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Citation: Bialek, Goshka. 2022. Glass
as a Fine Art Medium: Brief History
and the Role of Adriano Berengo as a
Fine Art Glass Impresario. Arts 11:
19. https://doi.org/10.3390/
arts11010019
Academic Editor: Thor J. Mednick
Received: 23 November 2021
Accepted: 13 January 2022
Published: 17 January 2022
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arts
Article
Glass as a Fine Art Medium: Brief History and the Role of
Adriano Berengo as a Fine Art Glass Impresario
Goshka Bialek
Independent Researcher, Durham DH1 4ED, UK; goshkab@gmail.com
Abstract:
This article explores the role of glass as a medium in the fine arts rather than as a craft form.
It includes a short history of glass as an art medium, the development of glass technologies and their
application in the field of fine art. It reflects the distinctiveness of glass as a sculptural medium due
to its optical properties and transparency; glass’s inherent characteristics create the unique possibility
of using the space both outside and inside a solid object. This article, furthermore, demonstrates the
importance of specific individuals in bringing glass as a fine art medium to the fore, in particular
Adriano Berengo. Berengo proves exceptional in promoting glass in the field of fine arts and has
been particularly effective in encouraging well-known artists to experiment with it as a medium. The
article discusses the impact of his efforts to establish cooperation with great names from all over the
world, from Ai Weiwei to Tony Cragg and from Jaume Plensa to César, who have passed through
Adriano Berengo’s studio.
Keywords: fine arts; sculpture; glass; glass art; Glasstress; inner space; crafts; arts medium
1. Introduction
The United Nations declared the year 2022 as the International Year of Glass (McDonald
2021). This presents an exciting opportunity to explore the uniqueness of glass as a fine art
medium, why it has historically not been a popular medium and the possibilities it holds
for the fine art world going forwards.
We can already see the impact of the UN declaration, with Ireland already announcing
an artist who uses glass as a medium, Niamh O’Malley, to represent them at the Venice
Biennale (Niamh O’Malley to Represent Ireland at Venice Biennale 2021). This mainstream-
ing of glass within fine art represents an important step towards recognising the power
that it can provide as a medium.
The history of artistic glasswork and industrial glass production is full of challenges
overcome and challenges that, through creativity, have led to new opportunities. The expe-
riences of industrial glass producers are important to artists: learnings from these highly
technological environments can be applied creatively to glasswork in studios especially
when sat beside partnerships with industry, which facilitate access to specialist (and expen-
sive) equipment (Bialek 2017). We are currently seeing a growth in partnerships between
artists and glass technologists which is creating exciting results; however, it is important
that this is not at the expense of artists working with glass themselves as experimenting
with a material often leads to important creative (and technological) leaps forward.
An increasing number of artists are trying to use glass as a medium to create their
sculptures, to a large extent, due to the optical properties and transparency of this material.
However, usually those artists tended to use factory-made glass with glass casting or hot
glass forming techniques being used much less frequently in fine arts. As technology
evolves, we encounter fewer restrictions. However, restrictions on size remain a significant
constraint.
Access to industrial technologies is still primarily only available to artists working in
or associated with glass factories. In Scandinavia, glass art is still closely linked to the glass
Arts 2022,11, 19. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts11010019 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/arts
Arts 2022,11, 19 2 of 14
industry and this offers the opportunity to apply some of the more expensive technologies
(Dowson 2000). One of these artists is Bertil Vallien. He started to work with glass when
he began to work for Åfors glass factory as a designer in 1963. Glass started to be his
most inspirational medium with the huge development of sand-casting methods (Figure 1).
Thanks to this method, he is less restricted by size than many glass artists. Some of his
sculptures are up to 14 feet long (Giubilei 2012). His sand-casting process gave him the
opportunity to use the medium in a more personal way without the restrictions which
other available materials, tools and processes offered (Vallien 2013).
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15
Access to industrial technologies is still primarily only available to artists working
in or associated with glass factories. In Scandinavia, glass art is still closely linked to the
glass industry and this offers the opportunity to apply some of the more expensive tech-
nologies (Dowson 2000). One of these artists is Bertil Vallien. He started to work with
glass when he began to work for Åfors glass factory as a designer in 1963. Glass started
to be his most inspirational medium with the huge development of sand-casting meth-
ods (Figure 1). Thanks to this method, he is less restricted by size than many glass art-
ists. Some of his sculptures are up to 14 feet long (Giubilei 2012). His sand-casting pro-
cess gave him the opportunity to use the medium in a more personal way without the
restrictions which other available materials, tools and processes offered (Vallien 2013).
Figure 1. Bertil Vallien; Boat; 2016. Made for American collectors on 17 May 2016. Photo: Lena
Gunnarsson. Used with permission.
However, many artists prefer to work and create in their studios. The second half of
the 20th century saw a great interest in moving the use of glass as a medium beyond
craft and into fine art. There was significant development of new technologies and their
application in sculpture in artists’ studios.
In the 1940′s and 1950′s Czech artists developed studio-based fine art glass to a very
high level, but until the 1960′s they could not share their achievements freely due to po-
litical constraints. Czech artist started enjoying international recognition for their glass
artworks such as sculptures when it was displayed and awarded in international exhibi-
tions in Expo 58 World Fair in Brussels and in Expo 67 in Montréal (Petrova 2001). Nev-
ertheless, Bohemia (a part of the Czech Republic) became famous for its glass art already
during the Renaissance, and the oldest archaeological excavations of glass production
date even to around 1250 (Petrova 2001).
Separately, 1950′s American artists interested in glass began to look for new ways of
working with this material outside of industry. Harvey K. Littleton, a teaching ceramist,
started experimenting successfully with hot glass. In the 1960′s he collaborated with
glass research scientist Dominick Labino, who built a small and affordable furnace for
melting glass that could be used in artists’ studios (Klein 1989). In 1962, Littleton deliv-
ered two glass-blowing workshops at the Toledo Museum of Art to introduce artists to
the use of hot glass in the studio. This was the beginning of the American Studio Glass
movement.
As American Studio glass artists felt the lack of technical knowledge to develop tru-
ly sculptural objects, they sought help in countries with more experience in this field
such as Czechoslovakia, Sweden, and Italy. This led to the Studio Glass movement
quickly spreading to Europe and then gradually to the other continents. A characteristic
of this movement was the sharing of technical knowledge and ideas between artists,
Figure 1.
Bertil Vallien; Boat; 2016. Made for American collectors on 17 May 2016. Photo: Lena
Gunnarsson. Used with permission.
However, many artists prefer to work and create in their studios. The second half
of the 20th century saw a great interest in moving the use of glass as a medium beyond
craft and into fine art. There was significant development of new technologies and their
application in sculpture in artists’ studios.
In the 1940’s and 1950’s Czech artists developed studio-based fine art glass to a very
high level, but until the 1960’s they could not share their achievements freely due to political
constraints. Czech artist started enjoying international recognition for their glass artworks
such as sculptures when it was displayed and awarded in international exhibitions in
Expo 58 World Fair in Brussels and in Expo 67 in Montréal (Petrova 2001). Nevertheless,
Bohemia (a part of the Czech Republic) became famous for its glass art already during the
Renaissance, and the oldest archaeological excavations of glass production date even to
around 1250 (Petrova 2001).
Separately, 1950’s American artists interested in glass began to look for new ways of
working with this material outside of industry. Harvey K. Littleton, a teaching ceramist,
started experimenting successfully with hot glass. In the 1960’s he collaborated with glass
research scientist Dominick Labino, who built a small and affordable furnace for melting
glass that could be used in artists’ studios (Klein 1989). In 1962, Littleton delivered two
glass-blowing workshops at the Toledo Museum of Art to introduce artists to the use of hot
glass in the studio. This was the beginning of the American Studio Glass movement.
As American Studio glass artists felt the lack of technical knowledge to develop truly
sculptural objects, they sought help in countries with more experience in this field such
as Czechoslovakia, Sweden, and Italy. This led to the Studio Glass movement quickly
spreading to Europe and then gradually to the other continents. A characteristic of this
movement was the sharing of technical knowledge and ideas between artists, which is
not possible within the glass industry due to commercial constraints. However, the studio
movement placed emphasis on artists as designers and makers, which had a major influence
on limiting the use of glass in the fine arts.
Arts 2022,11, 19 3 of 14
This limitation was noted by Adriano Berengo (Born 1947 Venice, Italy), perhaps the
most important figure in enabling artists to work in glass and promoting glass as a fine art
medium (Berengo 2021). Berengo is a gallerist, a collector, a dealer, an entrepreneur and
most importantly, an open-minded visionary. One of his ideas was to invite artists from
all over the world to work with his studio (Figures 2and 11); he introduced the potential
of glass as a medium to them; facilitated collaborations between them and glass masters
to help to create their projects, and, as a result, supported the recognition of glass as a
distinctive medium within fine art.
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
which is not possible within the glass industry due to commercial constraints. However,
the studio movement placed emphasis on artists as designers and makers, which had a
major influence on limiting the use of glass in the fine arts.
This limitation was noted by Adriano Berengo (Born 1947 Venice, Italy), perhaps
the most important figure in enabling artists to work in glass and promoting glass as a
fine art medium (Berengo 2021). Berengo is a gallerist, a collector, a dealer, an entrepre-
neur and most importantly, an open-minded visionary. One of his ideas was to invite
artists from all over the world to work with his studio (Figures 2 and 11); he introduced
the potential of glass as a medium to them; facilitated collaborations between them and
glass masters to help to create their projects, and, as a result, supported the recognition
of glass as a distinctive medium within fine art.
Figure 2. Tony Cragg in Berengo Studio 2009. Photographed by Francesco Allegretto; used with
permission.
Berengo developed the Glasstress project to further his mission that glass be recog-
nised as an important part of contemporary art by introducing the Berengo Studio glass
creations at the Venice Biennale for the first time in 2009 and has successfully continued
it to this day. In addition, to increase the international impact of Glasstress, Berengo or-
ganised these exhibitions in cooperation with prestigious museums including the State
Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg (Russia), the Museum of Art and Design in New
York and the Millesgården Museum in Stockholm. In order to show objectively the de-
velopment of the use of glass in the fine arts, he included works by well-known artists in
his exhibitions, even though they were made by other fabricators.
In this article we will explore why glass, unlike many other materials, has not been
fully recognised as a fine art medium throughout history: to do so we will present a brief
history of glasswork, with emphasis on its applications in art and Adriano Berengo’s in-
fluence on the position of glass art as a contemporary fine art.
2. Short History of Glass as an Art Medium
The mediums of sculpture have, through the centuries, been subject to a system of
hierarchies based on social, political and aesthetic aspects. The oldest three materials ap-
plied in sculpture are clay, marble and bronze. Glass, like clay, is one of the oldest media
in existence. Glass has been known to humans since they started to use tools. During the
Figure 2.
Tony Cragg in Berengo Studio 2009. Photographed by Francesco Allegretto; used with
permission.
Berengo developed the Glasstress project to further his mission that glass be recognised
as an important part of contemporary art by introducing the Berengo Studio glass creations
at the Venice Biennale for the first time in 2009 and has successfully continued it to this
day. In addition, to increase the international impact of Glasstress, Berengo organised
these exhibitions in cooperation with prestigious museums including the State Hermitage
Museum in St. Petersburg (Russia), the Museum of Art and Design in New York and the
Millesgården Museum in Stockholm. In order to show objectively the development of the
use of glass in the fine arts, he included works by well-known artists in his exhibitions,
even though they were made by other fabricators.
In this article we will explore why glass, unlike many other materials, has not been
fully recognised as a fine art medium throughout history: to do so we will present a brief
history of glasswork, with emphasis on its applications in art and Adriano Berengo’s
influence on the position of glass art as a contemporary fine art.
2. Short History of Glass as an Art Medium
The mediums of sculpture have, through the centuries, been subject to a system of
hierarchies based on social, political and aesthetic aspects. The oldest three materials
applied in sculpture are clay, marble and bronze. Glass, like clay, is one of the oldest media
in existence. Glass has been known to humans since they started to use tools. During
the Stone Age (from 3.4 million years BCE to 8000 BCE), people made tools and weapons
from natural volcanic glass. However, most historians of glass are agreed that techniques
for making glass were first discovered in the Bronze Age around the end of the third
Arts 2022,11, 19 4 of 14
millennium BCE. At this point in time, the process of melting and casting metal was already
known, and this knowledge proved useful in the production of glass. Humans have been
producing glass by melting raw materials for thousands of years. First beads, which were
supposed to be substitutes for semiprecious and precious stones, were the most common
glass products, but glass rods, inlays and other richly coloured items were also produced
(Grose 1989).
Venetian glass techniques (predominantly based on freehand glass blowing) have been
known since the 8th century CE. In the 13th century, glass workshops moved to Murano,
to protect Venice from the risk of fire, and also to maintain the secrecy surrounding the
techniques of glass blowing (and therefore retain the commercial advantage that this offered
(Gable 2004). In the 15th and 16th centuries, Murano glass was in the full bloom of glass
making and development of unique techniques, but in the 17th century, it entered the
period of gradual decline, which was continued to the 19th century. In 1895 the first Venice
Biennial Exhibition was introduced, and it highlighted the gap between the modern trends
in Europe and Murano artisan production in styles from the past (Toso 1999). At the
beginning of the 20th century, Murano returned to art and continuous innovation, which
led to a rise in popularity (Gable 2004).
In the 1950’s, Egidio Costantini (1912, Brindisi, Italy–2007, Venice, Italy) had a vision
of how to promote Murano glass more widely, moving it beyond a craft material and
into the world of fine art. He was fascinated by Murano glass but was not a master
glassmaker himself. His idea was to increase access to glass workshops for artists by
producing glass sculptures from drawings by well-known contemporary artists such as
Pablo Picasso (Figure 3), Marc Chagall and Jean Arp (Peggy Guggenheim Collection 2021).
By associating the work of the workshops with famous artists, he planned to elevate the
art of glassblowing to the same level as sculpture or painting. It was a highly innovative
proposal as outsiders did not have access to the Murano workshops at that time. He built a
collaboration of Venetian artists and set up the Centro Studio Pittori nell’Arte del Vetro di
Murano. However, this only lasted five years. Following this, he opened his own gallery,
the Fucina degli Angeli, which was successful reputationally but less so financially. Peggy
Guggenheim became involved as a funder of the gallery as it was also important to her
that Venetian art and Murano glass art be recognised worldwide. The last exhibition of
Constantini works was held in Innsbruck in 2003, although pieces based created from
drawings by famous artists are still on display at the Peggy Guggenheim Museum.
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15
Stone Age (from 3.4 million years BCE to 8000 BCE), people made tools and weapons
from natural volcanic glass. However, most historians of glass are agreed that tech-
niques for making glass were first discovered in the Bronze Age around the end of the
third millennium BCE. At this point in time, the process of melting and casting metal
was already known, and this knowledge proved useful in the production of glass. Hu-
mans have been producing glass by melting raw materials for thousands of years. First
beads, which were supposed to be substitutes for semiprecious and precious stones,
were the most common glass products, but glass rods, inlays and other richly coloured
items were also produced (Grose 1989).
Venetian glass techniques (predominantly based on freehand glass blowing) have
been known since the 8th century CE. In the 13th century, glass workshops moved to
Murano, to protect Venice from the risk of fire, and also to maintain the secrecy sur-
rounding the techniques of glass blowing (and therefore retain the commercial ad-
vantage that this offered (Gable 2004). In the 15th and 16th centuries, Murano glass was
in the full bloom of glass making and development of unique techniques, but in the 17th
century, it entered the period of gradual decline, which was continued to the 19th centu-
ry. In 1895 the first Venice Biennial Exhibition was introduced, and it highlighted the
gap between the modern trends in Europe and Murano artisan production in styles from
the past (Toso 1999). At the beginning of the 20th century, Murano returned to art and
continuous innovation, which led to a rise in popularity (Gable 2004).
In the 1950′s, Egidio Costantini (1912, Brindisi, Italy–2007, Venice, Italy) had a vi-
sion of how to promote Murano glass more widely, moving it beyond a craft material
and into the world of fine art. He was fascinated by Murano glass but was not a master
glassmaker himself. His idea was to increase access to glass workshops for artists by
producing glass sculptures from drawings by well-known contemporary artists such as
Pablo Picasso (Figure 3), Marc Chagall and Jean Arp (Peggy Guggenheim Collection
2021). By associating the work of the workshops with famous artists, he planned to ele-
vate the art of glassblowing to the same level as sculpture or painting. It was a highly
innovative proposal as outsiders did not have access to the Murano workshops at that
time. He built a collaboration of Venetian artists and set up the Centro Studio Pittori
nell’Arte del Vetro di Murano. However, this only lasted five years. Following this, he
opened his own gallery, the Fucina degli Angeli, which was successful reputationally
but less so financially. Peggy Guggenheim became involved as a funder of the gallery as
it was also important to her that Venetian art and Murano glass art be recognised
worldwide. The last exhibition of Constantini works was held in Innsbruck in 2003, alt-
hough pieces based created from drawings by famous artists are still on display at the
Peggy Guggenheim Museum.
Figure 3. Glass sculptures created by Egidio Costantini from Picasso’s drawings. 1964; Peggy
Guggenheim Collection in Venice. Photographed by Goshka Bialek.
Figure 3.
Glass sculptures created by Egidio Costantini from Picasso’s drawings. 1964; Peggy
Guggenheim Collection in Venice. Photographed by Goshka Bialek.
Arts 2022,11, 19 5 of 14
For a long time, Murano was at the forefront of glass production, but this does not
mean that they were the only ones on the world stage. For example, Bohemian glass,
produced in the regions of Bohemia and Silesia (now parts of the Czech Republic) from
around 1600 was internationally recognised for craftsmanship and innovative designs.
At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the development
of mass production of glass slowed down the progress of small glass craft manufacture,
which was the driving force in the development of new techniques in the production of
glass (Cousin 1996). However, one of the exceptions was the development of French glass.
French glass factories such as Baccarat and St. Louis were founded in the 1760’s. During
the 19th and early 20th centuries, French glassmakers became world leaders, with artists
such as Lalique, Galle and Schneider.
Nevertheless, until the early 20th-century glass was treated as a craft material. This
was almost certainly due to technological constraints, cost and limited access to glass
workshops for artists. Scientific developments and the Industrial Revolution led to the
development of new technologies and materials and lower production costs, all making it
more accessible to artists as a material.
The pioneers in the use of the glass for a conceptual sculpture were two brothers,
the Russian Constructivists: Antoine Pevsner and Naum Gabo (previously known as
Naum Neemia Pevsner). The Constructivists promoted the use of contemporary industrial
materials; they did not carve or model these materials according to sculptural conventions
but constructed them according to principles of modern technology.
The two brothers were some of the several Constructivist artists involved in the
Bauhaus movement, linked by a common approach to art development. The Bauhaus
philosophy was: “Architects, sculptors, painters, we must all turn to the crafts” (Bayer
Gropius, p. 18). Sculpture was taught alongside other art disciplines where an important
part was played by instruction in materials and tools. Between 1917 and 1924, the brothers
experimented with the principles of constructive form and new materials (in the field of
fine art) like glass and plastic were used for the first time (Figure 4) to articulate a new sense
of space (Read 1998, p. 110), and this type of glass application has continued into present
times, new methods have been developed and used by artists such as Marcel Duchamp,
Larry Bell and Gerhard Richter.
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 15
For a long time, Murano was at the forefront of glass production, but this does not
mean that they were the only ones on the world stage. For example, Bohemian glass,
produced in the regions of Bohemia and Silesia (now parts of the Czech Republic) from
around 1600 was internationally recognised for craftsmanship and innovative designs.
At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the develop-
ment of mass production of glass slowed down the progress of small glass craft manu-
facture, which was the driving force in the development of new techniques in the pro-
duction of glass (Cousin 1996). However, one of the exceptions was the development of
French glass. French glass factories such as Baccarat and St. Louis were founded in the
1760′s. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, French glassmakers became world
leaders, with artists such as Lalique, Galle and Schneider.
Nevertheless, until the early 20th-century glass was treated as a craft material. This
was almost certainly due to technological constraints, cost and limited access to glass
workshops for artists. Scientific developments and the Industrial Revolution led to the
development of new technologies and materials and lower production costs, all making
it more accessible to artists as a material.
The pioneers in the use of the glass for a conceptual sculpture were two brothers,
the Russian Constructivists: Antoine Pevsner and Naum Gabo (previously known as
Naum Neemia Pevsner). The Constructivists promoted the use of contemporary indus-
trial materials; they did not carve or model these materials according to sculptural con-
ventions but constructed them according to principles of modern technology.
The two brothers were some of the several Constructivist artists involved in the
Bauhaus movement, linked by a common approach to art development. The Bauhaus
philosophy was: “Architects, sculptors, painters, we must all turn to the crafts” (Bayer
Gropius, p. 18). Sculpture was taught alongside other art disciplines where an important
part was played by instruction in materials and tools. Between 1917 and 1924, the broth-
ers experimented with the principles of constructive form and new materials (in the field
of fine art) like glass and plastic were used for the first time (Figure 4) to articulate a new
sense of space (Read 1998, p. 110), and this type of glass application has continued into
present times, new methods have been developed and used by artists such as Marcel
Duchamp, Larry Bell and Gerhard Richter.
Figure 4. Antoine Pevsner; Anchored Cross; 1925. Peggy Guggenheim Museum in Venice; photo-
graphed by Goshka Bialek. Used with permission
.
Figure 4.
Antoine Pevsner; Anchored Cross; 1925. Peggy Guggenheim Museum in Venice; pho-
tographed by Goshka Bialek. Used with permission.
Arts 2022,11, 19 6 of 14
The 1930s were years of expansion and consolidation in modernist sculpture. Most
sculptors who worked with stone used the process of carving to bring the stone itself to life
(Clough 1969). Barbara Hepworth innovated with this methodology, making a hole in a
solid object made from stone, this new space turning into its own form (Hammacher 1987,
p. 40). The hole connects one side sculpture to the other, making it instantly more three
dimensional. Seeing both sides at the same time is impossible unless the sculpture is created
from a transparent medium such as glass but it was not until the 1960s that Hepworth
experimented with hot glass, using it in Four Hemispheres (although the sculpture was
executed by a local glass factory). It continued a long line of thematic exploration within
her artistic practice—the hemisphere first appearing in works such as the 1937 marble
Pierced Hemisphere I, The Hepworth Wakefield.
In the first half of the 20th century many artists around the world, often in conjunction
with technologists, tried to adapt glass to expand its use in architecture and art. However,
the adoption of hot glass techniques in art required a lot of technological knowledge
and appropriate equipment. Murano masters and others were not willing to share their
knowledge, so the adaptation of these techniques in the fine arts, and especially in artists’
studios, took a little longer. One of the first artists who were interested in developing the
possibilities of hot glass techniques in their artistic practice was Vera Mukhina.
Vera Mukhina (Myxинa Bepa Игнaтьeвнa; born: 1 July 1889, Riga, Latvia, died: 6 Octo-
ber 1953, Moscow, Russia), was a prominent Soviet multidisciplinary artist, internationally
recognised for her monumental work Worker and Kolkhoz Woman for the 1937 World’s
Fair in Paris. She was also interested in incorporating glass in her artistic practice and
was one of the pioneers of Soviet glass art and glassware sets which were made from her
sketches (Dzandzugazova 2013).
During a visit to Italy, in particular the Murano workshops, in 1914 she became inter-
ested in glass. However, she began to work with this new medium at the beginning of 40’s
when she, along with Nikolai Kachalov (inventor of optic glass technology) gained permis-
sion to open a studio for mass production of glassware and funding for an experimental
laboratory. After the war, Vera Mukhina, under the instruction of Nikolai Kachalov, began
to apply glass to her artistic practice. She started with small forms but would eventually
begin using her own hot glass techniques to produce sculptures (Figure 5).
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
The 1930s were years of expansion and consolidation in modernist sculpture. Most
sculptors who worked with stone used the process of carving to bring the stone itself to
life (Clough 1969). Barbara Hepworth innovated with this methodology, making a hole
in a solid object made from stone, this new space turning into its own form (Hammacher
1987, p. 40). The hole connects one side sculpture to the other, making it instantly more
three dimensional. Seeing both sides at the same time is impossible unless the sculpture
is created from a transparent medium such as glass but it was not until the 1960s that
Hepworth experimented with hot glass, using it in Four Hemispheres (although the
sculpture was executed by a local glass factory). It continued a long line of thematic ex-
ploration within her artistic practice—the hemisphere first appearing in works such as
the 1937 marble Pierced Hemisphere I, The Hepworth Wakefield.
In the first half of the 20th century many artists around the world, often in conjunc-
tion with technologists, tried to adapt glass to expand its use in architecture and art.
However, the adoption of hot glass techniques in art required a lot of technological
knowledge and appropriate equipment. Murano masters and others were not willing to
share their knowledge, so the adaptation of these techniques in the fine arts, and espe-
cially in artists’ studios, took a little longer. One of the first artists who were interested in
developing the possibilities of hot glass techniques in their artistic practice was Vera
Mukhina.
Vera Mukhina (Myxинa Bepa Игнaтьeвнa; born: 1 July 1889, Riga, Latvia, died: 6
October 1953, Moscow, Russia), was a prominent Soviet multidisciplinary artist, interna-
tionally recognised for her monumental work Worker and Kolkhoz Woman for the 1937
World’s Fair in Paris. She was also interested in incorporating glass in her artistic prac-
tice and was one of the pioneers of Soviet glass art and glassware sets which were made
from her sketches (Dzandzugazova 2013).
During a visit to Italy, in particular the Murano workshops, in 1914 she became in-
terested in glass. However, she began to work with this new medium at the beginning of
40′s when she, along with Nikolai Kachalov (inventor of optic glass technology) gained
permission to open a studio for mass production of glassware and funding for an exper-
imental laboratory. After the war, Vera Mukhina, under the instruction of Nikolai
Kachalov, began to apply glass to her artistic practice. She started with small forms but
would eventually begin using her own hot glass techniques to produce sculptures (Fig-
ure 5).
Figure 5. Vera Mukhina; Female torso (Жeнcкий тоpc); 1947, New Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow;
photographed by Goshka Bialek.
Figure 5.
Vera Mukhina; Female torso (Жeнcкий тopc); 1947, New Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow;
photographed by Goshka Bialek.
Arts 2022,11, 19 7 of 14
In 1962, as was mentioned earlier, workshops led by Harvey Littleton were held in The
Toledo Museum of Art in Ohio, USA, to explore the possibilities of melting glass in artists’
studios (Cummings 2002) sparking the American Studio Glass movement. Following the
success of these workshops, an international series of workshops and conferences were
organised for artists, curators and technologists, which addressed the different applications
of glass, as well as combining glass with other materials. This period brought about a
dramatic transformation in glass art and the development of glass studios run by artists
themselves (reducing their dependence on specialist workshops).
At the same time as the blossoming of the American Studio Glass movement, Czech
glass artists finally became able to share their art on the international stage; this also proved
an important turning point in the treatment of glass as a fine art medium.
Further development pushing the boundaries of glass as a fine art medium took place
in the 1970s (Dorigato and Klein 1996). In the introduction to the catalogue from the
first major international New Glass exhibition organised by the Corning Museum in 1979,
the founding director of the Corning Museum of Glass, Thomas Buechner, stated that
a dramatic change was taking place in the history of glass, after thirty-five centuries of
utilitarian use of this medium (Klein 1989).
However, the limitations of the size of glass sculptures did not encourage artists,
especially not technologically skilled artists, to use the medium. This led to the development
of art fabricators working with glass, who were often associated with art or were artists
themselves, as Kunstgiesserei St. Gallen founded by Felix Lehner in Switzerland, Cirva
located in Marseille in France or Zdenˇek LhotskýStudio in the Czech Republic. Zdenek
Lhotsky is a painter, sculptor and founding member of the artistic group The Stubborn
Ones. Additionally, he is a successful glass fabricator. He cast monumental works in glass
designed by himself and other artists. For example, he developed technology to execute
Karen Lamonte glass figures, which she had designed in wax.
In recent years, the art fabricators’ manufacturing costs in Europe, the USA and
Australia have become uncompetitive, with the result that more and more glass fabricators
are opening and/or operating in China. This poses a huge challenge, especially for the
European artist industry.
Apart from that, a common problem for artists can be the difficulty of communication
between artists and fabricators, who have the technical skills but insufficient understanding
of fine arts. Many famous artists solve this by setting up their own studios. One of them is
Olafur Eliasson. In 1995, he moved to Berlin and founded Studio Olafur Eliasson, which
today comprises a large team of craftsmen, architects, archivists, researchers, administrators,
cooks, programmers, art historians and specialised technicians. The Studio Glass movement
has been characterised by the exchange of ideas between artists and provides artists with
possibilities to explore applications of glass. In addition, the development of the internet
and social media has led to better communication, sharing of information and increased
collaboration between participants. Numerous social media groups have emerged to share
experiences and information and to promote the activities of artists, using glass in their
artistic practice, to a wider audience (for example, 21st Century Glass: Conversations and
Images/Glass Secessionism created by Tim Tate and William Warmus). Most of the groups
concentrate on particular materials used and the techniques employed in the application,
and members can discuss specific problems related to the subject of the forum.
Despite the wide exchange of ideas and knowledge, these forums primarily bring
together glass artists, leaving a continuing divide between glass artists and fine artists
adopting glass as a medium. This risks a return to the viewpoint of glass as craft rather
than glass as fine art.
3. Glass as a Medium
From the point of view of technical applications, the most favourable properties
of glass include substantial chemical resistance, good dielectric properties, high light
transmittance, low thermal conductivity, high hardness, low abrasion and ease of shaping
Arts 2022,11, 19 8 of 14
and obtaining a smooth surface (Nowotny 1963). From an artistic point of view, the
most interesting of these are transparency, reflectiveness and high light transmittance,
because these features enable interesting optical effects and enrich the possibilities of visual
manipulation.
However, the mechanical properties of glass make it a challenging material to use.
Selection of the appropriate type of glass (a highly technical process in its own right)
significantly improves how easily it can be used (Zieba 1987); however, even with the correct
selection and a high level of technical skill, the end result is not guaranteed, especially
with monumental works. There continue to be significant limitations of the size of glass
artworks; in the case of blown glass the limitation is the weight that a person can carry,
and, in the case of cast glass the limitation is the size of kilns and the capacity to anneal
(cool) the glass in a controlled way (this becomes progressively more challenging as the
glass becomes thicker).
The aesthetic properties of glass as reflectiveness and transparency raise unique
sculptural issues. There are vast differences between sculptures in glass and in other media
due to their unique optical properties—particularly the ability to create and use interior
“spaces” which are visible from the exterior. It is necessary to consider internal space in
sculpture that arise because of the transparency of the material used. If an object is opaque,
the only part that we can see is the boundary between the space occupied by the object
and the unoccupied space (Bialek 2017). In this case, the object defines a shape in space by
delimiting it. It is the sculpture’s facade behind which we assume space hides, but we are
not able to see further in (George 2014). Space is one of the most important parts of form
and it is the space we need to see. This is illustrated by Libensky and Brychtova, leading
glass artists, being obliged to invent new phrases like “colourful glass space”, “coloured
object in space”, “space light dimension” or “light colour” to discuss their work. These
phrases were critical to creating descriptions of the carefully considered hollow interior
cavities they create in their work that defines the colour and luminosity
(Kehlmann 2001
).
The inner space itself, therefore, becomes a new and important medium in sculpture.
However, it is not space itself that becomes visible, only its absence. By using glass, it is
possible to make space inside sculpture visible and solid, and to create new forms within
this space
(Bialek 2017)
. Glass artists such as Bertil Vallien use space inside their sculptures.
Indeed, Vallien is “more interested in what goes on inside the glass than
. . .
in the outer
shell” (Vallien 2013).
The properties of glass can generate a great deal of interest among fine artists and
expand the possibilities for glass to be used extensively in the fine arts, provided that artists
can have easier access to working with the material and that the potential of glass as a
medium is adequately promoted. Development in this direction has been noticeable in
recent years.
4. Adriano Berengo and His Projects to Elevated Importance of Glass as Art Medium
There have been several attempts in the past to present glass as a fine art material
and to have it consistently accepted as such: most notably, the Egidio Costantini–Peggy
Guggenheim collaboration which introduced famous international artists such as Pablo
Picasso, Jean Arp and Max Ernst to glass as a fine art medium.
Inspired by this, Adriano Berengo took action to elevate the importance of glass as a
fine art medium. He has actively promoted knowledge of glass as a fine art material and
provided the opportunity to work with it to a wide group of international artists, many of
them have no previous experience with glass (Figures 2and 11), alongside presenting the
glass artworks created to a wide international audience at high-profile international events.
In 1989 Adriano Berengo established the Berengo Studio. The main objective of
Adriano Berengo’s work is to bring glass into the world of fine art and as such into
the international arena. Adriano invites artists, architects and designers from different
countries, known and less known, to create an innovative application of glass. He is also
interested in people for whom glass is a new medium in their artistic practice. He is also
Arts 2022,11, 19 9 of 14
interested in new ideas for the promotion of glass, as well as new technologies for the
use of glass and, if he sees potential, he allows artists to carry out trials in his studio
(Hawlin 2020).
As part of its activities, Berengo Studio initiated the Glasstress project in 2009 (as
an official collateral event of the Venice Biennale) to represent the possibilities of glass as
a material for contemporary art (Glasstress 2009). The project mission was to introduce
the Berengo Studio glass creations and also to show how contemporary artists apply the
medium to a wider public. The shape of the project has changed over the years. The first
four Glasstress exhibitions were official events in the Venice Biennale, with each exhibition
bringing a new perspective on glass.
Glasstress Gotika 2015 was organised by the State Hermitage Museum in conjunction
with Berengo Studio in the Palazzo Cavalli-Franchetti in Venice. The exhibition presented
the Gothic and neo-Gothic objects from the museum collection in dialogue with works
created by contemporary artists, some of them at the Berengo Studio on Murano. The
exhibition included artworks from Olafur Eliasson, Erwin Wurm, Jaume Plensa, Tony
Cragg and the brothers Chapman (Glasstress 2015).
Glasstress 2017 evolved from the previous events and was an independent exhibition
that took place during the Venice Biennale of Art. After founding Fondazione Berengo in
2014, Berengo opened what is now the Fondazione Berengo Art Space in an old unused
glass factory in Murano, which became the venue for Glasstress 2019 (Berengo 2018).
Additionally, the events turned into a travelling exhibition, not merely held in Venice but
held in venues all over the world.
Under invitation from Adriano Berengo, more than 300 artists, architects, and de-
signers have been given the opportunity to creatively express their thoughts and ideas
using glass. This has led to more and more contemporary sculptors and conceptual artists
working with glass, such as Ai Weiwei (Figure 6), Sir Tony Cragg (Figure 7), Jaume Plensa,
the Chapman Brothers, Mona Hatoum (Figure 8) and Cesar and Miroslaw Balka.
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15
the glass artworks created to a wide international audience at high-profile international
events.
In 1989 Adriano Berengo established the Berengo Studio. The main objective of
Adriano Berengo’s work is to bring glass into the world of fine art and as such into the
international arena. Adriano invites artists, architects and designers from different coun-
tries, known and less known, to create an innovative application of glass. He is also in-
terested in people for whom glass is a new medium in their artistic practice. He is also
interested in new ideas for the promotion of glass, as well as new technologies for the
use of glass and, if he sees potential, he allows artists to carry out trials in his studio
(Hawlin 2020).
As part of its activities, Berengo Studio initiated the Glasstress project in 2009 (as an
official collateral event of the Venice Biennale) to represent the possibilities of glass as a
material for contemporary art (Glasstress 2009). The project mission was to introduce the
Berengo Studio glass creations and also to show how contemporary artists apply the
medium to a wider public. The shape of the project has changed over the years. The first
four Glasstress exhibitions were official events in the Venice Biennale, with each exhibi-
tion bringing a new perspective on glass.
Glasstress Gotika 2015 was organised by the State Hermitage Museum in conjunc-
tion with Berengo Studio in the Palazzo Cavalli-Franchetti in Venice. The exhibition pre-
sented the Gothic and neo-Gothic objects from the museum collection in dialogue with
works created by contemporary artists, some of them at the Berengo Studio on Murano.
The exhibition included artworks from Olafur Eliasson, Erwin Wurm, Jaume Plensa, To-
ny Cragg and the brothers Chapman (Glasstress 2015).
Glasstress 2017 evolved from the previous events and was an independent exhibi-
tion that took place during the Venice Biennale of Art. After founding Fondazione Ber-
engo in 2014, Berengo opened what is now the Fondazione Berengo Art Space in an old
unused glass factory in Murano, which became the venue for Glasstress 2019 (Berengo
2018). Additionally, the events turned into a travelling exhibition, not merely held in
Venice but held in venues all over the world.
Under invitation from Adriano Berengo, more than 300 artists, architects, and de-
signers have been given the opportunity to creatively express their thoughts and ideas
using glass. This has led to more and more contemporary sculptors and conceptual art-
ists working with glass, such as Ai Weiwei (Figure 6), Sir Tony Cragg (Figure 7), Jaume
Plensa, the Chapman Brothers, Mona Hatoum (Figure 8) and Cesar and Miroslaw Balka.
Figure 6. Ai Weiwei’s Blossom 2017; white glass chandelier—looping flowers complete with secu-
rity cameras; Berengo Studio. Used with permission.
Figure 6.
Ai Weiwei’s Blossom 2017; white glass chandelier—looping flowers complete with security
cameras; Berengo Studio. Used with permission.
Arts 2022,11, 19 10 of 14
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
Figure 7. Sir Tony Cragg, Untitled, 2015; hot glass; Berengo Studio; Glasstress 2015. Used with
permission.
Figure 8. Mona Hatoum; Kapancik, 2012; metal and glass combination; Glasstress 2013. Used with
permission.
Mona Hatoum carried out her first attempts to create the Kapancik sculpture with
the assistance of Adriano Berengo masters, and she continued her glass application in
other studios (Berengo 2021). Adriano Berengo’s idea is to present and promote the wid-
est possible use of glass in the fine arts, which is why he exhibits the work of famous art-
ists who have not necessarily worked in his studio: Louise Bourgeois (Figure 9) or
Olafur Eliasson (Figure 10).
Figure 7.
Sir Tony Cragg, Untitled, 2015; hot glass; Berengo Studio; Glasstress 2015. Used with
permission.
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15
Figure 7. Sir Tony Cragg, Untitled, 2015; hot glass; Berengo Studio; Glasstress 2015. Used with
permission.
Figure 8. Mona Hatoum; Kapancik, 2012; metal and glass combination; Glasstress 2013. Used with
permission.
Mona Hatoum carried out her first attempts to create the Kapancik sculpture with
the assistance of Adriano Berengo masters, and she continued her glass application in
other studios (Berengo 2021). Adriano Berengo’s idea is to present and promote the wid-
est possible use of glass in the fine arts, which is why he exhibits the work of famous art-
ists who have not necessarily worked in his studio: Louise Bourgeois (Figure 9) or
Olafur Eliasson (Figure 10).
Figure 8.
Mona Hatoum; Kapancik, 2012; metal and glass combination; Glasstress 2013. Used with
permission.
Mona Hatoum carried out her first attempts to create the Kapancik sculpture with
the assistance of Adriano Berengo masters, and she continued her glass application in
other studios (Berengo 2021). Adriano Berengo’s idea is to present and promote the widest
possible use of glass in the fine arts, which is why he exhibits the work of famous artists
who have not necessarily worked in his studio: Louise Bourgeois (Figure 9) or Olafur
Eliasson (Figure 10).
Arts 2022,11, 19 11 of 14
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
Figure 9. Louise Bourgeois, The Couple, 2002; glass and metal combination; Glasstress 2009. Used
with permission.
Figure 10. Olafur Eliasson; A View Becomes a Window, 2013; glass, leather; Glasstress 2015. Used
with permission.
The most recent exhibition “Glasstress Window To The Future” (11 September–31
October 2021), in the State Hermitage, St Petersburg, Russia featured works by 51 artists,
including key figures in contemporary art such as Ai Weiwei, Renate Bertlmann, Koen
Vanmechelen, Michael Joo, Ilya and Emilia Kabakov and Sean Scully (Figure 11). The
exhibition has been prepared by the Hermitage in conjunction with the Berengo Studio
of Venice (Berengo 2021).
Figure 9.
Louise Bourgeois, The Couple, 2002; glass and metal combination; Glasstress 2009. Used
with permission.
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
Figure 9. Louise Bourgeois, The Couple, 2002; glass and metal combination; Glasstress 2009. Used
with permission.
Figure 10. Olafur Eliasson; A View Becomes a Window, 2013; glass, leather; Glasstress 2015. Used
with permission.
The most recent exhibition “Glasstress Window To The Future” (11 September–31
October 2021), in the State Hermitage, St Petersburg, Russia featured works by 51 artists,
including key figures in contemporary art such as Ai Weiwei, Renate Bertlmann, Koen
Vanmechelen, Michael Joo, Ilya and Emilia Kabakov and Sean Scully (Figure 11). The
exhibition has been prepared by the Hermitage in conjunction with the Berengo Studio
of Venice (Berengo 2021).
Figure 10.
Olafur Eliasson; A View Becomes a Window, 2013; glass, leather; Glasstress 2015. Used
with permission.
The most recent exhibition “Glasstress Window To The Future” (11 September–31
October 2021), in the State Hermitage, St Petersburg, Russia featured works by 51 artists,
including key figures in contemporary art such as Ai Weiwei, Renate Bertlmann, Koen
Vanmechelen, Michael Joo, Ilya and Emilia Kabakov and Sean Scully (Figure 11). The
exhibition has been prepared by the Hermitage in conjunction with the Berengo Studio of
Venice (Berengo 2021).
Adriano Berengo introduced Ai Weiwei to glass as a medium (Figure 12) and since
then he has become fascinated by it. Like Berengo he “believes in contemporary expression,
but at the same time tries to develop this old technique into a new language” (Ai Weiwei,
Fondazioneberengo.org; (Berengo 2021).
Arts 2022,11, 19 12 of 14
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
Figure 11. Sean Scully; The question is are you wrapped rigidly in the cloth of your time or can
you fly out of it? 2021; glass; Glasstress Window to the Future; the State Hermitage, St Petersburg,
Russia; photographed by Svetlana Ragina. Used with permission.
Adriano Berengo introduced Ai Weiwei to glass as a medium (Figure 12) and since
then he has become fascinated by it. Like Berengo he “believes in contemporary expres-
sion, but at the same time tries to develop this old technique into a new language” (Ai
Weiwei, Fondazioneberengo.org; (Berengo 2021).
Figure 12. Ai Weiwei with Adriano Berengo in the Fondazione Berengo Art Space Murano 2016.
Courtesy: © Karolina Sobel. Used with permission.
Ai Weiwei has extended his use of glass beyond Glasstress and into his general cre-
ative practice. Examples of this include his exhibition Cubes and Trees (Downing Col-
lege, Cambridge 2016) and the piece Crystal Cube (2014).
Cubes and Trees, an exhibition that combined sculpture with other forms such as
video, focused on two series of sculptures: a series of trees created from discarded pieces
of wood and a series of cubes made from compacted tea, carved ebony, huali wood and
crystal glass that relate minimalist sculptural forms with Chinese craft and heritage.
Figure 11.
Sean Scully; The question is are you wrapped rigidly in the cloth of your time or can you
fly out of it? 2021; glass; Glasstress Window to the Future; the State Hermitage, St Petersburg, Russia;
photographed by Svetlana Ragina. Used with permission.
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
Figure 11. Sean Scully; The question is are you wrapped rigidly in the cloth of your time or can
you fly out of it? 2021; glass; Glasstress Window to the Future; the State Hermitage, St Petersburg,
Russia; photographed by Svetlana Ragina. Used with permission.
Adriano Berengo introduced Ai Weiwei to glass as a medium (Figure 12) and since
then he has become fascinated by it. Like Berengo he “believes in contemporary expres-
sion, but at the same time tries to develop this old technique into a new language” (Ai
Weiwei, Fondazioneberengo.org; (Berengo 2021).
Figure 12. Ai Weiwei with Adriano Berengo in the Fondazione Berengo Art Space Murano 2016.
Courtesy: © Karolina Sobel. Used with permission.
Ai Weiwei has extended his use of glass beyond Glasstress and into his general cre-
ative practice. Examples of this include his exhibition Cubes and Trees (Downing Col-
lege, Cambridge 2016) and the piece Crystal Cube (2014).
Cubes and Trees, an exhibition that combined sculpture with other forms such as
video, focused on two series of sculptures: a series of trees created from discarded pieces
of wood and a series of cubes made from compacted tea, carved ebony, huali wood and
crystal glass that relate minimalist sculptural forms with Chinese craft and heritage.
Figure 12.
Ai Weiwei with Adriano Berengo in the Fondazione Berengo Art Space Murano 2016.
Courtesy: © Karolina Sobel. Used with permission.
Ai Weiwei has extended his use of glass beyond Glasstress and into his general
creative practice. Examples of this include his exhibition Cubes and Trees (Downing
College, Cambridge 2016) and the piece Crystal Cube (2014).
Cubes and Trees, an exhibition that combined sculpture with other forms such as
video, focused on two series of sculptures: a series of trees created from discarded pieces
of wood and a series of cubes made from compacted tea, carved ebony, huali wood and
crystal glass that relate minimalist sculptural forms with Chinese craft and heritage.
Crystal Cube (Figure 13) as part of the installation was cast in China and was exhibited
at Art Basel, Miami (2014) with Ai Weiwei’s photo, which was taken during his arrest, in
Arts 2022,11, 19 13 of 14
an elevator with the arresting policemen. This work is technically interesting, as well as
conceptually, as it is one of the largest successful sculptures in cast glass (Warmus 2016).
Arts 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15
Crystal Cube (Figure 13) as part of the installation was cast in China and was exhib-
ited at Art Basel, Miami (2014) with Ai Weiwei’s photo, which was taken during his ar-
rest, in an elevator with the arresting policemen. This work is technically interesting, as
well as conceptually, as it is one of the largest successful sculptures in cast glass (War-
mus 2016).
Figure 13. Ai Weiwei; Crystal Cube; 2014; Art Basel; crystal (leaded glass) cube 100 × 100 × 100 cm
(1 cubic meter). Photographed by William Warmus. Used with permission.
Ai Weiwei is a contemporary artist, but he is “… always learning and working with
tradition” (Ai Weiwei, Fondazioneberengo.org) and as such glass offers him a significant
opportunity. He continues to be a frequent visitor to Berengo’s studio and together they
work on new challenging projects using glass.
With the increased promotion of glass as a fine art medium and the reduction in
technical constraints of working with it (although size remains a continuing limitation)
we see an increasing number of artists taking advantage of the possibilities that it offers
aesthetically and conceptually.
Ai Weiwei’s, and other respected contemporary artists’, recognition of glass as a
powerful medium of expression will continue to be critical in bridging the gap between
contemporary glass and contemporary fine art—cementing glass’ place as a fine art me-
dium.
5. Conclusions
In recent years, there has been considerable interest for sculptors in the creative po-
tential of a glass medium. Unlike other fine art materials that are much more wide-
spread because they are easier to use, glass is a very difficult medium from a technologi-
cal point and requires both technical skills and knowledge. Sculptors find it difficult to
employ this material for the development of artistic ideas because skills and knowledge
are acquired only through many years of experience working directly with this medium.
Thanks to the Berengo Studio’s activities and successful Glasstress project many
new aspects have come to enrich artists’ way of viewing glass as a fine art medium. Be-
sides meticulously designed objects, realised with the highest precision, works with a
more conceptual approach are becoming increasingly important. New solutions for turn-
ing creative ideas into reality are opening, made possible by new production and pro-
cessing techniques.
Figure 13.
Ai Weiwei; Crystal Cube; 2014; Art Basel; crystal (leaded glass) cube 100
×
100
×
100 cm
(1 cubic meter). Photographed by William Warmus. Used with permission.
Ai Weiwei is a contemporary artist, but he is “
. . .
always learning and working with
tradition” (Ai Weiwei, Fondazioneberengo.org) and as such glass offers him a significant
opportunity. He continues to be a frequent visitor to Berengo’s studio and together they
work on new challenging projects using glass.
With the increased promotion of glass as a fine art medium and the reduction in
technical constraints of working with it (although size remains a continuing limitation)
we see an increasing number of artists taking advantage of the possibilities that it offers
aesthetically and conceptually.
Ai Weiwei’s, and other respected contemporary artists’, recognition of glass as a
powerful medium of expression will continue to be critical in bridging the gap between con-
temporary glass and contemporary fine art—cementing glass’ place as a fine art medium.
5. Conclusions
In recent years, there has been considerable interest for sculptors in the creative
potential of a glass medium. Unlike other fine art materials that are much more widespread
because they are easier to use, glass is a very difficult medium from a technological point
and requires both technical skills and knowledge. Sculptors find it difficult to employ this
material for the development of artistic ideas because skills and knowledge are acquired
only through many years of experience working directly with this medium.
Thanks to the Berengo Studio’s activities and successful Glasstress project many new
aspects have come to enrich artists’ way of viewing glass as a fine art medium. Besides
meticulously designed objects, realised with the highest precision, works with a more
conceptual approach are becoming increasingly important. New solutions for turning
creative ideas into reality are opening, made possible by new production and processing
techniques.
Adriano Berengo’s innovative approach and highly visionary ideas have led to glass
being recognised and elevated as an important medium in art. The difficult global economic
situation, which was not helped by the COVID-19 problems, did not stop him in his tracks,
and his high standard of numerous exhibitions and projects will certainly enrich the
Arts 2022,11, 19 14 of 14
planned activities on the occasion of the International Year of Glass 2022 announced by the
United Nations.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study did not require ethical approval.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Did not report any data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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