of leaves in the seedlings, the formation of callus at the grafting site, the
grafting techniques and the rootstock. Rootstocks and varieties were found to be significant in the
number of leaves found by Romano and Par      
depend on the variety. The findings on plant growth were examined, while stem diameter and leaf
number did not differ according to the grafting techniques and rootstocks, it was determined that the
tongue grafting technique (212.59 cm) produced taller plants only in the results of 20.10 in plant

terms of stem diameter and leaf number. In terms of the number of leaves, it is parallel to the results
of the study, but does not differ in terms of stem diameter. The distribution of yield and yield by
months was not statistically significant according to either the graft technique or the rootstocks.
However, the total yield is at most 61-53 rootstocks (12028.14 kg/da), and in cleft graft (11733.98
kg/da). According to the research findings, it was not found significant among the total yield values
           the yields in

al. In the results of (2O03), they emphasized that rootstocks effect the yield. The reason for the
difference with the results of the research may be due to the different species or rootstock used.
Regarding product quality, average fruit weight, SSC, PH, TA, extra, 1st quality and 2nd quality fruit
weights were examined. These characteristics examined did not differ according to both rootstocks

            -
Mavrona et al. (2000) grafted different varieties on different rootstocks in melon and found no
 
characteristics of grafted tomato variety, they emphasized that there was a difference between the
293
fruits obtained from the plants grown with grafted seedlings and others. These results differ from
the values in the study. In the study, it was determined that there were no significant differences in
terms of rootstocks and grafting methods. Therefore it was concluded that both rootstocks and graft
methods could be preferred.
THANKS
This study was supported by Science Scientific Research Projects Coordination Unit (2020-
08-) of Turkey and The Selcuk University. Thank you for their support.
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294
THE MONITORING OF THE FIRE BLIGHT SPREAD AND ITS
DANGER FOR THE CONSERVATION OF GENETIC
RESOURCES OF WILD APPLE VARIETIES IN THE FORESTS
OF KYRGYZSTAN.
Tinatin Doolotkeldieva, Mahabat Konurbaeva , Saikal Bobushova, Sezim Zholdoshbekova
Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University, Plant Protection Department 56 ,Prospect Ch.Aytmatov, Bishkek city,
720044, Kyrgyzstan
Abstract
In Kyrgyzstan, forest landscapes occupy small areas, only 4-5% of the country's total area. Apple
forests as a component of natural walnut forests are represented mainly by wild species: Kyrgyz apple trees
(Malus kyrghisorum), Sivers apple trees (M. sieversii), and Nedzvetsky apple (M. niedzweckiana).
Local species of apple trees are a vital genetic resource. They must be protected from possible hybridization
with cultivated apple varieties and the invasion of dangerous pests and diseases.Moreover, the arrival of fire
blight disease in the center of the origin of endangered fruit species is a significant threat to the whole forest
ecosystem. The study aimed to release the spread of fire blight in orchards and natural forests of Kyrgyzstan
and the phenotypic characteristics of the resistance of wild and commercial apple forms to fire blight.
Erwinia amylovora isolates as fire blight pathogen were identified by using the specific diagnostic primer
pairs PEANT-1/PEANT-2. Specific primers targeting CRISPR genotypes were used for different spacer
regions.
Screening for relative resistance or sensitivity of apple cultivars to fire blight was carried out in a quarantine
isolated room. Nine different apple varieties were inoculated with highly virulent E. amylovora strain Zh-2
containing 10 9 CFU/ ml. After a three-time artificial infection with interval ten days, the tested apple
varieties like Earley Geneva, Redchief, Golden Delicious and Bellefleur have shown an evident resistance
ability, and tested wild Nedzvetsky apples (M. niedzweckiana) have shown a moderate resistance.
Key words: Local apple trees, vital genetic resources, Erwinia amylovora invasion, apple variety
resistance
1. INTRODUCTION
In Kyrgyzstan, forest landscapes occupy small areas, only 4-5% of the country's total area. Forest
plantations grow in certain environmental conditions, soften the sharply continental climate of a
mountainous country, and play an important ecological and socio-economic role.The state owns the forests
in this country, and state authorities carry out forest resources management in cooperation with local
authorities [First national forest inventory of the Kyrgyz Republic,2000; Forest Typology in the Kyrgyz
Republic, 2008;Gan, 1970].
The main natural apple forest stands are located in the south of Kyrgyzstan. In the past, wild apple forests
grew in the north of Kyrgyzstan, in the Kyrgyz mountain ridge; due to anthropogenic pressure, only small
groups of these forests have survived in these places [Forest Typology in the Kyrgyz Republic, 2008;
Vykhodtsev,1970]. As a component of natural walnut forests, Apple forests are represented mainly by wild
species: Kyrgyz apple trees (Malus kyrghisorum) and Sivers apple trees (M. sieversii). Among these species,
another rare species of wild apple is Nedzvetsky apple (M. niedzweckiana). This species grows singly or in
small groups [Forest Typology in the Kyrgyz Republic, 2008; Vykhodtsev,1970; Dragavtsev,1956].
295
Local species of apple trees are a vital genetic resource. They must be protected from possible
hybridization with cultivated apple varieties and the invasion of dangerous pests and diseases.
Since fire blight was first reported in Kyrgyzstan in 2009, it has steadily spread from its original
epicenter, the northern part, to the country's southern and eastern parts. 2011-2015 fire blight caused
significant damage to orchards and genebanks in the country's northern and eastern regions. Moreover, since
2013, severe fire blight outbreaks have been annually observed in orchards of the southern regions, where
the climate is more favorable for the development and spread of the pathogen. The study aimed to release the
spread of fire blight in orchards and natural forests of Kyrgyzstan and the phenotypic characteristics of the
resistance of wild and commercial apple forms to fire blight.
2.MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1.Plant samples.
Expeditions were conducted in Jalal -Abad region, where Arslonbob natural forests with wild biodiversity of
fruit trees and plants, including wild apple trees (Malus sieversii, Malus niedzwetzkyana) and pear
trees (Pyrus korshinskyi, Pyrus asia-mediae). In total, we visited 28 sites around wild forests and the
forestries in the heart of the wild natural forest. Approximately 150 samples were obtained from apple,
quince, pear, hawthorn, and dog rose-trees with fire blight symptoms and without symptoms.
2.2.Molecular identification
Levan-positive, non-fluorescent culture at a concentration of 106 cells/ml in sterile distilled water suspension
was prepared and used immediately or stored at -        
characterization, genomic DNA was extracted from bacterial log phase liquid cultures grown overnight at 27
d Tissue kit (Qiagen) according to the standard protocol as
provided by the manufacturer. Specific diagnostic primer pairs PEANT-1/PEANT- 2, G1-F/G2-R
[Llop,2000;Taylor,2001]were used. PCR analysis was conducted according to [Taylor,2001]
protocol. Specific primers targeting previously identified CRISPR genotypes were used for different spacer
regions [ Rezzonico, 2011].
2.3. In vitro virulence test of Erwinia amylovora isolates
The virulence of Erwinia amylovora isolates was tested using an immature pear fruit assay according to
the methods [ Zhao,2005] with minor modifications. The suspension of E. amylovora cells in physiological
saline were prepared containing 109 cells/ml. After the surface sterilization, immature pear fruits were
inoculated with a suspension of Erwinia amylovora cells (10kl) by a 0.2-mm syringe needle. Pear fruits

symptoms of plant tissue necrosis developed, and milky-white exudate was secreted in the inoculation area.
2.4. In vivo evaluation of apple seedlings susceptibility to fire blight
Screening for relative resistance or sensitivity of apple cultivars to fire blight was carried out in a
quarantine isolated room. Two-year-old seedlings (clone stock) taken from the Botanical garden collection
were used. Nine different apple varieties were planted in the pots 35.5 cm deep and 10.5 cm in diameter and
grown for several weeks before injection (Table1) with conventional chemical contents (Table 2). For each
cultivar, five trees were inoculated in one repetition. Artificial blight infection was carried by dissecting the
tips of the two upper leaves of growing shoots (minimum shoot length 25 cm) with scissors soaked in a
suspension of highly virulent E. amylovora strain Zh-2 containing 10 9 CFU/ ml (Fig.1). The length of
necrosis about the shoots' total length was measured after incubation for four weeks at 25-270 C (day) and
296
200C (night), air humidity 85% in the quarantine room. Golden Delishes variety was used as resistant
control, Bishkek local variety was used as sensitive control. Wild Malus nedzwieckii variety planted in pots
was used as natural resistant control.
Table 1. Used apple varieties ( M.domestica)
Apple varieties ( M.domestica)
Quantity of used fruit trees in
inoculated plots
Quantity of used fruit
trees in the control plots.
1.
Starkrimson
10
3
2.
Red Chief
10
3
3.
Belfler
10
3
4.
Golden Delishes
10
3
5.
Bishkek
10
3
6.
Nedzwieckii wild variety)
10
3
7
Idered
10
3
8
Early Geneva
10
3
9
Ligolina
10
3
Table 2. Soil chemical contents
Humus %
pH
Total nitrogen
Soil content, mg / kg
P2O5
K2O
Soil
3,12
7,95
244
150
550
Fir.1. The scissors moistened in a suspension of Erwinia amylovora strain Zh-2 and cut half of the leaf
blade of several young leaves on young apple shoots
297
3. RESULTS
3.1. Molecular identification
With the PEANT-1/PEANT-2 primers, the presence of non-conjugative plasmid pEA2 was revealed in 14
E. amylovora strains. Six isolates were isolated from quince (Cydonia spp); 4 isolates from cultivated apples
(M.domestica );1 isolate from cultivated pears (P. communis); 1 isolate from young bushes of wild forms of
pear trees (Pyrus korshinskyi Litv) and 2 isolates from hawthorn (Crataegus turkestanica). Local quince
varieties were the most sensitive to a bacterial blight than other pome fruit trees; a significant number of
E.amylovora isolates obtained from introduced apple varieties. Complete CRR1 and CRR2 arrays from
14 E.amylovora isolates indicated identical in spacer organization for these isolates.All tested isolates were
genotyped as A-derived. None of the isolated E. amylovora bacteria showed spacer deletions typical for the
genotype Z or D.
3.2.In vitro assesment of susceptibility of apple varieties by artificial inoculation of fruits
The study of the pathogenesis of E.amylovora on host plants (on apple trees, pears) in an open space is
not possible because of the high contagiousness of the pathogen. Moreover, to study this process in a
greenhouse is also tricky since large areas are needed. Therefore, the researchers used immature pear fruits
as an alternative. In nature, this bacterium uses the colonization of wounds as a mechanism of
infection;therefore, immature fruits' infection is carried out by inoculating the wound. The test for the
pathogenicity of E.amylovora using intact immature pear fruits or their slices is successfully used to analyze
the virulence of E. amylovora genes [ .Dardouri,2017].
In these experiments the suspectibilty of apple varieties was evaluated on the emergence of bacterial exudate
drops on the surface of fruits after two to five days (Fig.2). In this case, the fruits have turn to brown. In the
negative control, only necrotic lesions have observed at the injection site or no damage at all. In total, from
the collection of the nursery of the Botanical Garden, 17 varieties of apple fruits were tested for
susceptibility to E.amylovora (Table.3).
The degree of apple fruits infection was assessed according to the following scale:
1 absence of infection,
2 unclear symptoms,
3 the appearance of exudate in 30% of fruits on the 5th days- the low virulence,
4 the appearance of exudate on the 3rd days in 50% of fruits - moderate virulence,
5 the appearance of exudate on the 2nd days in 60-70% of fruits- highly virulence
According to evaluation by the presence of exudate formation on the surface fruits during 5 days, the
Vkusnaya, Discovery, Caravella, and Ostankino varieties have showed a significant resistance to bacterial
pathogen. Such varieties like Ainur, Starkrimson, Aichurek, and Borovinka have a medium tolerant; other
varieties' were susceptible to bacterial pathogen.
298
Figure 2. The emergence of bacterial exudate formation on friuts of Jupiter variety
Table 3. The susceptibility of apple varieties to bacterial pathogen Erwinia amylovora
№
Apple varieties
The susceptibilty degree of varieties to bacterial
pathogen
1.
Jupiter
+++
2.
Rashida
++
3.
Kyrgyz zimnay
++
4.
Starkrimson
++
5.
Borovinka
++
6.
Aychurok
++
7.
Vkusnay
+
8.
Aport Alexandra
+++
9.
Diskavery
+
10.
Aynur
+
11.
Krymskay zimnay
+++
12.
King Luceus
+++
13.
Florina
+++
14
Karowella
+
15.
Ottawa
++
16.
Muntuaner
++
17.
Ostankino
+
Footnote +++- ++-  resistant
3.3. In vivo evaluation of apple seedlings susceptibility to fire blight
Artificial inoculation of apples, pears, and other rosaceous hosts to determine their resistance to fire blight
has been carried out by studies[ Kellerhals, 2004]. In this study, the phenotypic evaluation was performed by
299
measuring necrosis's emergence on the leaves and shoots. The tested apple cultivars have reacted differently
to artificial infection. As in the varieties Golden Delishes and Belfleur, after infection, necrotic spots
appeared only for 3-4 days, and at the same time, the necrotic area did not spread to the leaf tissue. However,
by the 7th day, necrosis manifested itself in all varieties. After two weeks of artificial inoculation, the
varieties Idared, Starkrimson, Ligolina, Nedzvetsky were severely affected.Necrosis from infected shoots
rapidly spread to the lower nodes. Fire blight symptoms have manifested in the varieties like Red Chief,
Early Geneva, and Bishkek too, however, it extended only on the upper infected shoots.
While varieties like Bellefleur and Golden were less susceptible to fire blight. All sensitive varieties show
notable symptoms like a shepherd's staff. It was especially noticeable in wild variety like Nedzvedsky. By
day 21, the growth of new shoots was noted in such varieties like Red Chief, Earley Geneva, due to that the
plants looked healthy.
For confirming the disease's symptoms in seedlings, amyloid-like colonies were re-isolated from diseased
leaves and stems of seedlings on Levan agar. The largest amount of colony-forming units (CFU) of E.
amylovora was found in the Idared variety and the smallest CFU was noted in the infected leaves of the
Golden seedling, there were a total of 4,7*104 (Table 4).
Table 4.The quantity of Erwinia amylovora CFU/ml, from five leaves
№
Apple varieties
Erwinia amylovora
CFU/ml
1.
Idared
35,8*104
2.
Early Geneva
19,3*104
3.
Ligolina
23,4*104
4.
Starkrimson
33,7*104
5.
Red Chif
24,3*104
6.
Belfler
5,3*104
7.
Golden Delishes
4,7*104
8.
Bishkek
12,2*104
9.
Nedzvesky
26,1*104
Conclusions
Artificial infection of seedlings with E.amylovora has revealed that the most susceptible to fire blight
disease were Idared, Starkrimson varieties. Microbiological analysis has also confirmed the higher amounts
of E.amylovora cells in these varieties. The varieties like Earley Geneva, Redchief, have been assessed as
moderately resistant to fire blight, this was confirmed not only symptomatically , but also by
         rface of these plant
materials.Variety Golden Delicious phenotypically assessed as moderately resistant, at the same time the
organs ( leaves and shooties) also contain amyl-like colonies. The seedlings of the Bellefleur variety has
assessed as with average resistance to fire blight. Varieties Idared, Ligolin, plants are very weakened, leaves
are small, poorly developed. Variety Nedzvetskiy can also be a reservoir of Erwinia bacterial cells were also
300
found in maximum numbers.These studies were carried out during 2 vegetation years, therefore these studies
will be continued in the coming years.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge receipt of financial support from the Swiss National Science
ation of Central Asian fruit tree forest ecosystems, pome
fruit varieties and germplasm from the recent epidemics caused by the invasive bacterial pathogen Erwinia
amylovora (fire blight)” No. IZ08Z0_177515/1).
References
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2.Forest Typology in the Kyrgyz Republic.(2008). E. Grisa, B. Venglovsky, Z. Sarymsakov,
G. Carraro.264 p, ISBN 978-9967-25-225-7.
3.Gan, P.A. (1970). The forests of Kyrgyzstan. In: Forests of the USSR,(pp.77-142).
Moscow,Publishing House Nauka.
4.Vykhodtsev, I.V.(1970). Are the fruit forests of Southern Kyrgyzstan the relic forests from the
tertiary era? In:Materials on the walnut forests development (pp.71-91), Frunze, Kyrgyzstan
Publishing House.
5.Dragavtsev, A.P.(1956). Apple of mountainous habitat. Publishing House of the USSR Academy
of Sciences.

nested-PCR procedure using a single closed tube for detection of Erwinia amylovora in
asymptomatic plant material. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 66,2071 2078.
7.Taylor, R. K., Guilford, P., Clark R. G., Hal C. N., Forster R. L. S.(2001). Detection of
Erwinia amylovora in plant material using novel polymerase chain reaction (PCR) primers.
New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science, 29, 3543.
8. Rezzonico F., Smits T. H., Duffy B. (2011). Diversity, evolution ,and functionality of
clustered regularly inter spaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) regions in the fire blight
pathogen Erwinia amylovora. Applied and Environmental Microbiology,
77,38193829. https://doi.org/10.1128 /AEM.00177-11.
9. Zhao, Y., Blumer, S.E., Sundin, G.W. (2005). Identification of Erwinia amylovora genes
induced during infection of immature pear tissue. J. Bacteriology,
187,80888103. https://www.bioreba.
10.Dardouri, S., Chehimi, S., Murillo, J., Hajlaoui M.R., 2017. Molecular characterization of
Tunisian strains of Erwinia amylovora. Journal of Plant Pathology, 2; 331-337.
11. Kellerhals, M.,Bertschinger,L.,Gessler, C. (2004). Use of genetic resources in apple breeding
and for sustainable fruit production. Journal of Fruit and Ornamental Plant Research ,12.
301
SOME MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF QUALIFIED
TOMATO INBRED LINES AND PRINCIPAL COMPONENT
ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THESE
PROPERTIES

a
*, Necibe KAYAK
b

b
DAL
a, c
, Musa SEYMEN
a

TURKMEN
a
, Ertan Sait KURTAR
a
a

b
: Selcuk University, Institute of Sciences, Konya/Turkey
c
: Siirt University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Horticulture, Siirt/Turkey
*Corresponding author: unalkal42@gmail.com
Abstract:
Tomato is one of the most grown vegetable species in the world and it is very important for
human health. Both its suitable for fresh consumption and the fact that it can be processed
product in different areas in the vegetable industrial sector are the main reasons for the high
production and consumption. Unlike other tomato varieties, cocktail tomatoes are heavily
consumed for fresh consumption. In this study, some morphological features of 77 different
cocktail tomato inbred lines at the S5 level were observed according to UPOV parameters,
and the measurements and observations were subjected to principal component analysis
(PCA), and the relationships between them were tried to be determined. The study was
explained at a rate of 63% in 6 components by PCA. According to the results; there was a
positive correlation between Brix, fruit width, fruit size, and pericarp thickness. It was
concluded that tomato genotypes had a significant variation and could be a gene source in
future breeding.
Keywords
:
Tomato,
PCA, correlation, breeding, morphological traits
Introduction
Tomato is one of the most produced vegetables in the world. Considering the 2018 data
182,256,458 tons of tomatoes are produced in an area of 4,762,457 hectares in the world (FAO,
2020). The intensive consumption of tomatoes all over the world is because it is rich in carotenoids,
antioxidants, vitamins, and minerals, and its low content harmful to human health such as
cholesterol and saturated fats (Adalid et al, 2010; Cammarano et al, 2020). Lycopene is one of the
302
most important carotenoids in tomatoes, as in other red fruits. It is reported that lycopene and other
carotenoids contained in tomatoes are beneficial in preventing many diseases, especially preventing
the increase of cancer cells (Flores et al 2017; Zhang et al, 2020). In addition to its effects on human
health, tomatoes are suitable for both industrial and fresh consumption. Although there are lots of
tomato varieties that are used in different ways in the industrial sector, cocktail tomatoes are mostly
used for fresh consumption.
Due to its important properties, tomato is one of the most used vegetable species in breeding
studies in the world. Developing tomato varieties with high yield, resistance to diseases, long shelf
life, and high nutritional content in line with the demands of the consumer and the producer requests
are important breeding goals in tomatoes (Brezeanu et al., 2019). In order to achieve these goals, it
is necessary to benefit from the heterosis effect. (Herath et al., 2020; Liu, et al., 2020). In order to
successfully achieve this heterosis effect, which is one of the necessary mechanisms for revealing
quality hybrid varieties, it is necessary to know the specifications of the existing gene pool and also
to distinguish the genetic differences in-depth. A large number of morphological and agronomic
characters should be examined to reveal the differences between genotypes. Examining various
traits in different lines is very important to understand the relationship between heterosis and
genetic distance for multiple phenotypic traits. One of the most common methods used to interpret
genotypes by dividing them into phenotype-based heterotic groups is principal component analysis
(PCA) (Jin et al 2019). The principal component analysis is a clustering method that reduces the
size of multivariate data by preserving most of the variance (Eriksson et al., 2006). It has been
reported that the ratio of the first 2 or 3 components should be 25% to explain the principal
component analysis correctly (Seymen et al.2019). Besides, interpretations can be made by drawing
different graphs using the components obtained as a result of the analysis (e.g. Score plot, Loading
plot).
In this study, the relationship between some morphological and agronomic features of 77
cocktail tomato inbred lines at the S5 level was tried to be explained using principal component
analysis.
Material and Method
The study was carried out with 77 inbred cocktail tomato lines, which were self-pollinated as a
result of controlled pollination in five years (at the S5 stage). The seeds of pure lines were sown on
the seedling trays filled with sterile peat moss on January 10, 2020, by throwing a single seed in
303
each eye. Until the seeds germinated and the seedlings reached the the planting size (2-3 leaves) in
greenhouse conditions, cultural practices were carried out regularly. The seedlings were planted in
the greenhouse of Selko Arge Biotechnology LTD in Aksu-Antalya district on May 15, 2020, with
planting distances of 50x50x90 cm with 5 plants from each line. After planting the seedlings, it was
irrigated with drip irrigation, and during the vegetation period, cultural practices such as hoeing,
middle breaking, pruning, fertilization, disease, and pest management were carried out regularly.
During the vegetation period, the morphological characteristics of the leaves, flowers, and fruits of
the lines were determined according to the International Union for the Protection of New Plant
Varieties (UPOV) specification document (Table 1). The yield was determined by weighing the
fruits belonging to the harvested lines separately on 01 July 2020. Average fruit weight (g), fruit
length (mm), fruit width (mm), pericarp thickness (mm), carpel number (piece), and water-soluble
dry matter (Brix) measurements were determined on five fruits from each line.
Table 1. UPOV properties of 77 cocktail tomato lines observed in leaves, flowers, and fruits during
the plant vegetation period.
Properties
Value, ranges, measurement, and observation
Plant growth type
Determinate, indeterminate
Leaf attitude
Semi-erect, horizontal, semi-dropping
Leaf length
Short, medium, long
Leaf width
Narrow, medium, broad
Leaflets
present, absent
Number of flowers
3-5 pieces, 6-10 pieces, more than 10
Time of ripening
Very early, early, medium, late, very late
Fruit color
Orange, yellow, pink, light red, red, dark red, zebra
Fruit cross-section
Not round, round
Fruit shape in
longitudinal section
Circular, rectangular, cylindrical, elliptic, heart-shaped, obovate, ovate,
pear-shaped
These measurements and observations were subjected to principal component analysis using
the JMP statistical package program.
Results and Discussion
Tomato inbred lines in the study were evaluated according to UPOV parameters and
differences between genotypes were revealed.
When the plant characteristics of lines were examined, it was found that 14% semi-erect,
58% horizontal, 27% semi-drooping in terms of leaf attitude. According to the leaf length, 43% of
the lines were determined as short, 31% medium, and 26% longleaf. It was observed that the leaf
304
widths were narrow in 44% of the lines, medium in 48%, and wide in 8%. It has been determined
that 95% of cocktail tomato lines have small leaflets in the leaf blade, but not in 5%. According to
the number of flowers in the bunches, it was determined that 10% had 3-5 flowers, 17% had 6-10
flowers and 73% had more than 10 flowers. When the ripening times of the fruits were examined, it
was observed that 13% of the lines matured very early, 52% early, 30% in the middle period, and
5% late. Fruits colors are pink in 3%, light red in 3%, red in 57%, dark red in 36%, and zebra in 1%
of the genotypes. When genotypes are classified according to the longitudinal sections of fruits, it
has been found that 30% are round, 3% rectangular, 9% cylindrical, 42% elliptic, 4% heart-shaped,
9% obovate, and 4% ovate. When the cross-sections of the fruits were examined, it was determined
that 10% of them were not round and 90% of them were round (Table 2).
Table 2. Botanical and fruit observations of cocktail tomato lines
Genotypes
LA
LL
LW
L
NF
TR
FC
FLS
FCS
G1
7
5
3
1
7
5
5
5
2
G2
7
3
3
9
5
3
5
3
2
G3
5
7
5
1
7
3
5
6
2
G4
5
3
3
9
7
3
5
4
2
G5
5
3
3
9
7
3
5
5
2
G6
5
7
5
1
7
3
5
3
2
G7
5
7
5
1
7
3
5
6
2
G8
5
3
5
1
7
1
6
5
2
G9
5
7
5
1
7
3
5
6
2
G10
5
5
5
1
7
5
5
3
2
G11
5
7
5
1
7
5
5
6
2
G12
5
7
5
1
7
3
5
6
2
G13
5
7
5
1
7
3
5
6
2
G14
5
7
5
1
7
3
5
6
2
G15
7
5
3
1
7
3
5
3
2
G16
7
5
3
1
7
5
5
3
2
G17
7
5
3
1
7
7
5
3
2
G18
7
5
5
1
7
5
5
6
2
G19
7
3
3
1
7
5
5
5
2
G20
7
3
3
1
7
5
5
5
1
G21
5
3
3
1
7
3
5
6
2
G22
5
3
3
1
5
5
5
6
2
G23
5
5
3
1
7
5
5
3
2
G24
5
5
3
1
7
3
5
6
2
G25
7
7
5
1
7
3
5
6
2
G26
5
5
5
1
7
5
6
5
2
G27
5
3
3
1
7
5
6
6
2
G28
7
3
3
1
7
1
6
3
2
G29
5
5
5
1
7
3
6
4
2
G30
5
3
5
1
7
5
5
6
2
G31
5
3
3
1
7
1
6
3
2
G32
5
7
5
1
7
1
6
6
1
G33
5
7
5
1
7
3
6
6
2
G34
5
7
7
1
3
7
5
6
2
G35
5
5
5
1
7
3
6
3
2
G36
5
5
7
1
7
3
6
7
2
G37
5
5
7
1
7
3
6
6
2
305
G38
5
5
7
1
7
3
6
6
2
G39
7
7
7
1
3
3
5
6
2
G40
5
5
3
1
7
3
6
3
2
G41
5
7
5
1
7
1
6
6
2
G42
3
3
5
1
7
3
5
3
2
G43
3
3
5
1
3
3
5
10
2
G44
5
5
5
1
7
1
5
6
2
G45
5
3
5
1
7
1
5
6
2
G46
5
3
5
1
7
1
5
6
2
G47
5
5
5
1
3
3
6
8
2
G48
3
3
3
1
7
3
6
8
2
G49
3
3
3
1
7
3
6
3
2
G50
7
3
3
1
7
3
6
6
2
G51
7
3
3
1
7
3
6
7
1
G52
7
3
3
1
7
3
6
3
2
G53
5
3
3
1
7
3
6
6
2
G54
3
7
5
1
3
3
6
3
2
G55
3
3
7
1
5
5
5
9
1
G56
3
3
5
1
5
3
5
3
2
G57
7
3
3
1
7
5
5
8
2
G58
7
7
3
1
7
5
4
8
2
G59
7
7
5
1
7
5
5
8
2
G60
5
5
5
1
7
5
5
6
2
G61
5
5
5
1
7
3
6
3
2
G62
3
3
3
1
5
3
6
3
1
G63
5
3
3
1
5
5
5
6
2
G64
3
5
5
1
7
3
3
3
2
G65
5
3
3
1
5
1
6
6
2
G66
5
5
5
1
5
3
6
3
2
G67
5
3
3
1
5
1
6
6
2
G68
3
3
3
1
7
5
5
5
2
G69
3
3
3
9
7
3
6
3
2
G70
5
5
3
1
5
5
5
8
1
G71
7
5
3
1
5
7
5
9
2
G72
5
3
3
1
7
5
3
3
2
G73
7
7
5
1
3
3
5
7
1
G74
7
7
5
1
3
3
5
3
2
G75
7
5
5
1
3
5
4
6
2
G76
5
3
5
1
5
7
5
6
2
G77
5
7
5
1
5
5
7
8
1
LA: Leaf Attitude; 3:Semi erect, 5: horizontal, 7: semi-dropping, LL: Leaf length; 3: Short, 5: medium, 7: long, LW: Leaf width; 3:
Narrow, 5: medium, 7: broad, L: Leaflets; 1: present, 9: absente, NF: Number of flowers; 3: 3-5 pieces, 5: 6-10 pieces, 7: more than
10, TR: Time of ripening; 1: Very early, 3: early, 5: medium, 7: late, 9: very late, FC: Fruit color; 1: Orange, 2: yellow, 3: pink, 4:
light red, 5: red, 6: dark red, 7:Zebra, FLS: Fruit shape in longitudinal section: 3: Circular, 4: rectangular, 5: cylindrical, 6: elliptic, 7:
heart-shaped, 8: obovate, 9: ovate, 10: pear-shaped, FCS: Fruit cross section; 1: Not round, 2: round
Some yield parameters of fruits belonging to cocktail tomato genotypes were also examined. The
average fruit weight of all genotypes was measured as 25.5 g. The highest fruit weights from the
G66, G26, G52 were 44.0 g, 43.3 g, 43.2 g, respectively; The lowest values were measured in the
G1, G4, and G24 (13.3 g, 12 g, 11.4 g, respectively). The average fruit size was found to be 37.55
mm. Among the genotypes, G28, G61, G35 were found to have the highest fruit size (57.1 mm,
49.5 mm, 46.7 mm). The lowest values were measured in G31, G72, and G76 as 29.5 mm, 28.9
mm, 28.1 mm, respectively. The fruit width average was found to be 35.12 mm. G41 (42.1 mm) and
G38 (42) gave the highest values in terms of fruit width, while genotypes G71 (26.5 mm) and G58
(22.03 mm) gave the lowest values. Pericarp thickness was the highest in the G67 (6.03mm), G39
306
(5.53mm), and G34 (5.15mm), while the lowest in the G66 (1.78mm) and G58 (1.39mm). The
average amount of water-soluble dry matter was found to be 6.15. Highest Brix values were
determined in G39, G47, and G55 (9.10, 9, 9 Brix, respectively). G56, G71, and G23, which had the
lowest Brix values produced the 4, 3.9, and 3 Brix, respectively. When the carpel numbers were
examined, it was found that the G12, G16, G26, G33, G38, G40, and G45 had 3 carpels, while the
other genotypes had 2 carpels (Table 3).
Table 3. Fruit measurements of cocktail tomato lines
Genotypes
AFW
FS
FW
PT
BRIX
CN
G1
13,33
34,80
30,09
3,14
6,80
2
G2
28,50
30,48
36,94
3,43
5,60
2
G3
14,15
34,84
32,46
2,68
5,10
2
G4
12,00
39,15
35,23
4,42
7,10
2
G5
28,50
42,76
30,94
3,33
6,80
2
G6
26,13
37,53
37,64
2,92
7,30
2
G7
30,25
41,31
39,78
4,94
4,90
2
G8
21,71
37,34
31,67
3,22
6,00
2
G9
17,11
37,36
34,06
2,96
5,70
2
G10
23,00
33,94
34,82
3,47
6,40
2
G11
26,11
39,85
34,96
3,13
6,10
2
G12
18,18
33,94
34,82
3,47
5,80
3
G13
18,33
39,85
34,96
3,13
6,00
2
G14
25,67
35,10
34,95
4,29
4,50
2
G15
23,60
36,36
34,78
4,16
7,40
2
G16
27,55
36,06
35,12
2,27
6,30
3
G17
14,38
34,62
34,04
2,10
5,50
2
G18
31,25
32,40
32,25
4,07
6,50
2
G19
16,25
32,35
34,26
3,66
7,40
2
G20
26,43
31,15
30,19
2,44
5,30
2
G21
27,14
43,56
37,73
3,05
6,40
2
G22
33,33
39,53
30,84
2,67
6,00
2
G23
37,00
38,22
35,74
2,16
3,00
2
G24
11,44
38,49
39,40
4,03
4,50
2
G25
28,89
37,73
40,65
3,76
8,40
2
G26
43,33
42,05
38,20
2,43
4,50
3
G27
23,50
35,53
33,75
2,31
7,10
2
G28
24,38
57,05
39,46
4,12
7,30
2
G29
29,00
35,56
34,21
4,34
6,00
2
G30
21,25
33,87
33,12
3,26
5,90
2
G31
23,64
29,54
31,36
2,67
8,60
2
G32
37,45
41,41
36,61
3,36
6,20
2
G33
20,63
32,92
33,75
2,96
6,02
3
G34
28,33
41,86
41,81
5,15
7,20
2
G35
30,00
46,68
40,28
4,85
6,80
2
G36
30,22
36,71
37,27
2,95
5,50
2
G37
39,00
37,58
41,10
3,45
5,70
2
G38
36,75
38,18
42,00
4,91
5,40
3
G39
27,78
39,00
41,18
5,53
9,10
2
G40
20,70
40,71
39,81
4,25
6,60
3
G41
26,00
37,87
42,12
3,68
4,90
2
G42
33,44
36,36
36,02
2,72
6,00
2
G43
18,90
37,09
39,77
4,39
5,40
2
G44
15,20
36,58
30,02
3,34
5,50
2
G45
16,91
33,68
36,40
3,09
5,80
3
G46
19,09
33,12
33,35
2,39
7,30
2
G47
14,86
40,40
38,31
3,38
9,00
2
G48
20,06
36,24
34,00
3,21
7,00
2
307
G49
27,22
37,11
31,82
3,29
6,50
2
G50
28,30
38,72
26,87
2,52
5,50
2
G51
37,43
37,97
31,40
3,54
6,40
2
G52
43,27
35,21
38,58
4,52
5,80
2
G53
21,18
42,75
36,32
2,75
6,20
2
G54
26,40
41,63
36,81
3,03
7,00
2
G55
15,92
41,26
39,67
4,12
9,00
2
G56
31,50
33,19
31,36
2,55
4,10
2
G57
33,38
38,81
37,70
3,85
6,10
2
G58
31,00
34,75
22,03
1,39
5,40
2
G59
19,33
36,49
38,25
4,44
6,10
2
G60
37,25
38,72
39,74
4,17
7,30
2
G61
32,80
49,47
37,76
4,10
7,30
2
G62
27,22
38,92
26,69
2,27
6,30
2
G63
20,50
43,63
37,13
3,78
6,40
2
G64
29,37
37,97
35,38
2,46
4,60
2
G65
31,92
33,62
32,33
3,09
4,20
2
G66
44,00
34,42
31,58
1,78
5,70
2
G67
28,00
41,25
38,45
6,03
6,90
2
G68
15,44
40,09
41,36
3,30
5,00
2
G69
19,92
31,22
30,96
2,24
5,10
2
G70
20,86
39,05
33,08
2,72
5,20
2
G71
22,44
38,63
26,55
2,13
3,90
2
G72
27,29
28,98
40,45
2,33
8,10
2
G73
16,86
39,79
31,96
3,49
6,00
2
G74
23,14
40,99
31,00
4,57
5,50
2
G75
24,71
34,93
32,04
2,99
7,00
2
G76
27,18
28,09
29,35
3,01
5,80
2
G77
19,13
34,80
35,49
3,01
5,80
2
AFW: Average Fruit Weight (gr/fruit), FS: Fruit Size (mm), FW: Fruit Width (mm), PT: Pericarp Thickness (mm),
BRIX: Water Soluble Dry Matter (Brix), CN: Carpel Number (piece)
Table 4. PCA results obtained from fruit measurements of tomato lines.
PCA1
PCA2
PCA3
Eigen Value
2,526
1,9
1,525
Variance%
16,84
12,66
10,169
Total Variance %
16,84
29,508
39,676
Eigenvectors
AFW
0,05665
0,18526
0,29289
FS
0,33722
0,16973
-0,18577
FW
0,46797
0,17644
0,06163
PT
0,47579
0,08559
-0,17071
BRIX
0,22945
0,01588
-0,39781
CN
0,07494
0,12381
0,46184
FLS
0,12708
-0,43882
-0,13247
FCS
0,00652
0,23855
0,27847
LA
-0,03946
-0,21764
0,03991
LL
0,27288
-0,31605
0,35984
LW
0,41838
-0,20126
0,25155
L
-0,17798
0,2528
-0,27153
NF
-0,17189
0,33594
0,31414
TR
-0,15433
-0,42059
0,07527
FC
0,16473
0,30322
-0,08773
AFW: Average Fruit Weight, FS: Fruit Size, FW: Fruit Width, PT: Pericarp Thickness, BRIX: Water Soluble Dry Matter, CN:
Carpel Number, LA: Leaf Attitude, LL: Leaf length, LW: Leaf width, L: Leaflets, NF: Number of flowers, TR: Time of ripening,
FC: Fruit color, FLS: Fruit shape in longitudinal section, FCS: Fruit cross-section
308
Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to the measurements and observations taken
through the statistics program. When the obtained data were examined, it was seen that the study
was explained in 6 components with a rate of 63%.
As a result of the principal component analysis, the first component (PC1) explained the study with
a rate of 16.8%. According to the first component, pericarp thickness, fruit width and leaf width
were the highest positively explained parameters. While the second component (PC2) explained the
study with a rate of 12.6%, the number of flowers and fruit color was the highest positively
explained parameters, and the fruit longitudinal section was the highest parameter in the negative
direction. The third component (PC3) explained the study at a rate of 10.2%. Looking at this
component, the highest positively explained parameters were carpel number and leaf length, while
the highest negatively explained parameter was Brix (Table 4).
Gbadamosi et al. (2020) conducted a study in which morphological and SSR markers were used to
determine the genetic diversity among tomato genotypes in Nigeria. In the principal component
analysis they made using the data they obtained, the researchers stated that the study in 10
components was explained. Among these components, it was reported that the study was explained
with a high rate of 80% in the first 3 components. According to PCA analysis, fruit yield, average
fruit weight, number of days until first flowering and first fruit set and plant height, number of
branches, and number of fruits per cluster show the highest discrimination potential.
In a study, it was tried to determine the best screening method for salt tolerance in tomato
genotypes. The results of this study showed that the principal component analysis (PCA) technique
can be used as a tool for selection and discrimination against salt stress in tomato genotypes
(Sivakumar et al., 2020). By using principal component analysis and different methods, 324 tomato
pure lines were classified based on their agronomic properties. According to the principal
component analysis of 17 agronomic features among the parameters in the study, variables were
grouped into six main components. These six basic components made up 68.35% of the total
genetic variation and the study was explained at this rate (Jin et al., 2019).
In another study on tomatoes, the profile of water-soluble metabolites and mineral nutrients were
tried to be determined to evaluate the effects of pesticides and organic and chemical fertilizers on
tomato fruit quality. The data obtained in this study were evaluated by subjecting them to principal
309
component analysis. As a result of the study, it was seen that the total variation was explained in the
first two main components at a rate of 88.06%. Nutrient contents are generally separated between
organic and chemical fertilizer applications by both main components 1 (PC1) and PC2 (Watanabe
et al., 2015).
Figure 1. Loading plot graph obtained from PC1 and PC2 as a result of PCA made from fruit characteristics of cocktail
tomato lines. (YD: LA: Leaf Attitude, YU: LL: Leaf length, YG: LW: Leaf width, KS: CN: Carpel Number, ÇS: NF: Number of
flowers MOZ: TR: Time of ripening, MR: FC: Fruit color, MBK: FLS: Fruit shape in longitudinal section, MEK: FCS: Fruit cross-
section OMA: AFW: Average Fruit Weight, MB: FS: Fruit Size, ME: FW: Fruit Width, PK: PT: Pericarp Thickness, SÇKM: BRIX:
Water Soluble Dry Matter, YAKY: L: Leaflets
Using PC1 and PC2 components, a loading plot chart was drawn to examine the relationship
between yield and morphological properties (Figure 1). If the angle value between the vectors is less
than 90 degrees, it means that there is a positive relationship between the vectors, and if it is more
than 90 degrees a negative relationship. If the angle between vectors is 90, it has been reported that
there is no significant relationship (Yavuz et al., 2020; Seymen, 2021). When Figure 1 was
examined, it was found that the highest positive correlation was between Brix, fruit width, fruit
length, and pericarp thickness. On the other hand, the highest negative correlation was found
between leaf length and leaflet.
Lovelli et al., (2017) conducted a study to understand how different water constraint techniques can
affect tomato properties. This study was planned for two years and applied different statistical
techniques to the results obtained from the study. When the loading plot chart drawn with two
different components was examined in the study, it was observed that there was a high positive
correlation between the dry matter content of tomatoes and soluble solids in both years.
310
Figure 2. Score plot graph obtained from PC1 and PC2 as a result of PCA made from fruit characteristics of tomato
lines
Score plot charts were created to evaluate 77 tomato genotypes using PC1 and PC2 components.
When Figure 2 is examined, the genotypes that are located in the positive region of PC1 and PC2
and numbered G28, G35, G38, G67, and G40 in terms of fruit size, fruit width, and pericarp
thickness emerged as the genotypes with the best results (Figure 2).
Conclusion
The morphological and agronomic properties of 77 genotypes included in the study using cocktail
tomato pure lines were evaluated, and the relationships between these characteristics were
interpreted. As a result of the study, it was revealed that there are some differences in morphological
characteristics obtained from plants and fruits. According to the PCA, the study was explained in
63% of 6 components. With the help of the graphics drawn with these components, it was
determined that there is a positive correlation between Brix, fruit width, fruit length, and pericarp
thickness. G28, G35, G38, G67, and G40 inbred lines, located in the positive zone between PC1 and
PC2, were found to be able to be used in breeding studies considering the consumer demands. The
hybrid cocktail tomatoes to be obtained using these genotypes should be taken to trials in larger
areas, and the variety of candidates showing sufficient performance should be brought into
agriculture. Also, it was determined that the differences between tomato genotypes can be revealed
by using principal component analysis and this analysis can be used safely in morphological and
agronomic characterization studies.
311
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312
ANTIOXIDANT AND IMMUNOSTIMULANT EFFECTS OF
SOME MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS
Ugur TEMIZ1*, Ergin OZTURK2
1Amasya University, Suluova Vocational School, Department of Veterinary, 05500,
Amasya, Turkey
2Ondokuz Mayis University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, 55139,
Samsun, Turkey
*Corresponding author: ugur.temiz@amasya.edu.tr.
ABSTRACT
Medicinal and aromatic plants, their extracts and essential oils are considered as alternative
feed additives to antibiotics in animal nutrition. It has been determined that aromatic herbs and
essential oils obtained from them increase the amount and activity of enzymes in the digestive
system, improve the microbial flora in the intestine, strengthen the immune system and increase the
shelf life of the products due to their antioxidant effect. It is stated that essential oils have positive
effects on feed consumption, feed utilization, improvement of carcass quality, decreasing mortality
and increasing productivity. Aromatic plants and essential oils derived from them are also used as
an antimicrobial preservative in many industrial sectors such as medicine, food and cosmetics. It is
also recommended by many researchers because of its "antioxidant activities" that counteract the
effects of free radicals. In this review, antioxidant and immunostimulant effects on livestock of
aromatic plants and their essential oil components were evaluated.
Keywords: Animal nutrition, Medicinal and aromatic plant, Antioxidant, Immunostimulant.
INTRODUCTION
With the prohibition of the use of antibiotics as performance enhancers in livestock rations
since 2006, research on human and environmentally friendly alternative additives (probiotics,
organic acids, plant extracts, plant essential oils and various herbs) that can replace antibiotics has
intensified. One of the most interesting alternative feed additives recently, is aromatic plants and
essential oils extracted from them. These alternative feed additives, essential oils, which are
generally referred to as phytobiotics, can be used alone or in combination with other feed additives
to produce economical and reliable animal products (Ricroch, 2016; Cheng, 2018). It is stated that
313
the use of essential oils and extracts obtained from medicinal and aromatic plants in animal
nutrition prevents pathogenic microorganisms from settling in the digestive system, increases the
effects of digestive enzymes, shows antioxidant properties that prevent free radical formation,
strengthens the immune system, improves the feed utilization and the flavor of the feed (Botsoglou
et al., 2004; Gha; Diaz and Sanchez, 2015). In this review,
the antioxidant and immunostimulant effects of aromatic plants and their essential oil components
on livestock were evaluated.
1. Essential oils
Essential oils are aromatic oily compounds obtained from different parts of plants (flowers,
buds, seeds, leaves, branches, bark, wood, fruit and roots). Essential oils are obtained from the
leaves, flowers, shells, seeds and roots of plants by the method of water vapor distillation or
extraction, generally in liquid form at room temperature, easily crystallize, and are mostly colorless
or light yellow (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014; Akdag and Ozturk, 2019). Essential oils are complex
structures formed by the combination of various compounds in different concentrations and
different chemical structures (Al-Kas
Most essential oils, structurally classified as alcohol, ester and aldehyde derivatives of
phenylpropanoids and terpenoids, are terpenoids (Isoprenoids), mostly monoterpenes and
sesquiterpenes. They also include diterpenes, low molecular weight aliphatic hydrocarbons, acids,
alcohols, aldehydes, acyclic esters or lactones, nitrogen and sulfur-containing compounds as
exception, coumarins and homologs of phenylpropanoids (Evren and Tekguler, 2011). Essential
oils obtained from plants have been found to have no health hazards when consumed by humans
and animals, and these substances are classified as safe additives in terms of chemical structure
(FDA, 2004; Qiao, 2018).
2. Usage of essential oils as antioxidants
Antioxidants are used to prevent or prolong the oxidation of oils and fatty acids. The
presence of phenolic OH groups acting as hydrogen donors to peroxide radicals released during the
first step of lipid oxidation reduces the formation of hydroxy peroxide. The antioxidant effect of
phenolic compounds is due to their properties such as scavenging free radicals, forming compounds
with metal ions (metal chelating) and preventing or reducing the formation of singlet (single)
oxygen (Farag et al., 1989).
314
In the past, synthetic antioxidants such as butyratet hyroxyanol, butyratet hyroksitoluen,
butyratet hyroxyanol or butyratet hyroksinetolvenol were used as feed additives (Nakatani, 2000;
Luna et al., 2010). However, in some studies conducted on mice, it has been found that butyrate
hyroxytoluene and butyratet hyroxyanol synthetic antioxidants have tumor and carcinogenic effects
on various organs in the body (Lindenschmidt et al., 1986; Kahl and Kappus, 1993; Yanishlieva et
al., 1999). When these damages of synthetic antioxidants emerged in terms of human health,
producers turned to phytogenic plants containing phenolic terpenes. Among the phytogenic plants,
especially thyme, rosemary and thymol, which are in the labiate family, stand out due to their
antioxidant properties (Cuppet and Hall,         
recent years, studies on the potential antioxidant effects of plant extracts and essential oils obtained
from them have gained momentum and positive results have been obtained (Tavarez, 2011;
Hashemipour et al., 2013).
3. Usage of essential oils as immunostimulant
The active ingredients of plants can activate various complements of the immune system,
such as lysozyme, complement, B and T lymphocytes, natural killer cells and phagocytosis. In this
context, plants and their by-products can be preferred to boost the immune system. Plants contain
phenolic, polyphenolic, alkaloid, quinone, terpenoid, lectin and polypeptide compounds. Many of
these herbs are shown as highly effective alternatives to antibiotics, chemicals, vaccines and other
synthetic compounds (Esin B, 2017).
Essential oils, alone or as a mixture with other feed additives, are considered as alternative
feed additives to produce economical and reliable animal products. It has been reported that
aromatic plants and essential oils obtained from them can be used as feed additives in animal
nutrition due to the strengthening of the immune system, increase of appetite, stimulation of
digestion, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties if IgG and IgA production is increased (Wallace
et al., 2010).
The most important functions of essential oils, also known as etherial oils, are their
antiseptic, antioxidant, digestive stimulant, antimicrobial and enzymatic properties (Griggs and
-cineol and carvacrol
isolated from essential oils of thyme, coriander, cumin, lavender and orange peel can be shown as
an example of such kind of natural antimicrobial agents (Alcicek, 2009). Recent studies show that
thyme, clove and cinnamon are the most effective essential oils in this regard. For example, thyme
315
essential oil is the best known and most widely used essential oil due to its antibacterial effect.
Active ingredients such as carvacrol and thymol are effective on Escherichia coli and many
pathogenic microorganisms (Da Silveira et al., 2014). Therefore, with the use of essential oil as a
feed additive; Many benefits can be achieved such as high body weight gain, better feed utilization,
inhibiting intestinal pathogen microorganisms, increasing the activity of digestive enzymes,
increasing the secretion in digestive juices, producing quality meat due to stimulation of protein
synthesis and creating a healthy and clean environment by binding ammonia (Purchiaroni et al.,
2013).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
There has been a significant increase in studies for the development of alternative feed
additives due to the risk of residue and cross-resistance using antibiotics as growth factors in animal
nutrition. However, it is possible to say that phytobiotics and the essential oils obtained from them
can be used as an alternative to antibiotics due to their antioxidant activities and immunostumulant
effects in animal nutrition. Studies on the determination of doses for the use of essential oils in
rations separately and in combination, their interactions with each other, technologies for
incorporating mixed foods, and their effects on animal organisms and products are needed.
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318
ESSENTIAL OILS AS NATURAL ADDITIVES
Ugur TEMIZ1, Ergin OZTURK2
1Amasya University, Suluova Vocational School, Department of Veterinary, 05500,
Amasya, Turkey
2Ondokuz Mayis University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Animal Science, 55139,
Samsun, Turkey
Corresponding author e-mail: ugur.temiz@amasya.edu.tr.
ABSTRACT
With the prohibiton of the use of antibiotics as a growth enhancing feed additive in animal
nutrition in the Europan Union, the search for alternative products regulate growth, use of feed and
regulate digestive system health. In this context, researchers have searched for natural and safe
additives that can be alternative to antibiotics in recent years. Concern and data about synthetic
additives are harmful to human health has caused natural additives to be preferred in this sector. In
recent studies, the fact that natural additives as antioxidans have immunity-enhancing effects on the
defense system, and consumers have turned to organic and natural product consumption, have
highlighted natural additives as an alternative. Plants and essential oils derived from them come to
the fore with their various microbial activities, and in many countries; herbal extracts are considered
as one of the effective solutions. It has been proven that essential oils obtained from plants have no
health hazards when consumed by humans and animals, and it has been stated that these additives
are suitable for usage in animal nutrition. In this study, the facilities of using essential oils as natural
feed additives in animal nutrition were evaluated.
Keywords: Animal nutrition, Essential oils, Natural additives
INTRODUCTION
With the prohibition of the use of antibiotics as performance enhancers in livestock rations
since 2006, new feed additives that can be an alternative to antibiotics as a growth factor and
minimize losses in animal nutrition have started to be researched with new legal regulations. One of
the most interesting alternative feed additives recently, is aromatic plants and essential oils
extracted from them. Vegetable essential oils can be used alone or in a mixture with other feed
additives to produce economical and reliable animal products (Ricroch, 2016; Cheng, 2018). These
319
natural feed additives used in animal nutrition are aimed to improve feed utilization, reduce the
negative effects on human health, and increase the quantity and quality of the product obtained from
animals. It is stated that the use of essential oils and extracts obtained from medicinal and aromatic
plants in animal feed suppresses the development of pathogenic microorganisms in the gastro
intestinal system, increases the effects of digestive enzymes, strengthens the immune system,
improves the feed utilization and the flavor of the feed (Ghasemi et al., 2014; Diaz and Sanchez,
2015). In this study, the possibilities of using essential oils as natural feed additives in animal
nutrition were evaluated.
1. Essential oils
Essential oils are aromatic oily compounds obtained from different parts of plants (flowers,
buds, seeds, leaves, branches, bark, wood, fruit and roots). Essential oils are obtained from the
leaves, flowers, shells, seeds and roots of plants by the method of water vapor distillation or
extraction, generally in liquid form at room temperature, easily crystallize, and are mostly colorless
or light yellow (Raut and Karuppayil, 2014; Akdag and Ozturk, 2019).
Essential oils, also called "etherial oils", are a mixture of plants
are studied in two chemical groups called terpenoids and phenylproponoids. Terpenoids constitute
the largest group of plant active ingredients and monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids are the most
important components of Terpenoids (Patra and Saxena, 2010). Thymol and carvacrol in thyme,
limonene in orange, pinene in bay and menthol in mint are the most important examples that can be
given to terpenoids. Anethole in fennel, eugenol in cinnamon, cinnamaldehyde in cinnamon and
silverberry can be shown as an example for phenylpropanoids (Nerio et al., 2010; Patra and Saxena,
2010; Patra, 2011; Sahan, 2012).
Essential oils obtained from plants have been found to have no health hazards when
consumed by humans and animals, and these substances are classified as safe additives in terms of
chemical structure (FDA, 2004; Qiao, 2018).
2. Usage of essential oils as a growth promoter in livestock
Vegetable extracts that do not leave any residue in animals and do not contain any risk to
human health and essential oils obtained from them are the most emphasized substances used in
er of controlled studies on
the effects of phytobiotics on livestock, there are extensive reports on the positive effects of adding
320
these additives to the diet (Du et al., 2015; Pirgozliev et al., 2015; Peng et al., 2016). On the other
hand, in recent years, it has been determined in vitro that essential oils activate the digestive system,
increase enzyme production and thus improve body weight, ensure feed utilization and improve
carcass yield, and also make many essential oils inhibit both bacterial and fungal pathogens (Cabuk
et al., 2006; Jerzsele et al., 2012; Turan et al., 2012; Peng et al., 2016).
3. Usage of essential oils as antimicrobial agents in livestock
It is known that essential oils obtained from medicinal and aromatic plants have
antibacterial, antiviral, antiparasitic properties, and have bactericidal and fungicidal effects against
various microorganisms. Substances such as linalool, limonene, 1,8-cineol and carvacrol isolated
from essential oils of thyme, coriander, cumin, lavender and orange peel can be shown as an
example of such kind of natural antimicrobial agents (Alcicek, 2009). Recent studies show that
thyme, clove and cinnamon are the most effective essential oils in this regard. For example, thyme
essential oil is the most widely known and widely used essential oil due to its antibacterial effect.
Active ingredients such as carvacrol and thymol in thyme essential oil are effective on Escherichia
coli and many pathogenic microorganisms (Da Silveira et al., 2014). These effects are reported to
occur due to the lipophilic properties of oils and the presence of a series of terpenoid and phonolic
compounds in their chemical structure (Demirtas et al     
Therefore, with the use of essential oil as a feed additive; many benefits can be achieved such as
high body weight gain, better feed utilization, inhibiting intestinal pathogen microorganisms,
increasing the activity of digestive enzymes, increasing the secretion in digestive juices, producing
quality meat due to stimulation of protein synthesis and creating a healthy and clean environment
by binding ammonia (Purchiaroni et al., 2013).
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
After the use of antibiotics as growth factors in animal nutrition is banned due to the risk of
residue and cross resistance, essential oils, which are most interestingly focused on, are considered
as alternative feed additives to produce economical and safe animal products, either alone or as a
mixture with other feed additives. Studies on the determination of doses for the use of essential oils
in rations separately and in combination, their interactions with each other, technologies for
incorporating mixed foods, and their effects on animal organisms and products are needed.
321
REFERENCES
Akdag, A., & Ozturk, E. (2019). Distillation Methods of Essential Oils. Selcuk University
Faculty of Science, Science Journal, 45 (1), 22-31.
Alcicek, A., Cabuk, M., & Bozkurt, M. (2009). Opportunities to utilize essential Oils
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), Cumin (Carumcarvi L.), Lavender (Lavandula stoechas L.) and
Orange (Citrus sinensis L.) as antimicrobial feed additives. VI. National Animal Science Congress.
Erzurum, 3-9.
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THE EFFECT OF SEAWINE FERTILIZER ON THE
DEVELOPMENT OF SPINACH AND LETTUCE PLANT

k University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Konya,
Turkey (ucetin@selcuk.edu.tr; irfanata422@hotmail.com)
ABSTRACT
In this study, the effects of seaweed manure applied in increasing doses in greenhouse conditions on
the development of spinach and lettuce plants and some yield components were investigated. Trial
coincidence plots were carried out in 2 different types of plants (spinach, lettuce), seaweed manure,
four different doses (0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5 %) and 3 repeats according to the trial pattern. When the
spinach and lettuce plant has completed its 60-day development, it was harvested, plant growth and
some yield elements (plant upper part and root length, plant and root age and dry weights) were
determined. The application of seaweed manure to soil in increasing doses supported the
development of the plant in both plant varieties and showed differences according to the increasing
doses. These differences were found statistically significant and insignificant depending on plant
variety, doses and some yield factors. According to the research results; The effect of seaweed
manure fertilizer applied in increasing doses on the root length, upper age and dry weight of spinach
plant was found statistically significant. The application of seaweed manure in lettuce plant, on the
other hand, was determined to be important on the plant's upper parts and root length, and the effect
of the plant on wet and dry weight.
Keywords: Spinach, lettuce, seaweed manure, soil
1. INTRODUCTION
The fastest and most effective way to increase productivity in agricultural production has been
chemical fertilizer applications and very successful results have been obtained from these
applications. However, long-term and excessive chemical fertilizer applications have brought
various problems, such as adversely affecting various properties of soils and polluting groundwater
etc (Liu et al., 2010; Shan et al., 2015).
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When seaweed products stay in the soil for a long time, they easily break down under natural
conditions and produce plenty of nitrogen (N) and calcium (Ca). They also contain trace elements
such as magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), boron (B), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and cobalt
(Co). All these effects of seaweed; It is derived from compounds such as macro and microelements
(N, Ca, Mg, Mn, B, B, Fe, Zn, Cu, Co), plant growth regulators (auxins, cytokinins, gibberellins,
abscisic acid) and betaines (Hong et al., 1995).
The effect of liquid algae extract (Kelpak) on the growth and nutrient content of lettuce has been
examined and it has been noted that Kelpak increases the product amount and the amount of Ca, K,
Mg in leaves (Grouch et al., 1990). Verkleij (1992) reported that the application of 100-1000 times
diluted seaweed extract before harvesting in peaches extends the storage life, and soaking banana
and mango fruits in diluted commercial seaweed solution increases the ripening rate.
As a result of the application of Goemar GA 14, an extract of Ascophyllum nodosum, to spinach
plant in the form of a spray; It was determined that the amount of fresh weight in spinach increased
(Gassan et al., 1992). Allwright (1992) reported in his study on wheat that the plant height and dry
weight ratio increased with the application of seaweed extracts from leaves and soil.
Demirkaya, (2010), in the study, the possibilities of using seaweed extract in osmotic conditioning
applications on pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) and onion (Allium cepa L.) seeds were investigated.
Osmotic conditioning applications with seaweed extract increased the germination percentage in
onion and pepper seeds and shortened the average germination time.
In recent years, the use of commercial liquid fertilizers with organic content has become widespread
in order to ensure earliness and diversity in greenhouse cultivation. Nowadays, seaweeds are used in
many countries either as a liquid extract or by mixing them directly into the soil. When they are
mixed directly into the soil; It is aimed to preserve soil fertility for a long time by improving the soil
structure. For many years, some sea algae that were naturally thrown ashore by the seas were used
as fer
In this study, it was aimed to determine the effects of seaweed fertilizer, an organic fertilizer, on
yield and quality in lettuce and spinach cultivation.
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2. MATERIAL AND METHOD
In the experiment conducted under greenhouse conditions, a soil sample with a silty loam texture
was used. As the seaweed fertilizer, a solid fertilizer named proton obtained from DRT fertilizer
company was used. In the experiment, 4 kg of soil was placed in the pots on the basis of oven dry
weight and the doses of seaweed fertilizer were applied as 0-0.1-0.2-0.5 %. Fertilizer doses were
added to the soil with planting. After adding the seaweed fertilizer to the soil in the specified doses,
spinach and lettuce seeds were planted in pots and irrigation was carried out with pure water. After
the spinach (Matador) and lettuce (Yedikule 5701) plants germinated and developed, 4 plants were
left in each pot.
Spinach and lettuce plants were harvested at the end of 60 days trial period and necessary
measurements were made. Plant and root lengths were measured in plants. Then, the wet weights of
the upper parts and roots of the plants were determined by weighing. The plant and root samples,
whose wet weights were taken, were dried in an oven at 70
were determined. The data obtained from the greenhouse experiment, which was established
according to the randomized plot trial design, were subjected to variance analysis according to the
Minitab 16 statistical program, and the significant treatments according to the F test were grouped

3. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Some of the physical and chemical properties of the soil sample used in the greenhouse experiment
are given below.
Table 1. Some physical and chemical properties of the soil sample used in the greenhouse
experiment.
Properties
Value
Properties
Value
Texture class
Silty loam
Ca mgkg-1
7533
pH (1:2.5)
8.25
Mg mgkg-1
826
EC (1:5) dSm-1
0.31
Mn mgkg-1
8.55
CaCO3 (%)
24.32
Zn mgkg-1
1.08
O.M. (%)
2.03
B mgkg-1
2.24
NH4 +NO3-N mgkg-1
10.7
Cu mgkg-1
1.21
P mgkg-1
23
Fe mgkg-1
1.94
K mgkg-1
525
Some chemical properties of seaweed fertilizer (alginic acid) used in the study are given in Table
2.
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Table 2. Some chemical properties of seaweed fertilizer used in the experiment.
Properties
% w/w
Macro N.
% w/w
Micro N.
mgkg-1
O. M.
45
N
2
Fe
200
pH
9-11
P
3
Cu
6
EC (dSm-1)
44.6
K
10
Mn
12
Protein
6-8
Ca
0.2
Zn
100
Karbonhidratlar
35-50
S
1.5
B
100
Alginik asit
1.5
Mg
0.5
Mo
4
Mannitol
4-7
Na
1.8
3.1. Research Results of the Spinach Plant
In the study, 0-0.1-0.2 % and 0.5 % application doses of seaweed fertilizer were added to pots
containing 4 kg of soil on the basis of oven dry weight. Spinach and lettuce plants were grown in
these pots after the growing environment was prepared. The plants in question were harvested after
60 days and necessary measurements were made. According to the research results; The effect of
seaweed fertilizer applied in different doses on the plant length of spinach showed differences, and
these differences were statistically insignificant. The highest plant height was 11.42 cm with 0.1 %
seaweed applied plant in the pot. The lowest plant height was determined as 0.5 % in the seaweed
applied plant.
As can be seen from Table 2, the seaweed fertilizer used in the experiment is rich in organic matter, its
pH is alkaline, and is in the extremely salty class in terms of salinity. This fertilizer contains 1.5% alginic
acid.
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Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3
Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6
Figure 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. The effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses on plant
height, root length, plant wet weight, dry weight, root wet and dry weight of spinach plant.
According to the results of the research, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses
on the root length of spinach showed differences as shown in Figure 2, and these differences were
found statistically significant (p <0.05).
In the study in question, the root lengths of spinach plant varied between 13.83-8.35 cm, and the
highest root length was determined with 13.83 cm with 0.1 % seaweed fertilizer. The lowest root
length was determined as 8.35 and 0.5 % in seaweed applied plants. There was no effect of
increasing the seaweed fertilizer dose on the root length of the spinach plant (Figure 2).
In this study, in which the effect of increasing doses of seaweed fertilizer on some yield elements of
spinach plant was investigated, the effect of fertilizer doses on the wet weight of the spinach plant
showed differences (Figure 3). As can be seen from Figure 3, the plant wet weights of the spinach
plant ranged from 12.86 to 5.88 g, and these changes were statistically significant (p <0.01). In
addition, the highest wet weight of the spinach plant was observed with 12.86 and the plant in the
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pot applied with 0.1 % seaweed fertilizer. It was determined that the wet weight of the spinach plant
in the pot without seaweed fertilizer was higher than the plant in the pot with 0.5 % seaweed
fertilizer.
According to the results of the study, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in different doses on
the dry weight of spinach in spinach showed differences, and these differences were statistically
significant (p <0.01). Dry weight values of spinach plants in pots applied with increasing doses of
seaweed fertilizer were determined to be between 2.12 and 0.85 g (Figure 4). As can be seen from
Figure 4, the highest dry weight of spinach plant was observed in the plant in the pot applied with
0.1 % seaweed fertilizer with 2.12 g. The lowest dry weight of the plant was determined in the
potted plant with 0.5 % seaweed fertilizer.
On the other hand, the effect of the doses of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses on the
root wet weight of the spinach plant showed differences. In the study, it was determined that the
root wet weight values of the spinach plant varied between 2.05-1.19 g (Figure 5). According to the
data obtained from the study, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses on the root
wet weight of spinach plant was found to be statistically insignificant. In the experiment, it was
determined that the root wet weight of the spinach plant in the pot without seaweed was higher than
the plants treated with 0.1-0.2 % and 0.5 % seaweed fertilizer (Figure 5). In addition, the spinach
plant, which has the lowest root wet weight, was observed at 0.5 % in the pot in which seaweed
fertilizer was applied.
According to the results of the research, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses
on the dry weight of the spinach plant showed differences, and these differences were statistically
insignificant (Figure 6).
As can be seen in Figure 6, root dry weight of spinach plant varies between 0.63-0.35 g. According
to the data obtained, when the root dry weight values of spinach plant were examined, the highest
root dry weight was observed in the plant with 0.2 % seaweed fertilizer with 0.64 g, while the
lowest root dry weight was determined in the plant in the pot with 0.1% seaweed.
3.2. Research Results of Lettuce Plant
According to the results of the research, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses
on plant height in lettuce showed differences as seen in Figure 7, and these differences were found
statistically significant (p <0.01). In the study in question, the plant heights of lettuce plant varied
329
between 14.5-11.7 cm, and the highest plant height was 14.5 cm with a 0.5 % dose of seaweed. The
lowest plant height was determined with 11.6 cm in the potted plant without seaweed fertilizer.
Seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses to the plant height of the lettuce plant was effective.
Generally, as the fertilizer dosage increased, the height of the lettuce plant increased (Figure 7). The
dried seaweed biofertilizer significantly increased leaf height of lettuce over the control and this
might be due to the release of enough nitrogenous compounds for lettuce growth, mostly nitrates
and ammonium, which can be readily taken up by vascular plants (Rogers and Burns 1994).
Absorbed nitrogen in turn increases leaf height through stem elongation brought about by cell
division and expansion (Havalin et al. 2010).
According to the results of the research, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses
on the plant root length in lettuce showed differences as seen in Figure 8, and these differences were
found statistically significant (p <0.05). In the study in question, the root lengths of the lettuce plant
varied between 9.08-7.17 cm and the highest plant root length was observed in the pot applied with
0.1 % seaweed fertilizer with 9.08 cm, while the lowest plant root length was 7.17 cm and 0.5 % in
the plant in the pot with seaweed fertilizer applied.
Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9
Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12
Figure 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. The effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses on plant
height, root length, plant wet weight, dry weight, root wet and dry weight of lettuce plant.
According to the results of the research, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in different doses on
the plant age weight in lettuce showed differences, and these differences were found to be
330
statistically significant (p <0.05). It was determined that the wet weight values of the lettuce plant in
pots applied with increasing doses of seaweed fertilizer were between 18.33-13.95 g. As can be
seen from Figure 17, the highest wet weight was observed with 18.33 g and 0.1 % in the plant in the
pot where seaweed fertilizer was applied. The lowest plant wet weight was determined with 13.95 g
in the potted lettuce plant without seaweed fertilizer.
According to the results of the research, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in different doses on
the plant root age weight in lettuce showed differences and these differences were found to be
statistically insignificant.
Root wet weight values of lettuce plants in pots where increased doses of seaweed fertilizer were
applied were determined to be between 4.07-2.96 g. As can be seen from Figure 11, the highest
plant root wet weight was observed in the potted plant with 4.07 g and 0.1 % dose of seaweed
fertilizer, while the lowest plant root wet weight was found in the plant in the pot applied with 0.2
% seaweed fertilizer with 2.96 g (Figure 11).
On the other hand, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses on dry weight of
lettuce showed differences, and these differences were statistically significant (p <0.05). In the
research, it was determined that the upper part dry weight values of lettuce plant varied between
1.97-1.40 g (Figure 9). As can be seen in Figure 9, the highest dry weight of the plant was observed
with 1.97 g and the plant in the pot with 0.5 % dose of seaweed fertilizer, while the lowest plant dry
weight was observed with 1.40 g in the potted plant without seaweed fertilizer. The dose of seaweed
fertilizer was effective on the dry weight of the lettuce plant.
According to the results of the research, the effect of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing doses
on the dry weight of the lettuce plant showed differences, and these differences were statistically
insignificant (Figure 10). As can be seen from Figure 10, root dry weights of lettuce plant vary
between 1.17-0.71 g. According to the data obtained, when the root dry weight values of the lettuce
plant were examined, the highest plant root dry weight was observed in the plant in the pot with a
dose of 1.17 g and 0.1 % seaweed fertilizer, while the lowest plant root dry weight of the lettuce
plant was 0.71 g and 0.2 % seaweed fertilizer. It was observed in the potted plant applied (Figure
10).
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4. CONCLUSION
Increase in the use of chemical fertilizers and environmental pollution; It has begun to pose a life-
threatening threat to all living things with the deterioration of natural balance and food chains. As a
result, they have started to prefer agricultural products produced by methods that do not cause toxic
effects on humans and do not destroy nature. It is known that in agriculture and especially in
biological agriculture, seaweed is used in many regions of the world to increase yield and quality, to
regulate plant growth, to increase resistance to diseases and pests, to improve soil structure and for
animal husbandry.
In the research, it has been observed that the application of seaweed fertilizer applied in increasing
doses generally supports the development of the plant depending on the doses to develop better
vegetative components in spinach and lettuce plants. This development affected the root length, wet
and dry weight of the upper parts of the spinach plant. In the lettuce plant, the application of
seaweed fertilizer to the soil has been determined to be significant on the plant upper parts and root
length, and the plant's wet and dry weight.
5. REFERENCES
Allwright, K. J. (1992). Effect of seaweed extracts on growth of wheat, and soil bornediseases.
Abstract of the 14th International Seaweed Symposium, Brest and St Malo, France, Abstract
Number 004.
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333
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN SOME
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS BY PRINCIPAL
COMPONENT ANALYSES IN PINTO BEAN
a*, Necibe KAYAKbabb,
Neslihan ISSIb, Arif Selim ARICIb, Musa SEYMENaa, Ertan Sait KURTARa
a: -Turkey
b: Horticultural Departments, Graduate School of Natural Sciences, University, Konya-Turkey
* Corresponding author: dalyesim@gmail.com
Abtract
This study was carried out to determine the morphological characteristics of 36 pinto bean
genotypes (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. pinto.). Morphological diversity in pinto bean genotypes was
determined by examining the parameters of the UPOV criteria in plant, fruit and productivity. The
results of the plant, fruit and yield obtained were subjected to PCA analysis. The study was
explained with a high rate of 77.28% in 5 components with using of PCA (Principal component
analysis). The highest positive correlation was found between seed width and seed height. On the
other hand, the highest negative correlation was found between grain color L and a values. When
PC1 and PC2 were evaluated together, the G3, which showed important results in terms of agro-
morphology, emerged as a promising hybrid line. Genotypes showed high variation in terms of
agro-morphological characteristics, and differences were determined in yield and some genotypes
were found promising lines.
Keywords: Agronomic, kidney beans, morphology, PCA
Introduction
Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) is an important species that is highly self-pollinated and grown in
extremely large areas in            et al.,
2013; Dursun, 1999; Maras et al., 2008; Yeken et al., 2018). There are nearly 230 species of the
Phaseolus genus, but about 20 of them are of economic importance. The most important types
among these are; P. lunatus var. lunatus, P. acutifolius, P. coccineous and P. vulgaris (2n = 22).
(Bliss, 1981; Bliss and Brown, 1983). Kidney Beans; It is a type of vegetable that can be evaluated
in different ways, including fresh broad beans, unripe 
2004). In ranking the countries engaged in the production of beans in the world, China ranked first
with 9.8 million tonnes, Indonesia second with 939 thousand tons, India third with 715 thousand
334
tons, Turkey with 581 thousand tons, ranks 4th among the most important producers (FAO, 2018).
In the FAOSTAT data, the production amount of kidney beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. pinto)
was not evaluated separately, it was evaluated within the bean data.
Pinto beans have a very high nutritional value in terms of human nutrition, with high amounts of
protein (20-25%), carbohydrates (50-60%), especially mineral substances (Potassium, Phosphorus,
Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur, Iron and Manganese) (Rehman et al., 2001; Reyes- Moreno ve
Paredes-
between 50 and et al., 2000; Cejas et al., 2013;
Broughton et al.,      eans are also a rich source of essential
vitamins ( A, D, E and K) and minerals, soluble fiber, starch and phytochemicals, and are also
et al.,2016).
The purpose of the characterization of plant genetic resources is primarily to reveal genetic
variation between seed samples or populations. Turkey is not included in the bean gene center. But
due to the wide geographic diffusion of this crop, distributed in very different climatic
environments, divergent criteria of selection for well-adjusted characters were utilized by producers
from different regions (Piergiovanni et al., 2006; Akbulut et al., 2013). Knowing the variations in
cultivated species is very important for the implementation of plant breeding programs(Blis,
1981b). Variation in the genetic evaluation of a quantitative trait in vegetable breeding is of great
importance. Variation in the genetic evaluation of a quantitative trait in vegetable breeding is of
great importance. The partial sizes of these variations with each other help in identifying the genetic
  85). Many of the traits that are directly affected by
natural and artificial selection usually show quantitative variation. Studies on quantitative properties
are of great importance as they determine the economic use of germplasm. For this reason, in the
evaluation of gene resources inbreeding, it is necessary to examine agronomic characteristics
together with genetic characteristics (Singh, 2001; Escribano et al., 1998).
In a study conducted in Konya conditions, a total of 8 commercial varieties, Nadide, Romano

quality elements of some dwarf green bean varieties. Yield and yield factors differed significantly
among the varieties, the highest yield was obtain
     
pods per plant (Seymen et al., 2010). Besides, it is necessary to determine the varieties suitable for
ecologi             
Anlarsal et al., 2000).
               
programs in their study. Therefore, Turkey had 36 items of fresh bean genotypes were collected
from different regions. Then they made the morphological characterization of these genotypes.
They evaluated the morphological characters of bean genotypes they collected according to UPOV
criteria. Then they made the statistical analysis of the obtained data. At the end of the study, they
concluded that the variation between some bean genotypes was not high and that the first three
characters could be used to explain 50% of the variation between genotypes. According to the
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dendrogram they obtained, they stated that distant genotypes could be an important source of
variance and could be used in possible breeding programs.
This study was carried out to determine the agro-morphological characteristics of 36 kidney beans
genotypes (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. pinto.), which were determined to be suitable for fresh
consumption and have hope. The results obtained in yield, fruit and plant characteristics were
subjected to PCA analysis. Thus, by determining important parameters, it is aimed to reveal
productive genotypes with high fruit quality. Thus, it is aimed to create the starting material for the
kidney bean breeding program that is planned to be made later.
2-Material and Method
The research was conducted at the Selcuk University Faculty of Agriculture application land in
2020. In the study, 36 pinto bean genotypes determined to be suitable for consumption were used.
When the climatic data of the research year were examined, the average temperature in June-
September was 18- random blocks
were set up with 3 replications according to the trial pattern. It was also established with 10 plants
per recurrence. The study was started on 28.05.2020 by sowing seeds at 20x100 cm distances. After
sowing, it was irrigated with drip irrigation and during the vegetation period, cultural practice such
as hoeing, throat filling, fertilization, disease, and pest management were carried out regularly. The
first harvest was made on 20.08.2020 and the harvests were terminated on 27.09.2020.
In genotypes; the number of pods per plant (pieces), average pod weight (gr), pod height (cm), pod
width (cm), pod thickness (mm), beak length (mm), seed length (mm), 1000 grain weight, The
morphological characteristics of the hybrid lines were determined according to the International
Union for the Protection of New Plant Varieties (UPOV) characteristics such as seed number, seed
width (mm), seed height (mm) and L, a and b values existing in the color measurement scale.
3. Results and Discussion
In the study, as a result of the characterization studies performed on 36 kidney bean genotypes, the
differences between them were evaluated according to the UPOV parameters.
Average of kidney bean genotypes according to the parameters taken; number of pods per plant
(15.06 pieces), plant weight (4.94 g), pod height (13 mm), pod width (11.35mm), pod wall
thickness (0.53 mm), beak length (10, 85), seed number (6.03 pcs), thousand-grain weight (515 g),
seed length (14 mm), seed width (8.3 mm), seed height (6.58), and L (69.95) ), a (6.82) and b
(13.46).
Plant, fruit and seed characteristics measurements obtained in kidney beans genotypes were
subjected to PCA. In the studies conducted, it is stated that more than 25% of the first two
component should be explained in order to use PCA analysis (Mohammadi ve Prasanna, 2003;
Seymen et al., 2019). As a result of PCA, 25.78% of the first component (PC1) study were
explained, and pod height, pod width, seed length, seed width and "a" parameters were the highest
positive parameters. The second component (PC2) explained 20.4% of the study, seed length, seed
height, "L" and "a" were the highest parameters explained in the positive direction, and the number
of seeds was the highest parameter in the negative direction. The third component (PC3), on the
336
other hand, explained 12.7% of the study, and the number of pods per plant, thousand grain weight
and beak length were the highest positively explained parameters, and the average pod weight and
"b" value were the highest parameters explained in the negative direction (Table 1).
Table 1: PCA results obtained from plant, fruit and seed measurements of kidney bean variety candidates
PC1
PC2
PC3
Eigen value
3.51
2.86
1.77
Variance%
25.78
20.43
12.65
Total variance%
25.78
46.21
58.86
Eigenvectors
BBPP
-0.0115
0.03943
0.54464
ABBW
0.21835
-0.06429
-0.32445
BBH
0.40604
-0.00397
-0.16659
BEW
0.39616
0.14232
0.16089
BET
0.07254
0.12511
-0.1649
BL
-0.04613
0.06346
0.38091
TS
-0.08757
-0.46025
-0.07807
TGW
-0.01787
0.19931
0.447
LS
0.36408
0.33644
-0.02969
SW
0.32255
0.28143
0.10081
SH
0.13748
0.3757
-0.13323
L
-0.35584
0.38361
-0.15598
a
0.41101
-0.28283
-0.0735
b
-0.25289
0.37699
-0.32823
BBPP: broad bean per plant ABBW: average broad bean weight BBH: broad bean height BEW: broad bean
width BET: broad bean thickness
BL: beak length TS: number of seeds TGW: thousand grain weight LS: length of seeds SW: seed
width SH: seed height L*a*b
By using PC1 and PC2 components, a loading plot chart was created to examine the mutual
relationship between yield, fruit and seed characteristics ( Figure 1). It has been reported that there
is a positive relationship if the vectors in the figure are smaller than 90 degrees, there is a negative
relationship if they are greater than 90 degrees, and if the angle between the vectors is 90 degrees,
there is no significant relationship (Yan and Kang, 2003; Yavuz et al., 2020). When the figure was
examined, the highest positive correlation was found between seed length and seed width. On the
other hand, the highest negative correlation was found between "L" and "a".
337
Figure 1. Loading plot graph obtained from PC1 and PC2 as a result of PCA made from fruit
characteristics of Kidney Bean Genotypes
BBPP: broad bean per plant ABBW: average broad bean weight BBH: broad bean height BEW: broad bean
width BET: broad bean thickness BL: beak length TS: number of seeds TGW: thousand grain weight LS:
length of seeds SW: seed width SH: seed height L*a*b
A score plot graph was created to evaluate 36 kidney bean genotypes by using PC1 and PC2
components ( Figure 2). When the figure was examined, when PC1 and PC2 were examined, the
genotypes with G1, G3, G5, G14, G17 appeared as the best results in terms of seed width, seed
length and pod width parameters. In terms of the number of seeds of the genotype numbered G6,
the genotype numbered G10 showed an important result with the "a" value, which gives the red /
green ratio in the color scale.
338
Figure 2. Score plot graphic obtained from PC1 and PC2 as a result of PCA made from fruit
characteristics of kidney bean genotypes
4. Conclusion
In our study, morphological and agronomic data of 36 genotypes were examined. As a result of the
PCA analysis performed to determine the relationship between traits and genotypes examined using
these data, some differences were found in plant, fruit and seed characteristics. As a result of the
study, genotypes numbered G1, G3, G5, G14 and G17, located in the positive region of PC1 and
PC2 and showing important results, were determined as promising genotypes in terms of the
characteristics examined. It is thought that the determined genotypes have important gene resources
for future breeding efforts and will make significant contributions to the development of new
varieties.
5. References
Akbulut, B., Karakurt, Y. and Tonguc, M. (2013a,b). Molecular characterization of common bean
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes. Akdeniz Univ J Fac Agric,26(2), 105-108.
   Phaseolus
vulgaris             
restry, 24, 19-29.
Balkaya, A., 