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Shift and Persist in Mexican American Youth: A Longitudinal Test of Depressive Symptoms
Abstract
This paper tested whether shift-&-persist coping, or coping involving the combination of cognitive reappraisal, acceptance, and optimism (Chen & Miller, Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2012, 7, 135), attenuates the risks presented by economic hardship and ethnic discrimination for change in depressive symptoms from 9th to 12th grade, in a sample of 674 Mexican American youth (Mage W1 = 10.86; 50% female; 72% US born) and whether this effect depends on ethnic pride. Structural equation modeling indicated that, when accounting for economic hardship, shift-&-persist was associated with fewer concurrent depression symptoms. Youth with lower ethnic pride who endorsed high levels of shift-&-persist were protected against the negative impacts of peer ethnic discrimination on depressive symptoms. Future research on ethnic discrimination should examine patterns of coping and identity that can mitigate risk.
... Specifically, in a sample of 175 Latinx youth (aged 10−15), the positive association between perceived economic hardship and depressive symptoms was attenuated for youth high in shift-and-persist and accentuated for youth low in shift-and-persist. On the contrary, other findings on the buffering effect of shift-and-persist for depressive symptoms in low-SES contexts are less encouraging, such that shift-and-persist did not significantly interact with economic hardship to predict youth's depressive symptoms (Adesogan et al. 2023;Benner, Fernandez, and Límon 2024;Stein et al. 2022). Taken together, findings regarding the benefits of shift-and-persist for reducing the psychological distress of individuals with low SES are not yet robust. ...
... Additionally, although E. Chen and Miller (2012) posited that shift-and-persist could promote psychological well-being, prior studies on shift-and-persist in low-SES contexts have exclusively focused on negative aspects of psychological well-being (e.g., depressive symptoms) (Adesogan et al. 2023;Benner, Fernandez, and Límon 2024;Christophe et al. 2019;Stein et al. 2022). No previous studies on the psychological benefits of shift-and-persist in low-SES contexts have taken into account the positive aspects of psychological well-being (e.g., subjective well-being), an essential ingredient of resilience, namely, thriving despite adversity (Masten et al. 2021). ...
... The current study replicates and extends the literature on shiftand-persist by showing that the combination of shifting oneself to adapt to stress and holding optimism toward the future seems to be a preferable coping strategy in not only protecting against depressive symptoms but also promoting subjective well-being, especially among adolescents who perceive lower levels of social status. These findings were in line with the results of a study that found that shift-and-persist buffered the association between economic hardship and depressive symptoms of Latinx youth (Christophe et al. 2019); however, several other studies failed to find supportive evidence (Adesogan et al. 2023;Benner, Fernandez, and Límon 2024;Stein et al. 2022). These mixed findings on shift-and-persist may be related, at least in part, to sample composition, regarding the fact that most relevant studies were conducted in the United States with divergent youth samples, including African American (Adesogan et al. 2023), Mexican American , Latinx (Christophe et al. 2019), as well as ethnically diverse (mainly White and Latino) samples (Benner, Fernandez, and Límon 2024). ...
Objectives
Shift‐and‐persist coping strategies have been demonstrated to be beneficial for physical health of individuals in low socioeconomic status (SES); however, their impacts on psychological well‐being remain less clear. This study aimed to examine: (1) whether the protective effects of shift‐and‐persist with respect to psychological well‐being (i.e., depressive symptoms and subjective well‐being) only exist among adolescents with lower (vs. higher) subjective SES, and (2) what drives the potential benefits, shifting strategy or persisting strategy, or both of them?
Methods
This study recruited 686 middle school students (54.5% male; Mage = 12.57 years, SD = 0.65) from Guangdong Province, China, in January 2019, and they completed measures of subjective SES (i.e., perceived family social status), shift‐and‐persist strategies, depressive symptoms, subjective well‐being, and demographic information.
Results
Adolescents who engaged in more shift‐and‐persist strategies reported fewer depressive symptoms and higher levels of subjective well‐being, with stronger effects among those lower (vs. higher) in subjective SES. When further exploring what drove these effects, results showed that persisting strategy was associated with fewer depressive symptoms and higher levels of subjective well‐being, with more pronounced effects for adolescents with lower (vs. higher) subjective SES. The shifting strategy was associated with fewer depressive symptoms only among those with lower subjective SES, while associated with higher levels of subjective well‐being regardless of subjective SES levels.
Conclusions
Findings support the applicability of the shift‐and‐persist model to both positive and negative indicators of psychological well‐being and enrich the theory by providing preliminary evidence for the domain‐specific roles of shifting strategy in buffering the negative psychological effects of low‐SES contexts.
... However, shift-and-persist was only marginally protective against discrimination for less prideful youth in terms of their trajectory of depressive symptoms across the high school years . Together, these studies highlight that the protective effects of shift-and-persist may depend on the level of discrimination (Benner et al., 2022) and on the strength of youths' ethnic-racial identities Stein et al., 2022). ...
... Lastly, we predicted a three-way interaction between discrimination, shift-and-persist, and ethnic-racial identity for both depressive (Hypothesis 3a) and anxiety (Hypothesis 3b) symptoms. Taking into account research suggesting that shift-and-persist coping may act as a substitute for ethnicracial identity, rather than work in an additive, complementary fashion Stein et al., 2022), we predicted that shift-and-persist coping would be more protective for youth with lower ethnic-racial identity. ...
... This demonstrates the positive impact of shift-and-persist coping on the mental health of Black youth, beyond the harmful impact of discrimination. Consistent with our findings, several studies have reported a significant main effect of shift-and-persist on symptoms of depression and anxiety (e.g., Adesogan et al., 2023;Benner et al., 2022;Chen et al., 2012;Dahlstrand et al., 2021;Lam et al., 2018;Lee et al., 2022;Stein et al., 2022). However, a smaller group of studies did not observe a main T A B L E 2 Regressions coefficients predicting depression and anxiety symptoms (N = 155). ...
Ethnic‐racial discrimination has pervasive negative effects on Black youth's mental health; therefore, it is crucial to identify factors that provide resilience against discrimination. Two promising factors to help youth cope are ethnic‐racial identity (how one feels about their ethnicity/race) and shift‐and‐persist coping (reappraising and accepting an uncontrollable stressor while remaining optimistic about the future). While there is existing scholarship on ethnic‐racial identity among Black youth, this work has not yet assessed the impacts of shift‐and‐persist in this population. Using a sample of 155 Black youth (ages 13–17), the current study examined the interplay between discrimination, ethnic‐racial identity, shift‐and‐persist coping, and internalizing symptoms. Symptoms of depression and anxiety were positively associated with discrimination and negatively associated with shift‐and‐persist. Significant interactions between discrimination and shift‐and‐persist predicting both depressive and anxiety symptoms revealed significant negative associations between shift‐and‐persist and internalizing symptoms at low and average, but not high discrimination levels. Effects are, thus, protective‐reactive; the protective effects of shift‐and‐persist are not significant for youth facing high levels of discrimination. Ethnic‐racial identity, surprisingly, was not significantly associated with either depressive or anxiety symptoms, nor did it interact with shift‐and‐persist as it has in studies of Latinx youth. By understanding the protective benefits of shift‐and‐persist and ethnic‐racial identity in Black youth, during a pivotal period for mental health, we can provide this growing population with tools to lessen the maladaptive outcomes associated with discrimination.
... For instance, S&P has been shown to be protective in the context of economic stress and depressive symptoms among Latinx youth, with youth endorsing high levels of S&P showing no significant associations between the economic stress they faced and their depressive symptoms (Christophe et al., 2019). However, in two different samples, when discrimination has been considered as a stressor, these protective effects were only evident for youth relatively low in ethnic-racial identity (Christophe et al., 2019;Stein et al., 2022). A measure of S&P adapted specifically to the context of discrimination may, thus, help researchers better quantify the frequency of coping, as well at its potential main and potential protective effects. ...
... Given the finding across studies (Christophe et al., 2019;Stein et al., 2022) that the protective effects of S&P in the face of discrimination may vary based on youth's levels of ethnic-racial identity, we also tested for potential three-way interactions between discrimination, S&P, and ethnic-racial identity and compare the relative size of those interactions and simple slopes in the case of a significant interaction. ...
... T A B L E 4 Standardized results from regression models predicting depressive symptoms-Adjusted S&P factor scores. 6 | DISCUSSION S&P coping, a combination of positive reappraisal and acceptance combined with optimism and maintenance of meaning and purpose in life, has been increasingly shown to be protective in the face of uncontrollable stressors such as poverty (Chen et al., 2015) and, more recently, discrimination (Christophe et al., 2019;Lam et al., 2018;Stein et al., 2022). However, existing measures of S&P ask youth how they generally cope when 'things do not go the way they want' assessing coping with stress more broadly. ...
Shift‐&‐persist (S&P) coping has been shown to buffer against the effects of discrimination on psychosocial functioning in racially and ethnically minoritized youth. However, existing measures of S&P refer broadly to coping with stress and are not specifically tailored to the type of stressor individuals are coping with (e.g., discrimination). The current study evaluated the measurement properties, utility, and validity of a discrimination‐specific adapted measure of S&P relative to an existing, general measure among a sample of 327 minoritized youth ( M age = 18.80, SD = 1.28, 78.6% female, 50.5% Black) recruited from a large public minority‐serving institution in the southeastern United States. Contrary to our hypotheses, when the item stem was changed to refer to coping specifically with discrimination, the measurement properties of a validated S&P scale (Lam et al., 2018) were worse relative to the original measure. Overall, the general S&P measure produced larger main effects and explained two times more variance in depressive symptoms than discrimination‐specific S&P. Findings do not rule out the idea that context‐specific measures may better characterize coping with discrimination experiences than ‘trait‐like’ general coping measures. However, results highlight that small adaptations to current measures may not be sufficient and may compromise predictive validity. Coping with discrimination measurement recommendations is discussed.
... Shift-and-persist (SP) strategies are defined as the ability to adapt the self to stressors (shift) while preserving focus on the future (persist), and its framework was developed as a way to understand why some persons of low socioeconomic status are protected against adverse physical health outcomes whereas others are not [20]. Accordingly, research has documented the protective effect of SP on health outcomes among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups [21][22][23] and groups experiencing a range of stressors [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. Although primarily studied in the context of cardiometabolic outcomes, a growing body of literature has started to document the association between SP and psychological distress outcomes [23,[26][27][28][29]. ...
... Accordingly, research has documented the protective effect of SP on health outcomes among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups [21][22][23] and groups experiencing a range of stressors [22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. Although primarily studied in the context of cardiometabolic outcomes, a growing body of literature has started to document the association between SP and psychological distress outcomes [23,[26][27][28][29]. For instance, Christophe et al. found that greater use of SP was associated with lower depressive symptoms among Latinx youth in the continental US [23], and that SP buffered the association between a stressor (i.e., experiences of discrimination) and depressive symptoms. ...
... Our study showed that SP was negatively associated with psychological distress among young adults in Puerto Rico. These findings are in agreement with the growing body of work on SP and depression [23,[26][27][28][29]. For instance, greater SP was associated with lower depression symptoms among Mexican American and continental US Latinx youth, participants of the MIDUSI-III study (2% Latinx), and US-born racial/ethnic minority youth (22% Latinx) who were experiencing discrimination [23,[26][27][28]. ...
Objective
Residents of Puerto Rico are disproportionately exposed to social and environmental stressors (e.g., Hurricane María and the 2020 sequence of tremors) known to be associated with psychological distress. Shift-and-persist (SP), or the ability to adapt the self to stressors while preserving focus on the future, has been linked with lower psychological distress, but no study has evaluated this in Puerto Rico. This study examined the association between SP and psychological distress (including that from natural disasters) in a sample of young adults in Puerto Rico.
Methods
Data from the Puerto Rico-OUTLOOK study (18–29 y) were used. Participants (n = 1497) completed assessments between September 2020 and September 2022. SP was measured with the Chen scale and categorized into quartiles (SPQ1–SPQ4). Psychological distress included symptoms of depression (CESD-10), anxiety (STAI-10), post-traumatic stress disorder (Civilian Abbreviated Scale PTSD checklist), and ataque de nervios (an idiom of distress used by Latinx groups). Outcomes were dichotomized according to clinical cutoffs when available, otherwise used sample-based cutoffs. Two additional items assessed the perceived mental health impact of Hurricane María and the 2020 sequence of tremors (categorized as no/little impact vs. some/a lot). Adjusted prevalence ratios (PR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated.
Results
The most commonly reported psychological distress outcome was PTSD (77%). In adjusted models, compared to SP Q1, persons in SP Q2–Q4 were less likely to have elevated symptoms of depression (PR Q2 = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.72–0.85; PR Q3 = 0.65, 95% CI = 0.58–0.73; and PR Q4 = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.35–0.48), PTSD (PR Q2 = 0.92, 95% CI = 0.87–0.98; PR Q3 = 0.86, 95% CI = 0.80–0.93; and PR Q4 = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.70–0.83), anxiety (PR Q2 = 0.39, 95% CI = 0.31–0.48; PR Q3 = 0.27, 95% CI = 0.20–0.37; and PR Q4 = 0.11, 95% CI = 0.07–0.17) and experiences of ataque de nervios (PR Q2 = 0.85, 95% CI = 0.76–0.94; PR Q3 = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.70–0.90; and PR Q4 = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.60–0.78). Compared to persons in SP Q1, persons in SP Q3–Q4 were less likely to report adverse mental health impacts from Hurricane María (PR Q3 = 0.66, 95% CI = 0.55–0.79; and PR Q4 = 0.53, 95% CI = 0.44–0.65) and the 2020 sequence of tremors (PR Q3 = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.61–0.98; and PR Q4 = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.59–0.94).
Conclusion
SP was associated with lower psychological distress. Studies are needed to confirm our findings and evaluate potential mechanisms of action.
... Recent conceptualizations of resilience proposed that the ability to endure through adverse circumstances can occur through the construction of shift-and-persist cognitive strategies (Chen et al., 2011(Chen et al., , 2013Christophe et al., 2021;Stein et al., 2022). Shifting refers to reframing one's perspective on adversity to be less threatening, whereas persisting refers to endurance motivated though hope and aspirations of positive future experiences (Chen et al., 2015). ...
... Shifting refers to reframing one's perspective on adversity to be less threatening, whereas persisting refers to endurance motivated though hope and aspirations of positive future experiences (Chen et al., 2015). For individuals experiencing life stress, shift-andpersist is a coping strategy that protects against deleterious health outcomes (Stein et al., 2022). For example, research among racially marginalized young adults reported that shift-and-persist was associated with lower levels of anxiety and protected against the negative effects of discrimination on depression (Christophe et al., 2019(Christophe et al., , 2021. ...
... The ability to shift-and-persist may help men value promoting secure attachments in young children even in the face of depressive symptomology or negative life experiences. Findings are consistent with other studies documenting the role of shift-and-persist as a resilience factor that can promote mental and physical health, particularly in environments where discrimination and socioeconomic distress are prevalent (Chen et al., 2011(Chen et al., , 2013Christophe et al., 2021;Stein et al., 2022). Findings are also consistent with other studies that have documented a "steeling effect" of shift-andpersist (Liu et al., 2020), such that the presence of shift-and-persist strategies may lead to a positive association between life stress and positive attitudes toward attachment. ...
Unmarried, Black fathers’ positive engagement contributes to children’s health and development beginning in early infancy. For many men, preparations for parenthood begin before birth as expectant fathers formulate parenting attitudes that can promote secure infant–father attachment relationships. This study examined aspects of life stress as predictors of prenatal attitudes toward attachment—the extent to which expectant fathers endorsed promoting attachment security in their infants. Further, we considered whether shift-and-persist cognitive strategies—a psychological resilience factor focused on shifting to positive focus and future-orientation—moderated these associations. A sample of 121 unmarried, Black men expecting the birth of a child were recruited during the second or third trimester of their partner’s pregnancy. Expectant fathers reported on childhood trauma, recent negative life experiences, and depressive symptomology. Fathers also completed a survey assessment of shift-and-persist strategies, as well as a newly developed scale assessing attitudes toward attachment. Depressive symptoms and negative life events were directly, positively related to attitudes toward attachment. The association between positive attitudes toward attachment and both negative life events and depressive symptomology was moderated by fathers’ ability to shift-and-persist. Specifically, aspects of life stress were generally unrelated to attitudes toward attachment when shift-and-persist was low, but related to more positive attitudes toward attachment when shift-and-persist was high. Preliminary findings point to the potential steeling effects of shift-and-persist strategies for expectant fathers facing moderate levels of life stress.
... In regard to mental health, studies generally indicate that shift-and-persist promotes better mental health as a main effect (e.g., Adesogan et al., 2023). Some studies have suggested that shift-and-persist is protective only at lower levels of discrimination (e.g., Benner et al., 2022), while others suggest protective effects of discrimination are high, but only for those with relatively weaker ERIs (Christophe et al., 2019;Stein et al., 2022). Together, these studies imply a net positive mental and physical impact of shift-and-persist and relations with ERI but do specifically speak to predictors of shift-and-persist. ...
... ERI may be proximally linked to adolescents' shift-and-persist coping. ERI is not only positively correlated with shift-and-persist (Christophe et al., 2019;Stein et al., 2022), research broadly finds links between a stronger ERI and greater coping efforts. For instance, ERI has been prospectively associated with coping with discrimination by taking pride in oneself, working hard to prove others wrong, and talking to perpetrators of discrimination (Umaña-Taylor et al., 2008). ...
Objectives: The current cross-sectional study examined whether parental cultural socialization, preparation for bias messages, and adolescents’ ethnic–racial identity (ERI) were associated with shift-and-persist coping strategy characterized by reappraising and accepting uncontrollable stressors (e.g., discrimination, poverty) while maintaining purpose and a positive future orientation. Method: Participants were 367 diverse ethnically/racially minoritized (42.2% Black, 25.9% Latinx, 16.1% Asian/Asian American, 12.5% multiracial, 3.3% from other groups) adolescents (Mage = 15.85, SD = 1.17, 68.9% girls). Structural equation models examined the direct effects of parental cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages on youth’s ERI and shift-and-persist, as well as the indirect effects of socialization messages on shift-and-persist. Results: Preparation for bias and cultural socialization were directly related to a stronger ERI for adolescents, but only cultural socialization was directly associated with greater shift-and-persist. Stronger ERI was associated with greater shift-and-persist, and both cultural socialization and preparation for bias were indirectly associated with greater shift-and-persist. Conclusions: Frequent parental preparation for bias may be indirectly associated with minoritized adolescent’s shift-and-persist coping, whereas cultural socialization impacts youth’s shift-and-persisting both directly and indirectly.
... The relations under study may operate differently within father-adolescent dyads (Wheeler et al., 2015) and within established immigration destinations (Pasch et al., 2006). Other important moderators to consider include parent and youth gender (Liu et al., 2011;Schofield et al., 2008), family cohesion and familial coping (Rahman et al., 2023;Santiago et al., 2021), and parent ethnic identity socialization and youth ethnic identity (Brittian et al., 2013;Stein et al., 2022). Finally, broader oppressive systems may elicit joint experiences of cultural stress within families, either through direct or vicarious exposure as experiences are shared within the family (Martin Romero & Stein, 2023). ...
Objective: This study examined the associations between cultural stressors (i.e., foreigner-based discrimination and acculturation gap conflict) and mother–adolescent relational conflict and the moderating effects of youth coping on these relations. Method: Within a sample of 175 Latinx mothers (Mage = 41.84 years; 88% born in Mexico) and adolescents (Mage = 12.89 years; 52% female; 87% U.S. born), we used actor–partner interdependence models to test the dyadic associations of one’s cultural stress experiences with their own (i.e., self-effect) and the other family member’s (i.e., mother or adolescent effect) perception of relational conflict, and we examined youth coping as a moderator. Results: Adolescents’ experiences of cultural stress were positively related to their own perception of relational conflict but not their mother’s. Amid higher maternal discrimination experiences, higher youth shift-and-persist coping was related to lower youth-reported relational conflict. Higher youth discrimination experiences were correlated with higher reports of youth support-seeking, but youth support-seeking did not moderate the relation between cultural stress and relational conflict. Conclusions: Shift-and-persist coping may play a critical role in exacerbating or mitigating the harmful relations between cultural stress and relational conflict, depending upon whether the cultural stressor is external (i.e., foreigner-based discrimination) or family-based (acculturation gap conflict).
... Familial resilience also fosters familial support and coping that help families face cultural stressors (i.e., Martin . Finally, these beliefs and practices together enable shift-&-persist coping whereby youth can cognitively disengage from uncontrollable stressors (e.g., discrimination, economic stress) and engage in behaviors that provide them with optimism, meaning, and purpose (Christophe et al., 2019;Stein et al., 2022). Together, these behavioral enactments of cultural resilience and engagement in coping lead to adaptive Latinx youth outcomes, including a strong sense of self and self-esteem built on the foundation of familial support, academic engagement as youth seek to fulfill the promise of their family's dreams, prosocial behaviors whereby youth enact behaviors embedded in familism and bring honor to the family, and well-being driven by a sense of purpose, feeling connected to the community, and enacting joy. ...
In the last decade, there has been a surge in research examining racial-ethnic socialization (RES) in Latinx families building upon a research base that has established Latinx culturally resilient processes. Our chapter brings together these lines of work and presents a model for understanding the protective processes of RES in Latinx families. We first discuss the unique factors that may influence RES processes and need further attention (e.g., acculturation, immigration status, country of origin). We then present a model that delineates how RES supports the development of culturally resilient values and beliefs (i.e., racial-ethnic identity, familism values, familial resilience, critical reflection, and motivation) that lead to the enactment of culturally resilient behaviors (i.e., ethnic-racial behaviors, familism behaviors, familial coping and support, and shift-&-persist coping). We argue that together culturally resilient values and behaviors ultimately result in greater self-esteem, school engagement, prosocial behaviors, and well-being for Latinx youth as they face discrimination, marginalization, and oppression. We conclude by considering how these culturally resilient processes can be embedded in prevention and intervention efforts.
... With respect to clinical health outcomes, among children experiencing the adversity of low SES in terms of low perceived social status, greater use of SAP has been associated with fewer school absences and fewer daily symptoms due to asthma Lam et al., 2018). With respect to mental health outcomes, several studies have found evidence suggesting that SAP buffers the links between adversityin this case, defined as experiences with discriminationand depressive symptoms Christophe et al., 2019;Stein et al., 2022). ...
This study investigated, and discusses the integration of, the shift-and-persist (SAP) and skin-deep resilience (SDR) theories. The SAP theory states that the combination of shifting (adjusting oneself to stressful situations through strategies like emotion regulation) and persisting (enduring adversity with strength by finding meaning and maintaining optimism) will be beneficial to physical health in children experiencing adversity. The SDR theory states that high striving/self-control will be beneficial to mental health but detrimental to physical health among those confronting adversity. This study investigated 308 children ages 8-17 experiencing the adversity of a chronic illness (asthma). SAP and SDR (striving/self-control) were assessed via questionnaires, and physical health (asthma symptoms, inflammatory profiles), mental health (anxiety/depression, emotional functioning), and behavioral (medication adherence, activity limitations, collaborative relationships with providers) outcomes were measured cross-sectionally. SAP was associated with better physical health, whereas SDR was associated with worse physical health. Both were associated with better mental health. Only SDR was associated with better behavioral outcomes. Implications of findings and discussion of how to integrate these theories are provided. We suggest that future interventions might seek to cultivate both SAP and SDR to promote overall better health and well-being across multiple domains in children experiencing adversity.
... It is posited that shifting and persisting is a particularly effective coping resource when individuals are faced with uncontrollable stressors (Chen & Miller, 2012), and initial investigations have considered the buffering role of shift-and-persist in the face of uncontrollable stressors beyond economic hardship. For example, there is initial evidence that shift-and-persist strategies may attenuate the link between discrimination and depression for Latinx youth, although this buffering role varies by adolescents' racial/ethnic identity (Christophe et al., 2019;Stein et al., 2022). Likewise, in the adult literature, evidence has documented both concurrent and lagged protective effects of shift-andpersist on the relation between discrimination and depression (Christophe & Stein, 2021) as well in the links between subjective social status and both negative affect and health (O'Leary et al., 2021). ...
The current study assessed whether greater use of shift-and persist strategies, which entail the reappraisal of stressors (shifting) and endurance through optimism and meaning-making (persist), buffered the associations between life stressors and adolescents’ psychological health (i.e. depressive symptoms and anxiety) and physical health and health behaviors (i.e. self-rated health and sleep quality). Survey data were drawn from a racially/ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of 750 9th grade adolescents (53% female). Path analysis revealed racial discrimination, neighborhood risk, and deportation exposure were linked to poorer psychological and physical health, while socioeconomic disadvantage was related to less anxiety but poorer physical health. Some evidence suggested that shift-and-persist may be protective-reactive, wherein shift-and-persist typically promoted well-being across health domains but more so when the life stressors were at low versus high levels. Shift-and-persist strategies promote both mental and physical health, but the promotive effects appear to be maximized when adolescents’ exposure to life stressors is minimal.
... The authors of [19] found that the application of shift-and-persist alleviates the psychosocial stress for individuals of low financial status. More recently, ref. [20] reported that Mexican American youth from low socioeconomic backgrounds successfully protected themselves against depressive symptoms caused by peer discrimination by applying shift-and-persist strategies. Therefore, accepting life stressors without making an active effort to eliminate them (shift-and-persist) is a frequently adopted strategy by people with low financial status. ...
Background:
The year 2022 started with protests against COVID-19 restrictions throughout North America. These events manifest the fact that some segments of the population are not compliant with the preventive measures of COVID-19, and the reasons of the disobedience against public health regulation remain unclear. The current paper examined the joint effect of financial and health status on people's likelihood of pursuing active coping efforts (i.e., following preventive measures) and giving up coping with the COVID-19 pandemic.
Method:
We conducted a large-scale survey study in China (N = 3834) in May 2020.
Results:
Our results showed that people with low financial status were less likely to manifest active coping behavior and more likely to give up coping with the pandemic. People's self-confidence in coping with the pandemic mediated this effect. We showed that one's health status could interact with their financial status in a way that healthy people with low financial status would have less confidence in their coping abilities and thus become less likely to pursue active coping efforts and more likely to give up coping with the pandemic.
Conclusions:
Our results call for policymakers to find more effective solutions for noncompliant groups so that they can abide by the general guidelines in the COVID-19 context and other social crises that may emerge in the future. We suggest that governments should concentrate their support efforts on healthy populations of low financial segments to prevent COVID-19 and other infectious diseases in the future from spreading further.
Objectives: This qualitative investigation examined how Latinx/Hispanic youth experience cultural stressors, emotionally react to, and cope with these stressors within the family context. Method: Forty-five youth participated in six focus groups (51% female; 49% male; 0% nonbinary; Mage = 15.26; SD = 0.79). Results: Using reflexive thematic analysis, we constructed two themes with four accompanying subthemes centering on (a) observing family members experience cultural stressors and (b) experiencing cultural stressors together with family members. Conclusions: Findings highlight the need for cultural stress theory to focus on the family context in Latinx/Hispanic youths’ experiences of cultural stressors, their emotional reactions and coping responses to these stressors.
This study assessed the co-development of adversity and effortful control based on a sample of Mexican-origin youth ( N = 674) and their parents. We used a four-wave longitudinal design and followed target participants from age 10 to 16. At each time point, we measured adversity experienced by the children and their parents and children’s effortful control (self- and parent-reported). We also assessed children’s shift-and-persist coping strategies at ages 14 and 16. Across time, we found slight decreases in child-adversity and slight increases in parent-adversity. Based on bivariate LGC analyses, we found that the strongest effects surfaced for child- (vs. parent-) adversity. Specifically, we found that greater increases in child-adversity were associated with greater decreases in effortful control from ages 10 to 16. Moreover, we found a positive association between initial levels of child-adversity and the slope of effortful control, as well as a cross-sectional negative association between child- and parent-adversity and effortful control (at age 10). We found no evidence of moderation by shift-and-persist coping strategies. In sum, our results suggest that, on average, Mexican-origin youth exposed to more adversity might experience more maladaptive change with respect to effortful control.
Objectives: Based on the conceptual overlap between shift-&-persist (S&P) and culturally based strategies (critical civic engagement [CCE] and spiritually based coping), this study tests whether associations between these three previously disparate strategies are attributable to the existence of a higher-order coping construct: culturally informed S&P. Methods: Among 364 diverse minoritized youth (Mage = 18.79, 85.2% female), we tested for the existence of this higher-order factor through confirmatory factor analysis. Results: We found theoretical and empirical support for the existence of a higher-order factor structure and for our higher-order factor—culturally informed S&P. Culturally informed S&P promotes fewer depressive symptoms as a main effect in addition to completely protecting against the negative impact of discrimination on depressive symptoms when culturally informed S&P is high. Conclusions: The current study illustrates relations between three previously distinct coping strategies through their association with culturally informed S&P. Results highlight culturally informed S&P’s promotive and protective effects in the face of ethnic–racial discrimination. Implications for subsequent study of culturally based coping are discussed.
Coping in the context of racial-ethnic discrimination is often framed as an individualistic process, where the focus is on how the individual deals with the racialized stressor to mitigate its negative effects. However, individuals exist within social contexts including the family and coping processes may operate interdependently as well. Further, racialized stressors have the potential to disrupt the entire family system, regardless of whether the experience in that moment is shared among all its members. Despite these realities, few studies have considered how Latinx youth and their parents may cope together in the face of racial-ethnic discrimination. To address this gap, we analyzed focus group data from Mexican-origin adolescents (n = 17; Mage = 12.8; 71% girls) and their parents (n = 17; Mage = 42.8; 82% mothers) to explore the coping strategies used in response to racial-ethnic discrimination. An inductive thematic analysis identified a broad range of coping strategies representing both individualistic and interdependent approaches to deal with racial-ethnic discrimination. Strategies included (a) reframing (with pride) and ignoring an encounter, (b) standing up for oneself, (c) talking issues out, (d) problem-solving together, and (e) protection tactics. These findings provide evidence for the ways in which Mexican-origin families help adolescents cope with racial-ethnic discrimination and offer a glimpse as to how adolescents may help their families cope as well. Future research is needed to further explore the interdependent nature of coping as Latinx family members protect and support one another in the face of pervasive racialized stressors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
Familism values promote the positive adaptation of Latinx youth, but few studies have examined potential indirect effects associated with these positive effects. In emerging immigrant communities, where fewer resources are available to youth and families to maintain cultural values and ties, familism may be especially important. In this study of 175 primarily second-generation Latinx youth in such a community, we tested whether familism values were indirectly associated with adolescent outcomes through positive parent-child relationships, private racial/ethnic regard, meaning in life, and support seeking coping. Familism values were associated with greater academic motivation. Additionally, there were significant indirect effects in terms of positive parent-child relationships explaining the links between familism and fewer parent-reported externalizing symptoms, and for meaning in life explaining the links between familism and fewer depressive symptoms and greater academic motivation. Familism was also associated with greater support seeking coping, but this was associated with greater depressive symptoms. Our study suggests that in an emerging immigrant community familism values are primarily associated with positive adaptation through distinct mechanisms. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).
Shift-&-persist is a coping strategy that has been shown to lead to positive health outcomes in low-SES youth but has not yet been examined with respect to psychological health. This study tests whether the shift-&-persist coping strategy works in tandem with ethnic-racial identity to protect against depressive symptoms in the face of two uncontrollable stressors: economic hardship and peer discrimination. In a sample of 175 Latinx youth (51.4% female; Mage = 12.9), shift-&-persist buffered the positive relation between economic hardship and depressive symptoms. In terms of peer discrimination, among youth who reported little use of shift and persist, discrimination was related to higher depressive symptoms, whereas youth who reported higher amounts of shift and persist (at and above the mean) were protected and did not evidence this association. However, among youth with high ethnic-racial identity, shift-&-persist failed to protect against the deleterious association between peer discrimination and depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that shift-&-persist is protective for Latinx youth, although the context in which it is protective changes based on the racialized/non-racialized nature of the stressor.
The approaches Latina/o youth use for coping with discrimination have important consequences for their adjustment. Yet, little research has examined how adolescents draw on different coping strategies and how patterns of strategies may differentially predict their outcomes. The current investigation examined adolescents’ patterns of coping strategies, changes in these patterns over time, and whether profile membership or transitions in profile membership related to adolescent adjustment. Among a longitudinal sample of Latina/o adolescents (N = 323, 49.5% female, Mage = 15.31 years), three profiles of coping strategies emerged: Passive and Moderately Proud, Confrontative, and Proactive. Latent Transition Analysis showed that these profiles were stable over time, that a majority of youth remained in the same profile of strategies across three years, and that the profiles were differentially related to adolescents’ adjustment. The findings showed that individuals in the Proactive profile reported higher self-esteem and academic motivation than adolescents drawing on different repertoires of coping strategies. These results provide new insights regarding the concurrence of strategies Latina/o youth use to cope with ethnic-racial discrimination and suggest that the adoption of proactive strategies as part of a repertoire of coping strategies could potentially reduce the negative effects of discrimination among adolescents.
In recent decades there has been a dramatic increase in the amount of research focused on purpose in life, demonstrating a host of benefits that emerge for individuals committed to a purpose. As with other constructs in the positive youth development framework, there is a paucity of work investigating how experiences of marginalization impact the development of this psychological asset among adolescents. To catalyze research on this front, we draw attention to potential opportunities and obstacles associated with experiences of marginalization and how they might affect an adolescent developing a purpose in life. Like García Coll and colleagues’ (1996) integrative model, our perspective includes sociocultural factors (e.g., social position, adaptive culture), an emphasis on intragroup variability, and discussion of potentially promoting and inhibiting aspects of marginalization. Following a description of existing research on purpose development during adolescence, we discuss how experiences of marginalization could contour the development of self-integrative, strong, and articulated purpose among adolescents. To conclude, specific considerations for future research are outlined, including how existing definitions of and tools for measuring purpose can be adapted to produce a scientific literature that values and includes the normative purpose development of adolescents who experience marginalization.
Moderation analyses represent a statistical technique that can be particularly useful for counseling psychology researchers. This technique allows researchers to assess whether a given relationship depends on a third, moderating variable. The present article provides a brief overview of moderation, followed by 3 broad areas relevant for research: designing a study, analyzing the data, and interpreting results. Particular focus is applied to the topic of latent variable moderation, including an applied example with real data.
Given the prominence of ethnicity/race in the United States, many youths construct an ethnic/racial identity (ERI). However, ERI development occurs against a backdrop of prejudice, oppression, and discrimination. This synthetic review explores (a) how identity and discrimination are related and (b) their association with psychological health. There is a reciprocal developmental association between ERI and discrimination, in which each informs the other. Although discrimination is detrimental for mental health, its impact depends on identity. In some cases, ERI confers protection from discrimination, and in others, it poses additional vulnerabilities. A strong sense of commitment to one’s identity confers protection against the negative effects of discrimination, while high levels of identity exploration are associated with increased vulnerability. However, the importance of ethnicity/race to one’s identity both protects from and increases vulnerabilities to discrimination. Suggestions for future research to help to disambiguate these associations are offered.
The term Latinx emerged recently as a gender-neutral label for Latino/a and Latin@. The purpose of this paper is to examine ways in which Latinx is used within the higher education context, and to provide an analysis of how the term can disrupt traditional notions of inclusivity and shape institutional understandings of intersectionality. Findings indicate a significant trend towards usage of Latinx in social media, and emerging use within higher education institutions. This paper is used to further the understandings of the use of the term Latinx, and to advocate for people that are living in the borderlands of gender.
Ethnic identity formation is a central developmental task that can become challenging when adolescents face a salient stressor, such as ethnic discrimination. Although ethnic identity and experiences with ethnic discrimination are thought to be associated, the temporal order of these constructs is unclear. In the current study, we examined (1) the rejection-identification model and (2) the identification-attribution model in a longitudinal, cross-lagged model among 302 Hispanic immigrant adolescents (Mage = 14.51, SD = .88 at baseline; 46.7% female) living in Miami (n = 152) and Los Angeles (n = 150). Results support the identification-attribution model such that adolescents who reported higher levels of ethnic identity exploration reported higher
levels of perceived discrimination one year later. Conversely, adolescents who reported higher levels of ethnic identity belonging reported less subsequent perceived discrimination. Findings suggest that ethnic identity formation may affect the recognition of ethnic discrimination among Hispanic immigrant adolescents.
How Latino youth cope with stressors may have implications for their adjustment. We examined how a temperamental characteristic (effortful control) and a contextual factor (economic hardship) were associated with Latino youth's coping. Individual differences in effortful control, a core facet of self-regulation, may contribute to coping as effortful control is consistently linked to adaptive behaviors during adolescence. We examined relations of effortful control and economic hardship to active coping in a sample of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674) across three time points (fifth to ninth grades). Although economic hardship negatively predicted coping and effortful control, effortful control positively predicted coping (controlling for prior levels). Findings support a resilience perspective by suggesting that effortful control may contribute to coping and thus counteract the negative effects of economic hardship.
Objectives: The current study investigates the utility of political activism as a protective factor against experiences of racial/ethnic (R/E) discrimination that negatively affect stress, anxiety, and depressive symptoms among Black and Latinx college freshmen at predominately White institutions. Method: Data come from the Minority College Cohort Study, a longitudinal investigation of Black and Latinx college students (N = 504; 44% Black). We conducted multiple regression analyses for each mental health indicator and tested for interaction effects. Results: For Black and Latinx students, the relationship between R/E microaggressions and end of freshman year stress varied by political activism. For Black students, the relationship between R/E microaggressions and end of the year anxiety varied by political activism. There was a significant interaction effect for depressive symptoms among Latinx students. Conclusions: Political activism serves as a protective factor to mitigate the negative effect of R/E discrimination on stress and depressive symptoms for Latinx students. For Black students, higher levels of political activism may exacerbate experiences of R/E microaggressions and relate to more stress and anxiety compared with Black students who are less politically involved. Findings point to the need for a deeper understanding of phenomenological variation in experiences of microaggressions among R/E minorities and how students leverage political activism as an adaptive coping strategy to mitigate race-related stress during college.
In this meta-analytic and narrative review, we examine several overarching issues related to the study of coping, emotion regulation, and internalizing and externalizing symptoms of psychopathology in childhood and adolescence, including the conceptualization and measurement of these constructs. We report a quantitative meta-analysis of 212 studies (N = 80,850 participants) that measured the associations between coping and emotion regulation with symptoms of internalizing and externalizing psychopathology. Within the meta-analysis we address the association of broad domains of coping and emotion regulation (e.g., total coping, emotion regulation), intermediate factors of coping and emotion regulation (e.g., primary control coping, secondary control coping), and specific coping and emotion regulation strategies (e.g., emotional expression, cognitive reappraisal) with internalizing and externalizing symptoms. For cross-sectional studies, which made up the majority of studies included, we examine 3 potential moderators: age, measure quality, and single versus multiple informants. Finally, we separately consider findings from longitudinal studies as these provide stronger tests of the effects. After accounting for publication bias, findings indicate that the broad domain of emotion regulation and adaptive coping and the factors of primary control coping and secondary control coping are related to lower levels of symptoms of psychopathology. Further, the domain of maladaptive coping, the factor of disengagement coping, and the strategies of emotional suppression, avoidance, and denial are related to higher levels of symptoms of psychopathology. Finally, we offer a critique of the current state of the field and outline an agenda for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record
Although perceived ethnic/racial discrimination is well established as a risk factor for depressive symptoms in ethnic minority youth, few studies have examined their longitudinal relationship over time. This study examined whether a negative attributional style, positive ethnic/racial affect, and emotional reactivity moderated the longitudinal relationship of perceived peer or adult discrimination and depressive symptoms in a sample of African American and Latino high school students (n = 155). African American and Latino youth who experienced increases in perceived peer discrimination also reported greater depressive symptoms over time, but positive ethnic/racial affect buffered the longitudinal association. Emotional reactivity also served as a significant moderator but only of the baseline association between perceived peer discrimination and depressive symptoms. Thus, perceived ethnic/racial discrimination appears to play a significant role in the development of depressive symptoms for ethnic minority youth, especially those who start high school with lower levels of positive ethnic/racial affect.
This three-wave longitudinal study of 173 Latino adolescents (M = 16.16 years, SD = 0.65) is designed to understand the role of discrimination-related stress in mental health trajectories during middle to late adolescence with attention to differences due to immigration status. The results of the growth curve analysis showed that anxious-depressed, withdrawn-depressed, and somatic complaints significantly decreased over time. Furthermore, although discrimination-related stress was found to be significantly related to the trajectories of three types of mental health symptoms, the results revealed that immigration status moderated these relations such that discrimination-related stress was significantly related to these outcomes for Latino youth whose parents were born in the United States, while this relation was not significant for Latino children of immigrants.
© 2015 The Authors. Child Development © 2015 Society for Research in Child Development, Inc.
Familism, a Latino value that promotes loyalty, cohesiveness, and obedience within the family, predicts improved outcomes for Latino adolescents. However, few studies have tested whether familism serves a protective role when adolescents are facing stress. We examined whether familism predicted psychosocial outcomes in the context of stress, and whether familism moderated the relationship between peer discrimination, acculturative stress, and economic stress predicting these outcomes in a sample of 173 Latino adolescents. Familism was associated with fewer depressive symptoms and greater school attachment, but it did not moderate the relationship between any of the stressors and outcomes. Discrimination was associated with greater depressive symptoms, worse school attachment, and greater perceived barriers to college, but socioeconomic stress and acculturation stress did not uniquely predict these outcomes once taking into account discrimination. Thus, although familial culture values lead to improved outcomes in youth, they are unable to counter the detrimental effects of discrimination.
Guided by a risk and resilience framework, the current study examined the associations between Latino adolescents' (n = 219; Mage = 14.35; SD = 1.75) perceptions of ethnic discrimination in multiple settings (e.g., online, school) and several domains of adjustment (e.g., mental health, academic), and tested whether developmentally salient cultural assets (i.e., ethnic identity) directly promoted youth adjustment or moderated the negative impact of discrimination on adjustment. Each of the 3 ethnic identity components (i.e., exploration, resolution, affirmation) demonstrated evidence of promoting positive outcomes among Latino youth; furthermore, there was some evidence that the promotive effects of affirmation and resolution were significantly stronger for older versus younger adolescents. In addition, with the exception of experiences with discrimination from adults outside of the school setting, there was evidence of ethnic identity interacting with each type of discrimination to predict Latino adolescents' self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and externalizing problems. Findings suggest directions for future research and identify potential targets for intervention that may prove fruitful in programming efforts with Latino adolescents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Family obligation is an important aspect of family relationships among families from Mexican backgrounds and can have significant implications for adolescents' well-being. Prior research and theory regarding youths' obligations offer conflicting hypotheses about whether it is detrimental or beneficial for adolescents' well-being. In the current longitudinal study, we used a daily diary method among 428 Mexican American adolescents and their parents to closely examine the impact of adolescents' family obligation values and family assistance behaviors on internalizing symptoms over time. The authors closely examined the role of the family context in these associations. Results suggest that family obligation values relate to declines in adolescents' internalizing symptoms, whereas family assistance behaviors are both a protective and risk factor, depending on the family context. Only when youths provide family assistance in response to acute changes in parental physical and psychological distress do family assistance behaviors relate to increases in adolescents' internalizing symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
The construction of an ethnic or racial identity is considered an important developmental milestone for youth of color. This review summarizes research on links between ethnic and racial identity (ERI) with psychosocial, academic, and health risk outcomes among ethnic minority adolescents. With notable exceptions, aspects of ERI are generally associated with adaptive outcomes. ERI are generally beneficial for African American adolescents' adjustment across all three domains, whereas the evidence is somewhat mixed for Latino and American Indian youth. There is a dearth of research for academic and health risk outcomes among Asian American and Pacific Islander adolescents. The review concludes with suggestions for future research on ERI among minority youth.
One point of intersection in ethnic and racial identity research is the conceptual attention paid to how positively youth feel about their ethnicity or race, or positive ethnic–racial affect. This article reports results of a series of meta-analyses based on 46 studies of this dimension and psychosocial, academic, and health risk outcomes among ethnic and racial minority youth. The overall pattern of results suggests that positive ethnic–racial affect exhibited small to medium associations (r range = |.11| to |.37|) with depressive symptoms, positive social functioning, self-esteem, well-being, internalizing, externalizing, academic achievement, academic attitudes, and health risk outcomes. Implications for theory and research about the role of positive ethnic–racial affect among youth growing up in an increasingly diverse society are discussed.
Major life stressors, especially those involving interpersonal stress and social rejection, are among the strongest proximal risk factors for depression. In this review, we propose a biologically plausible, multilevel theory that describes neural, physiologic, molecular, and genomic mechanisms that link experiences of social-environmental stress with internal biological processes that drive depression pathogenesis. Central to this social signal transduction theory of depression is the hypothesis that experiences of social threat and adversity up-regulate components of the immune system involved in inflammation. The key mediators of this response, called proinflammatory cytokines, can in turn elicit profound changes in behavior, which include the initiation of depressive symptoms such as sad mood, anhedonia, fatigue, psychomotor retardation, and social-behavioral withdrawal. This highly conserved biological response to adversity is critical for survival during times of actual physical threat or injury. However, this response can also be activated by modern-day social, symbolic, or imagined threats, leading to an increasingly proinflammatory phenotype that may be a key phenomenon driving depression pathogenesis and recurrence, as well as the overlap of depression with several somatic conditions including asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic pain, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and neurodegeneration. Insights from this theory may thus shed light on several important questions including how depression develops, why it frequently recurs, why it is strongly predicted by early life stress, and why it often co-occurs with symptoms of anxiety and with certain physical disease conditions. This work may also suggest new opportunities for preventing and treating depression by targeting inflammation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Understanding psychosocial factors that affect the academic achievement of Hispanic adolescents remains a nationwide priority in the United States. Extending previous studies of the stressful effects of perceived discrimination, this year-long longitudinal study examined the correlates of perceived ethnic in-group rejection, coping strategies and fatalistic beliefs, on depressive symptoms, grades, and college aspirations of 2,214 Hispanic adolescents (54 % female) in Southern California. Based on the transactional model of stress and coping and on self-perception theory, structural equation models revealed that high perceived intragroup rejection (10th grade) and low levels of active coping (11th grade) were associated with depressive symptoms in 11th grade. Also, depressive symptoms partially mediated the link between intragroup rejection and both academic outcomes. Avoidant coping strategies (e.g., watching TV) also predicted depressive symptoms and were positively related to fatalism. In addition, fatalism was negatively related to grades and aspiration to attend college. The findings suggest the need to help adolescents find adequate outlets for communication and to create awareness about the potential effects of intragroup rejection.
Although discrimination has been found to contribute to psychological distress among immigrant populations, there are few studies that have examined the relationship between racial and ethnic discrimination in the school setting among foreign-born immigrant and U.S.-born immigrant-origin adolescents. This study examined the relationship between perceived discrimination by adults and peers in the school setting and depressive symptoms in a sample (N = 95) of racial minority immigrant-origin adolescents (13 to 19 years of age) attending an urban high school. We examined the relation between perceived discrimination and depressive symptomology across gender and nativity status (foreign born vs. U.S. born), and the potential moderating role of ethnic identity and social support. Consistent with previous research, girls reported higher levels of depressive symptomology than boys, although the relationship between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms was significant for both boys and girls. Perceived discrimination by adults and by peers at school was positively related to depressive symptoms for U.S.-born adolescents. For U.S.-born adolescents, ethnic identity mitigated the negative effects of perceived adult discrimination on depressive symptoms. However, ethnic identity did not moderate the relationship between perceived peer discrimination and depressive symptoms. Social support did not moderate the relationship between adult and peer discrimination and depressive symptoms for either foreign-born or U.S.-born adolescents. The findings support previous research concerning the immigrant paradox and highlight the importance of context in the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health. Implications for future research and intervention are discussed.
The controversy with regard to using reverse or negatively worded survey stems has been around for several decades; it is a practice of questionable utility intended to guard against acquiescence or response set behaviors. A 2 × 3 design in which item stem direction and item response pattern direction were crossed was used to determine effects on internal consistency reliability as measured by Cronbach’s alpha. The condition having the highest alpha was when all directly worded stems were used with bidirectional response options. Alpha was higher and accounted for at least 10%, and in one case 20%, higher internal consistency as compared with any of the three conditions in which negatively worded stems were used. This would indicate that the use of all directly worded stems and half of the response options going in one direction and half going in the other direction may be a better way of guarding against acquiescence and response set behaviors than the use of items with negatively worded stems.
Objective: There is a well-documented relationship between discrimination and increases in internalizing symptoms among rural Latinx youth. Among numerous assets in these adolescents’ lives, family resilience emerges as a culturally relevant and robust protective factor. However, it is still unclear whether family resilience is equally protective across different internalizing symptom clusters and whether this buffering effect is independent of other interconnected resilience sources.
Method: Latinx adolescents from an underserved rural community (n = 444; Mage = 15.74, SDage = 1.22; 51% male) reported on their internalizing symptoms, experiences of discrimination, and sources of resilience. We examined whether perceived family resilience moderated the association between perceived discrimination and self-reported depressive, somatic, and anxiety symptoms over and above adolescents’ sex, self-reported level of acculturation, as well as perceived individual and contextual resilience.
Results: Analyses showed that perceived discrimination experiences were robustly associated with higher levels of self-reported internalizing symptoms, while perceived family resilience was related to lower self-reported symptomatology. Closer examination revealed that perceived family resilience buffered the negative effects of perceived discrimination on self-reported depression and somatic symptoms, but not anxiety symptoms.
Conclusions: This study addresses a gap in the literature by identifying differential protective effects of family resilience that might be explained by cultural values and practices in rural Latinx families. Findings suggest that interventions that incorporate family members and promote supportive family environments may benefit rural Latinx youth with a broad range of internalizing symptoms.
Moderation analysis with latent variables is an important topic in social science research. Although different methods have been proposed for latent moderation analysis in the past three decades, these methods have weaknesses in certain circumstances. We therefore propose the factor score approach as a straightforward and implementation-friendly alternative in latent moderation analysis. This approach has several advantages over other existing methods, such as being able to test higher-order interaction models and interaction-as-outcome models. We compared the empirical performance of the factor score approach and other commonly used methods, namely the unconstrained product indicator approach and the latent moderated structural equation approach, by conducting a simulation study. Results indicated that the factor score approach worked satisfactorily under a range of model conditions. Using these results, we can offer applied researchers some practical guidelines of use for the factor score approach with regard to the subject variable (N/P) ratio and reliability level.
We examined depression and anxiety symptom trajectories in Mexican-origin youth (N = 674) and tested longitudinal associations with acculturation dimensions. We used eight waves of data from the California Families Project, collected annually from 5th (Mage = 10.86, SD = 0.51) to 12th (Mage = 16.79, SD = 0.50) grade. Major depression disorder (MD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) symptoms were assessed by structured psychiatric interview. Cultural measures, selected based on theory and empirical evidence, included English/Spanish use, familism, traditional gender role (TGR) attitudes, and ethnic pride. Symptom trajectories were modeled using latent growth analyses, and parallel process growth models examined covariation between internalizing and acculturation trajectories. Models adjusted for child sex, nativity, mother’s education, and family income. MD symptoms decreased across adolescence on average, with steeper decreases among boys and children born in Mexico. GAD symptoms also decreased on average, with higher mean levels among girls. Age 10 Spanish use, familism, and ethnic pride were inversely related to age 10 MD symptoms. Steeper increases in Spanish use, familism, and ethnic pride predicted decreasing MD. Higher age 10 MD predicted increasing Spanish use and decreasing English use. Greater age 10 TGR attitudes predicted higher age 10 GAD but steeper declines in GAD and MD. Increasing ethnic pride slopes predicted decreasing GAD. Greater childhood TGR attitudes, and the maintenance of Spanish use, familism, and ethnic pride into adolescence, were associated with more optimal trajectories of MD and GAD symptoms. Interventions for Mexican-origin youth internalizing problems should encourage the retention of heritage culture strengths, including familism and ethnic pride.
We examined if maternal shift-and-persist coping buffers the relationship between lower socioeconomic status (SES) and adverse type 1 diabetes (T1D) outcomes during adolescence. Mothers reported annual household income and completed measures of shift-and-persist. Adolescents (N = 145, ages 12 to 17; 52% female) with T1D completed measures of adherence. Glycemic control was indexed via medical records. The association of lower SES with poorer adherence was weaker when mothers had higher shift-and-persist. This buffering effect of maternal shift-and-persist was significant only for older adolescents. Maternal shift-and-persist coping may be an important resilience resource for lower income families managing T1D during adolescence.
The links between low socioeconomic status and poor health are well established, yet despite adversity, some individuals with low socioeconomic status appear to avoid these negative consequences through adaptive coping. Previous research found a set of strategies, called shift-and-persist (shifting the self to stressors while persisting by finding meaning), to be particularly adaptive for individuals with low socioeconomic status, who typically face more uncontrollable stressors. This study tested (a) whether perceived social status, similar to objective socioeconomic status, would moderate the link between shift-and-persist and health, and (b) whether a specific uncontrollable stressor, unfair treatment, would similarly moderate the health correlates of shift-and-persist. A sample of 308 youth ( Meanage = 13.0, range 8–17), physician diagnosed with asthma, completed measures of shift-and-persist, unfair treatment, asthma control, and quality of life in the lab, and 2 weeks of daily diaries about their asthma symptoms. Parents reported on perceived family social status. Results indicated that shift-and-persist was associated with better asthma profiles, only among youth from families with lower (vs. higher) parent-reported perceived social status. Shift-and-persist was also associated with better asthma profiles, only among youth who experienced more (vs. less) unfair treatment. These findings suggest that the adaptive values of coping strategies for youth with asthma depend on the family's perceived social status and on the stressor experienced.
Purpose:
U.S. Latino parents of adolescents face unprecedented threats to family stability and well-being due to rapid and far-reaching transformations in U.S. immigration policy.
Methods:
Two hundred thirteen Latino parents of adolescents were recruited from community settings in a suburb of a large mid-Atlantic city to complete surveys assessing parents' psychological distress and responses to immigration actions and news. Univariate and bivariate analyses were conducted to describe the prevalence of parents' responses to immigration news and actions across diverse residency statuses. Multiple logistic regression models examined associations between immigration-related impacts and the odds of a parent's high psychological distress.
Results:
Permanent residents, temporary protected status, and undocumented parents reported significantly more negative immigration impacts on psychological states than U.S. citizens. Parents reporting frequent negative immigration-related impacts had a significantly higher likelihood of high psychological distress than did other parents, and these associations were maintained even when accounting for parents' residency status, gender, education, and experience with deportation or detention. The odds of a parent reporting high psychological distress due to negative immigration impacts ranged from 2.2 (p < .05) to 10.4 (p < .001).
Conclusions:
This is one of the first empirical accounts of how recent immigration policy changes and news have impacted the lives of Latino families raising adolescent children. Harmful impacts were manifest across a range of parent concerns and behaviors and are strong correlates of psychological distress. Findings suggest a need to consider pathways to citizenship for Latina/o parents so that these parents, many of whom are legal residents, may effectively care for their children.
Youth living with socially devalued characteristics (e.g., minority sexual orientation, race, and/or ethnicity; disability; obesity) experience frequent bullying. This stigma-based bullying undermines youths' wellbeing and academic achievement, with lifelong consequences. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine recommends developing, implementing, and evaluating evidence-based interventions to address stigma-based bullying. To characterize the existing landscape of these interventions, we conducted a systematic review of stigma-based bullying interventions targeting youth in any country published in the peer-reviewed literature between 2000 and 2015. Our analysis was guided by a theoretical framework of stigma-based bullying, which describes stigma-related factors at the societal, structural, interpersonal, and individual levels that lead to stigma-based bullying. We screened 8,240 articles and identified 22 research studies describing 21 interventions addressing stigma-based bullying. We found that stigma-based bullying interventions are becoming more numerous, yet are unevenly distributed across stigmas, geographic locations, and types of organizations. We further found that these interventions vary in the extent to which they incorporate theory and have been evaluated with a wide range of research designs and types of data. We recommend that future work address stigma-based bullying within multicomponent interventions, adopt interdisciplinary and theory-based approaches, and include rigorous and systematic evaluations. Intervening specifically on stigma-related factors is essential to end stigma-based bullying and improve the wellbeing of youth living with socially devalued characteristics.
Purpose:
Using a life course perspective, the present study tested the concept of "linked lives" applied to the problem of not only how racial/ethnic discrimination may be associated with poor mental health for the target of discrimination but also how discrimination may exacerbate the discrimination-distress link for others in the target's social network-in this case, the family.
Methods:
The discrimination-distress link was investigated among 269 Mexican-origin adolescents and their parents both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. It was hypothesized that parents' discrimination experiences would adversely affect their adolescent children's mental health via a moderating effect on the target adolescent discrimination-distress link. The converse was also hypothesized for the target parents. Multilevel moderation analyses were conducted to test the moderating effect of parents' discrimination experiences on the youth discrimination-distress link. We also tested the moderating effect of youths' discrimination experiences on the parent discrimination-distress link.
Results:
Parents' discrimination experiences significantly moderated the longitudinal association between youths' discrimination stress appraisals and mental health, such that the father's discrimination experiences exacerbated the youth discrimination-depression link. Youths' discrimination stress appraisals were not a significant moderator of the cross-sectional parent discrimination-mental health association.
Conclusions:
Implications of these findings are discussed from a linked lives perspective, highlighting how fathers' discrimination experiences can adversely affect youths who are coping with discrimination, in terms of their mental health.
Peer discrimination and parent–adolescent conflict in early adolescence were examined as predictors of depressive symptoms and risky behaviors from early to late adolescence using four waves of data over an 8-year period from a sample of 246 Mexican-origin adolescents (MTime 1 age = 12.55, SD = 0.58; 51% female). The buffering effect of friendship intimacy and moderating role of adolescent gender were tested. Higher levels of discrimination and conflict in early adolescence were associated with higher initial levels of depressive symptoms and risky behaviors in early adolescence and stability through late adolescence. For females who reported higher than average discrimination, friendship intimacy had a protective effect on their depressive symptoms.
Few studies have examined subgroup differences regarding the role of collective cultural strengths among Latinos, the largest minority population in the United States today. Based on cultural and social psychologists’ emphasis on their importance to minorities, this study explored the association of three cultural factors with self-reported mental and physical health for three Latino subgroups identified in the National Latino and Asian American Study (NLAAS). Relative to Cubans, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans experienced poorer physical health and, not surprisingly, more religious involvement. Cubans reported stronger ethnic identity and social support (SS) and were socioeconomically more affluent compared with both Puerto Ricans and Mexicans. Multivariate analyses revealed positive effects of religious attendance on the mental and physical health of Puerto Ricans, controlling for the negative role of discrimination and other known predictors. Racial/ethnic identity was linked with better mental health of all three Latino subgroups, whereas SS had no significant effect.
What strategies help ethnic minority adolescents to cope with racism? The present study addressed this question by testing the role of ethnic identity, social support, and anger expression and suppression as moderators of the discrimination-adjustment link among 269 Mexican-origin adolescents (Mage = 14.1 years), 12-17 years old from the Midwestern U.S. Results from multilevel moderation analyses indicated that ethnic identity, social support, and anger suppression, respectively, significantly attenuated the relations between discrimination and adjustment problems, whereas outward anger expression exacerbated these relations. Moderation effects differed according to the level of analysis. By identifying effective coping strategies in the discrimination-adjustment link at specific levels of analysis, the present findings can guide future intervention efforts for Latino youth.
In this chapter we use Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory (P-VEST) to consider civic engagement as a coping response to systems of inequality faced by racial minority children. After a brief introduction we present a historical and theoretical overview of civic engagement with regard to children and adolescents and racially marginalized communities. We then introduce the P-VEST framework and examine civic engagement as a proactive reactive coping method to counteract the vulnerability and stress of systematic racial injustice. Following a discussion of the current empirical literature we explore the utility of civic engagement programs (e.g., Youth Participatory Action Research) as interventions to support positive development of minority youth. We conclude with policy implications and future directions for research to leverage civic engagement as a coping strategy for the positive development of minority children and their communities.
This study used daily diary methodology to examine associations between cultural factors and daily coping and responses to stress among predominantly low-income Latino adolescents. A total of 58 middle school students (53% male, mean age = 13.31, 95% Latino) completed baseline measures assessing demographic characteristics, familism, ethnic identity, and family ethnic socialization. They subsequently completed 7 consecutive daily diaries assessing daily stress, coping, and involuntary stress responses. Results yielded main effects of stress, gender, familism, and ethnic identity on adolescents’ coping and involuntary stress responses. In addition, interactions between stress and familism, ethnic identity, and family ethnic socialization emerged. Results suggest that familism may promote adaptive responses to stress, while adolescents who report more family ethnic socialization may rely more on maladaptive responses at high levels of stress. Findings related to ethnic identity were mixed and varied depending on levels of ethnic identity exploration versus commitment.
Cultural adaptation may influence Latino youth substance use (SU) development, yet few longitudinal studies have examined cultural change over time and adolescent SU outcomes. Using longitudinal data collected annually across ages 10–16 from 674 Mexican-origin youth (50% female), the authors characterized cultural adaptation patterns for language use (English and Spanish use), values (American values and familism values), and identity (ethnic pride), and examined whether these cultural adaptation patterns were associated with differential SU risk. Youth with increasing bilingualism and high/stable family values had lower SU risk compared to youth who primarily spoke English and endorsed decreasing family values, respectively. Ethnic pride trajectories were not associated with SU. Findings highlight the importance of considering cultural change related to Latino youth SU.
Shift-and-persist is a resilience construct hypothesized to be beneficial to physical health among individuals with low socioeconomic status (SES). This shift-and-persist construct entails a combination of reframing stressors more positively while also enduring adversity through finding purpose in life. In this study, we investigated how shift-and-persist relates to key inflammatory processes that are implicated in cardiovascular and other diseases. We also obtained validation information on a new shift-and-persist measure.
A sample of 122 adolescents and 122 parents from a diverse range of SES backgrounds completed our shift-and-persist measure, a battery of other psychosocial questionnaires and interviews, and provided blood samples. Parents also provided SES information.
Reliability and validity of the shift-and-persist measure were demonstrated across both adolescents and adults. Shift-and-persist moderated the association between SES and indicators of inflammatory regulation. Specifically, as SES declined, shift-and-persist was associated with greater sensitivity to glucocorticoids' anti-inflammatory properties (interaction in adolescents: β = .21, p = .033; interaction in adults: β = .25, p = .011), and also with less low-grade, chronic inflammation (interaction in adolescents: β = .18, p = .044). Conversely, as SES increased, the opposite pattern was evident.
These findings suggest that adaptive psychosocial characteristics have the potential to regulate inflammatory processes in ways that may mitigate risk for a number of chronic diseases, particularly among disadvantaged groups.
Experiences of racial and ethnic discrimination pose significant threats to the development and well‐being of racial and ethnic minority children. Fortunately, not all youth who experience discrimination are susceptible to its harmful effects. Growing evidence points to several racial and ethnic factors that promote positive youth development and protect against the potentially damaging effects of racial and ethnic adversity. This article summarizes emerging research trends and conclusions regarding the “promotive” and “protective” effects of racial and ethnic identity, ethnic‐racial socialization, and cultural orientation, as well as some of the mechanisms that may account for their salutary properties. The article concludes with a brief discussion of important considerations and directions for the future study of racial and ethnic resilience processes in ethnic minority youth.
Low socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with a wide array of poor health outcomes. Nonetheless, some low-SES individuals maintain good physical health despite facing recurrent, severe adversities in life. This article describes a “shift-and-persist” model that explains why that is. The model states that in the midst of adversity, some low-SES children find role models who teach them to trust others, to better regulate their emotions, and to focus on their futures. Over a lifetime, these low-SES individuals may develop an approach to life that prioritizes shifting (accepting stress for what it is and adapting oneself to it) in combination with persisting (enduring life challenges by holding on to meaning and optimism). This combination of shifting and persisting strategies mitigates physiological responses to the barrage of stressors confronted by low-SES individuals and forestalls pathogenic sequelae that lead to chronic disease. Identifying health-relevant protective qualities that naturally occur in some low-SES individuals represents one important approach for improving the health of those who confront a lifetime of disadvantages.
The current longitudinal study tested the premise that Latino adolescents' (N = 323) proactive coping with discrimination would mediate the relationship between ethnic identity and self-esteem. Each component of ethnic identity (i.e., exploration, resolution, and affirmation) was positively associated with concurrent assessments of adolescents' self-esteem. However, in the longitudinal analyses, none of the ethnic identity components predicted future levels of self-esteem. Ethnic identity resolution was the only ethnic identity component to predict proactive coping over time. Furthermore, proactive coping did not mediate the relationship between ethnic identity and self-esteem. However, there was evidence to suggest that the association between proactive coping and self-esteem was bidirectional. These findings underscore the importance of examining the unique components of ethnic identity as well as using longitudinal designs to examine the associations between ethnic identity and adolescents' psychological well-being.
Ethnic identity is an important component of the self-concept and, like other aspects of identity, can be particularly salient during adolescence. Most research on ethnic identity has focused on the unique elements that distinguish particular ethnic groups. However, it is important as well to study and compare ethnic identity and its correlates across groups. This article presents a questionnaire measure of ethnic identity based on the elements of ethnic identity that are common across groups, so that it can be used with all ethnic groups. The questionnaire was administered to 417 high school students and 136 college students from ethnically diverse schools. Reliability, assessed by Cronbach 's alpha, was .81 for the high school sample and .9Ofor the college sample. The relationship of ethnic identity to various demographic variables and to self-esteem was examined. The measure can be used to examine similarities and differences in ethnlic identity and its correlates among youths from different ethnic groups.
The literature identifying effective coping strategies related to perceived discrimination has yielded mixed findings, suggesting that recommendations for effective coping may vary by individual and group differences. The current study examined the influence of perceived discrimination and coping strategies on Mexican origin adolescents' later internalizing symptoms and externalizing behaviors, and assessed the moderating roles of gender and cultural orientation. Participants included 189 adolescents (46% male, 54% female) interviewed at 7(th) and 8(th) grade. Results suggested that the associations between perceived discrimination and internalizing symptoms were buffered by distraction coping among youth that were low on Anglo orientation but not among youth high on Anglo orientation. In addition, the associations between perceived discrimination and externalizing behaviors were buffered by social support seeking, but only among youth that were low on Mexican orientation. Directions for future research and application of the current research are discussed.
Objective:
Low socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with many adverse health outcomes, including childhood overweight and obesity. However, little is understood about why some children defy this trend by maintaining a healthy weight despite living in obesogenic environments. The objective of this study is to test the hypothesis that the psychological strategy of "shift-and-persist" protects low-SES children from overweight and obesity. Shift-and-persist involves dealing with stressors by reframing them more positively while at the same time persisting in optimistic thoughts about the future.
Design and methods:
Middle school children (N = 1,523, ages 9-15) enrolled in a school-based obesity prevention trial completed health surveys and physical assessments. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to examine the role of SES, shift-and-persist strategies, and their interaction on BMI z-scores, while controlling for student race/ethnicity, gender, and reported diet and physical activity.
Results:
Among children reporting engaging in less frequent shift-and-persist strategies, lower SES was associated with significantly higher BMI z-scores (P < 0.05). However, among children reporting engaging in more frequent shift-and-persist strategies, there was no association of SES with BMI z-score (P = 0.16), suggesting that shift-and-persist strategies may be protective against the association between SES and BMI.
Conclusions:
Interventions aimed at improving psychological resilience among children of low SES may provide a complementary approach to prevent childhood overweight and obesity among at-risk populations.
Little is understood about why some youth from low-socioeconomic-status (SES) environments exhibit good health despite adversity. This study tested whether role models and "shift-and-persist" approaches (reframing stressors more benignly while persisting with future optimism) protect low-SES youth from cardiovascular risk. A total of 163 youth, ages 13-16, completed role model interviews and shift-and-persist measures while cholesterol and inflammatory markers, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and C-reactive protein were assessed. Low-SES youth with supportive role models had lower IL-6. Low-SES youth high in shift-and-persist also had lower IL-6. Shift-and-persist partially mediated the interaction of SES and role models on IL-6. Benefits were not found among high-SES youth. Identifying psychological buffers in low-SES youth has implications for health disparities.
Health disparities (differences in health by socioeconomic groups) are a pressing issue in our society. This article provides an overview of a multilevel approach that seeks to understand the mechanisms underlying health disparities by considering factors at the individual, family, and neighborhood levels. In addition, we describe an approach to connecting these factors to various levels of biological processes (systemic inflammation, cellular processes, and genomic pathways) that drive disease pathophysiology. In the second half of the article, we address the question of why some low-socioeconomic-status (low-SES) individuals manage to maintain good physical health. We identify naturally occurring psychosocial factors that help buffer these individuals from adverse physiological responses and pathogenic processes leading to chronic disease. What is protective for low-SES individuals is not the same as what is protective for high-SES individuals, and this needs to be taken into account in interventions aimed at reducing health disparities. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology Volume 9 is March 26, 2013. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
This study examines the utility of a process model which links economic pressure and adolescent use of alcohol in a sample of 76 rural families from a midwestern state. A series of path analyses trace the empirical relations from perceived economic problems through parents' feelings of depression/hostility and their observed hostile/irritable behaviors to the problematic use of alcohol and the antisocial behavior of early adolescents. The findings suggest that parental hostility directed toward children is associated with adolescent antisocial behavior through a process of social learning that leads to deviant friends and alcohol use. Conflict in the marriage is directly related to adolescent drinking as a possible coping response to family stress and, perhaps, through the disruption of parents' ability to function as effective agents of social control.