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Digitalizzazione e automazione avanzata – Il caso Smart Gas
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L’adozione delle tecnologie 4.0 comporta, per molte imprese, l’attivazione di processi di riprogettazione dell’organizzazione. Su questo tema, la teoria dei sistemi sociotecnici ha proposto alcuni principi di progettazione, volti a massimizzare le prestazioni organizzative e al contempo a preservare o sviluppare la qualità del lavoro degli operatori. Attraverso l’analisi di tre imprese che hanno investito nelle tecnologie digitali e contestualmente riprogettato le loro strutture organizzative, il presente studio fornisce evidenze in merito a come i principi di progettazione elaborati dalla teoria sociotecnica vengano oggi declinati, mostrando la possibilità che questa prospettiva possa (ri)diventare centrale sia nella teoria che nelle pratiche manageriali.
Digital platforms disrupt-not just incumbent industries, but also academic imagina-tions about the future course of capitalism. While some scholars envision the next great transformation towards the ultimate marketization, others anticipate a post-capitalism based on digitally revitalized notions of community and reciprocity. Starting from this controversy, the article advances a Polanyian perspective to push beyond the ostensibly antagonistic dynamics of more or less market. More specifically, the emergence of digital platforms is perceived from the angle of three key drivers that propelled the great transformation towards marketization: technology, science, state. While the breakthrough of marketization, in Polanyi's view, was prompted by the steam engine, the emergence of platforms is driven by the digital infrastructures of cloud computing, big data and algorithms ; and while markets were scientifically legitimized by economics, platforms deploy network theories that, through their far-reaching application, perform social reality. Just like markets, however, platforms are nothing natural, but are objects of ongoing political contestations that forge the embedding of the platform economy into the regulatory framework of society.
Le trasformazioni del lavoro sotto la spinta della rivoluzione digitale e le sue conseguenze
We propose a central role for work design in understanding the effects of digital technologies. We give examples of how new technologies can – depending on various factors ‐ positively and negatively affect job resources (autonomy/control, skill use, job feedback, relational aspects) and job demands (e.g., performance monitoring), with consequences for employee well‐being, safety, and performance. We identify four intervention strategies. First, work design choices need to be proactively considered during technology implementation, consistent with the sociotechnical systems principle of joint optimization. Second, human‐centred design principles should be explicitly considered in the design and procurement of new technologies. Third, organizationally‐oriented intervention strategies need to be supported by macro‐level policies. Fourth, there is a need to go beyond a focus on upskilling employees to help them adapt to technology change, to also focus on training employees, as well as other stakeholders, in work design and related topics. Finally, we identify directions for moving the field forward, including new research questions (e.g., job autonomy in the context of machine learning; understanding designers’ work design mindsets; investigating how job crafting applies to technology); a re‐orientation of methods (e.g., interdisciplinary, intervention studies); and steps for achieving practical impact.
In the paper, the A. investigates the contours of the grievance filed by the (former) pro football player Colin Kaepernick and settled by him and the National Football League in February 2019. At first, the focus is on the relationship between the athlete’s right to free speech and the liberty of contract of the NFL teams, which could not be singularly held liable for not hiring Colin Kaepernick after he started his controversial “kneeling protest”. Yet, the A. contends that the constitutional right not to contract, which is individually enjoyed by the Franchises, does not imply that they are allowed to collude to jointly exclude someone from the labor market they controlled (Professional Football) for identity-related reasons. Ultimately, the A. advances the view that free speech, which is the pillar of democracy, encapsulates a negative and a positive dimension: therefore, kneelers and non-kneelers (or, in other terms, protestors and non-protestors) should be equally granted their freedom of expression on and off the field, in so far as their conduct does neither obstruct nor violate the rights of others.
ORPHANS OF INSTITUTIONS.
WORKERS, UNIONS AND THE «DIGITALIZED TERTIARY FACTORY» OF AMAZON.
This article questions how digitalization impacted on work organization and the institutions of industrial relations, taking into account work within the fulfillment centers of Amazon. At organisational level, algorithmic management and electronic devices give rise to a sort of «digitalized tertiary factory» characterized by an unprecedented variant of «digital taylor-fordism», which brings back basic needs for work protection. On the other hand, the analysis of the ongoing conflict in Germany and, more recently, in Italy highlights on one side the structural obstacles that stand in the union action and, on the other, the institutional indifference of Amazon, not least because of the structural weakness of the national structures, still fordist and «analogical», and the inadequacy of European institutional level relating to transnational collective bargaining. ***** L’articolo indaga l’impatto della digitalizzazione sull’organizzazione del lavoro e sulle istituzioni delle relazioni industriali, prendendo in considerazione il lavoro nei centri di distribuzione di Amazon. A livello organizzativo, management algoritmico e dispositivi elettronici danno luogo a una sorta di «fabbrica terziaria digitalizzata» caratterizzata da un’inedita variante di «taylor-fordismo digitale», che ripropone esigenze elementari di tutela del lavoro. D’altro canto, l’analisi del conflitto in corso in Germania e, più di recente, in Italia mette in evidenza da un lato gli ostacoli strutturali che si frappongono all’azione sindacale e, dall’altro, l’indifferenza istituzionale di Amazon, non ultimo in seguito alla debolezza ormai strutturale degli assetti nazionali, ancora fordisti e «analogici», e l’inadeguatezza del livello istituzionale europeo nell’ambito della contrattazione collettiva.
Platform organizations such as Uber, eBay and Airbnb represent a growing disruptive phenomenon in contemporary capitalism, transforming economic organization, the nature of work, and the distribution of wealth. This paper investigates the accounting practices that underpin this new form of organizing, and in doing so confronts a significant challenge within the accounting literature: the need to escape what Hopwood (1996) describes as its “hierarchical consciousness”. In order to do so, this paper develops the concept of evaluative infrastructure which describes accounting practices that enable platform based organization. They are evaluative because they deploy a plethora of interacting devices, including rankings, ratings, reviews, and audits to establish orders of worth. They are infrastructures because they provide the invisible yet essential mechanisms for the flow of economic activity and exchange on platforms. Illustrating the concept of evaluative infrastructure with the example of eBay, the paper's contribution is to (1) provide an analytical vocabulary to capture the accounting practices underpinning platforms as new organizational forms, and in so doing (2) extend accounting scholars' analytical focus from hierarchical settings towards heterarchies. Conceptually, this shift from management accounting to evaluative infrastructures entails a focus on relationality (evaluative infrastructures do not represent or reference but relate things, people and ideas with each other); generativity (evaluative infrastructures do not territorialize objects but disclose new worlds); and new forms of control (evaluative infrastructures are not centres of calculation; rather, control is radically distributed, whilst power remains centralized).
Today, digital data are captured through a variety of devices that have the ability to monitor the minutiae of an individual’s everyday life. These data are often processed by algorithms, which support (or drive) decisions (termed ‘algorithmic decision-making’ in this article). While the strategic value of these data (and subsequent analysis) for businesses is unquestionable, the implications for individuals and wider society are less clear. Therefore, in this Viewpoint article we aim to shed light on the tension between businesses – that increasingly profile customers and personalize products and services – and individuals, who, as McAfee and Brynjolfsson (2012, p. 5) suggest, are ‘walking data generators’ but are often unaware of how the data they produce are being used, and by whom and with what consequences. Issues associated with privacy, control and dependence arise, suggesting that social and ethical concerns related to the way business is strategically exploiting digitized technologies that increasingly support our everyday activities should be brought to the fore and thoughtfully discussed. In this article we aim to lay a foundation for this discussion in the IS community and beyond.
For highly interdependent yet location-specific tasks, distributed teams need to closely coordinate activities and processes.
This field study in the upstream oil and gas industry focused on challenges in the coordination of highly interdependent tasks
if teams work remotely on an ongoing basis. Based on 78 semi-structured interviews and observations over a period of 12 months,
we identified coordination requirements for primary team activities, as well as effects of changing media capabilities to
overcome difficulties of ongoing distribution. Implications for media requirements in the support of ongoing distributed teams
are discussed.
Although there are thousands of studies investigating work and job design, existing measures are incomplete. In an effort to address this gap, the authors reviewed the work design literature, identified and integrated previously described work characteristics, and developed a measure to tap those work characteristics. The resultant Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ) was validated with 540 incumbents holding 243 distinct jobs and demonstrated excellent reliability and convergent and discriminant validity. In addition, the authors found that, although both task and knowledge work characteristics predicted satisfaction, only knowledge characteristics were related to training and compensation requirements. Finally, the results showed that social support incrementally predicted satisfaction beyond motivational work characteristics but was not related to increased training and compensation requirements. These results provide new insight into how to avoid the trade-offs commonly observed in work design research. Taken together, the WDQ appears to hold promise as a general measure of work characteristics that can be used by scholars and practitioners to conduct basic research on the nature of work or to design and redesign jobs in organizations.
The rise of the platform economy marks the latest phase in the ongoing digital revolution. Indeed, the platform is to this digital era what the factory was to the industrial era, both a symbol and an organizing mechanism. Gernot Grabher and Jonas König (2020) used Karl Polanyi's analysis of what he termed the “great transformation” to frame the rise of platform economy. The platform economy is remarkable as it confirms Polanyi's (and Marx's before him) insight that the reach of the market is based upon increased commodification as it has been able to reach into ever more parts of social life. We introduced the term “platform economy” in 2015 because we recognized that the digital platforms were changing the dynamics of capitalist accumulation - an analysis framed by regulationist school of political economy. The intuition was that the socio-technical innovation of digital online platforms was the critical fulcrum for an economic restructuring that would rewire the flows of data and ultimately money and power. The firms we have termed the “mega-platforms”, Apple, Amazon, Facebook, Google, and Microsoft, have become the most valuable and powerful firms in the world. Importantly, the reach of these platforms is global and yet local and personal. Moreover, this platform power has only been reinforced during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In questo articolo, guarderemo alle trasformazioni che interessano il
lavoro proprio da una prospettiva relazionale, a partire dal livello micro.
Lo faremo analizzando due ambiti apparentemente molto diversi: la manifattura
e l’economia di piattaforma avanzando l’ipotesi che le dinamiche
di cambiamento nella dimensione relazionale possano essere simili e si
possano ritrovare in entrambi i casi elementi di sradicamento e radicamento.
In entrambi i settori cioè si possono notare tensioni costanti tra
quelle che abbiamo definito le 5C: condivisione, coinvolgimento, controllo,
competizione e collaborazione.1
Il presente contributo è organizzato in due sezioni oltre introduzione
e conclusioni. Nella prima presteremo attenzione a cosa significano digitalizzazione
e automazione nella manifattura e nell’economia di piattaforma
e al loro impatto sulle relazioni sociali, guardando alla rispettiva diffusione
del fenomeno. Nel secondo approfondiremo le 5C rilevando elementi di
convergenza e divergenza nei due ambiti, che verranno poi ripresi nelle
osservazioni conclusive.
This paper traces the evolution of sociotechnical systems design from its origins in the coal mines of Great Britain to the present day and beyond, into our digital future. Conceived as a means of enhancing productivity while simultaneously providing more meaningful work, sociotechnical thinking gained ground in machine-driven work settings and later took a leap forward to aid the effectiveness of knowledge work. After a period of stagnation as popular fads such as total quality, reengineering and lean six sigma took hold, sociotechnical thinking is poised to reemerge as capabilities associated with new technologies are rapidly outpacing the development of new organizational designs. A recent sociotechnical systems design lab brought together a diverse group of academics, thinkers and practitioners to discuss the future of organization design, producing tantalizing insights into the world that is about to take shape. Finally, implications for change management in sociotechnical transformation are discussed.
Digital transformation has triggered a process of concentration in several markets for information goods with digital platforms rising to dominate key industries by leveraging on network externalities and economies of scale in the use of consumer data. The policy debate, therefore, focuses on the market control allegedly held by incumbents who build their competitive advantage on big data. In this paper, we evaluate the risk of abuse of a dominant position by analysing three major aspects highlighted in economic theory: entry barriers, price discrimination, and potential for technological improvement. Drawing on industrial and information economics, we argue that the very nature of big data, on the one hand, prompts market concentration and, on the other, limits the possibility of abuse. This claim is not an a-priori apologia of large incumbents in digital markets, but rather an attempt to argue that market concentration is not necessarily detrimental when it stimulates continuous innovation. Nonetheless, the concentration of power in a few global players should raise other concerns linked with the supranational nature of these firms, which can easily cherry-pick locations to exploit tax competition among countries or more favourable privacy legislation and the fair use of data.
The development of a wide-reaching collective representation for (genuine) self-employment and the collective negotiation of fair fees for independent contractors might often be more dissuasive vis-à-vis scam self-employment than the threat of reclassification. However, case law in both civil and common law jurisdictions showcases how antitrust law can hamper the collective negotiation of workers’ minimum fees. The premise of such a view, which has its roots in the early stage of development of collective bargaining, is that the agreements setting the rates of pay for non-subordinate labour stand as restraints of trade. The author contends that this narrow interpretation of the scope of collective labour law - or rather this extensive view of the scope of antitrust law - is unacceptable. On the one hand, workers who personally carry out their activity cannot be treated as businesses operating on a free market, because they are - akin to the employees - individuals who lack the power to tangibly affect the terms and conditions of their work. For those persons, as the author recalls, collective bargaining have always stood for, even before the binary legal divide between employment and self-employment was drawn. On the other hand, it appears incongruous that a major challenge to the perimeters of collective labour law stems from a formalistic approach to a field of law (antitrust or competition law) which seeks to correct the market asymmetries in the interest of weaker parties, such as smaller businesses, communities and consumers. Ultimately, the author contends that a solution to overcome this legal hurdle cannot be found through a mere change in the interpretation of the existing US and EU competition and labour law rules, which have to be amended by the legislators in accordance with the current social needs.
Few goods are delivered ‘complete’ to consumers as ready for use without further processing. The operation of markets and capitalist production presuppose the work of consumers in searching for, completing and coordinating between goods and services. Yet the critical contribution of consumers in finalising and complementing a division of labour is rarely acknowledged in theories of either work/production or consumption. The article argues for a radical extension of the division of labour, a central and classical concept of sociology, in order to overcome this limitation. Consumption work is defined as ‘all work undertaken by consumers necessary for the purchase, use, re-use and disposal of consumption goods’ and its distinguishing characteristics are delineated. Building on a relational socio-economic perspective, which emphasises the connections between different forms of work (paid/unpaid, formal/informal, production/consumption), an analytical framework for consumption work is developed and then elaborated by reference to comparative empirical research.
The quality of working life became an important topic in the 1960s and 1970s, helping to stimulate an early approach to evidence-based policy advocacy drawing on interdisciplinary research by social scientists. Over the years it fell out of the limelight but much relevant, albeit fragmented, research has continued. We present a case for rekindling an integrated and normative approach to quality of working life research as one means of promoting workers’ well-being and emancipation. We outline an updated classification of the characteristics of quality of working life and a related analytic framework. We illustrate how research and practice will benefit from following this renewed quality of working life framework, using work design as an example. Concluding, we aim to stimulate debate on the necessity and benefits of rebuilding a quality of working life agenda for marrying academic rigour and practical relevance in order to support interventions aimed at fostering worker emancipation and well-being.
Paper available at: http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2682602
The so-called “gig-economy” has been growing exponentially in numbers and importance in recent years but its impact on labour rights has been largely overseen. Work in the “gig-economy” includes “crowd work”, and “work-on-demand via apps”, under which the demand and supply of working activities is matched online or via mobile apps. Whilst these forms of employment present significant differences among themselves, they also share striking similarities. They can provide a good match of job opportunities, allow flexible working schedules and potentially contribute to redefining the boundaries of the firm. However, they can also pave the way to a severe commodification of labour. This paper discusses the implications of this commodification and advocates the recognition of activities in the gig-economy as work, as the risk of labour being hidden under catchphrases such as “gigs”, “tasks”, “rides” etc. is currently extremely high. It shows how the gig-economy is not a separate silo of the economy and how it is part of broader phenomena such as casualization and informalisation of work and the spread of non-standard forms of employment. It then analyses the risks associated to these activities with regard to Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, as they are defined by the International Labour Organisation (ILO), and addresses the issue of misclassification of the employment status of workers in the gig-economy, based on existing service agreements, business practices and litigation in this sector. Current relevant trends are thus examined, such as the emergence of forms of self-organisation of workers. Finally some policy proposals are critically analysed, such as the possibility of creating an intermediate category between “employee” and “independent contractor” to classify workers in the gig-economy, and other tentative proposals are put forward such as advocacy for the full acknowledgment of activities in this sector as work, extension of fundamental labour rights to all workers irrespective of employment status, and recognition of the role of social partners in this respect, whilst avoiding temptations of hastened deregulation.
This paper is to be presented at the seminar on Crowd-Sourcing, the Gig Economy, and the Law, hold at the Wharton School – University of Pennsylvania, on 7 November 2015. Contributions presented at the seminar will be published, after review, in a special issue of the Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal, in 2016.
The article briefly presents Manufacturing Consent, a 1979 publication directed by Allis Chalmer that deals with the way in which work discipline for manual labourers is organised through coercion and consent, based in particular on the establishment of production quota creating a kind of "game of making out" between works. The author reviews the ethnographic method that had been used at the time. He criticises this approach and suggests a replacement based on an "extended case method" that incorporates the work context and includes actors' trajectories as well as transformations in markets and the role of the state - without forgetting spatial-temporal factors of change. This becomes an opportunity for the author to review recent publications that have expanded the object of research to include gender, domestic labour, migrant workers, services, trade unions, etc. The article suggests that issues pertaining to the battles witnessed in these domains range from exploitation to commodification and include consumerism. All of these bones of contention have inaugurated a new era of transnational mobilisation extending from Eastern Europe to Asia and inspiring the author to reproduce Polanyi’s Great Transformation thesis, after updating it to include the recent advent of a third, ultra-liberal wave that broadens commodification to include nature (earth, water and air) and knowledge. The first manifestation of this change is the Occupy movement.
The bulk of our understanding of teams is based on traditional teams in which all members are collocated and communicate face to face. However, geographically distributed teams, whose members are not collocated and must often communicate via technology, are growing in prevalence. Studies from the field are beginning to suggest that geographically distributed teams operate differently and experience different outcomes than traditional teams. For example, empirical studies suggest that distributed teams experience high levels of conflict. These empirical studies offer rich and valuable descriptions of this conflict, but they do not systematically identify the mechanisms by which conflict is engendered in distributed teams. In this paper, we develop a theory-based explanation of how geographical distribution provokes team-level conflict. We do so by considering the two characteristics that distinguish distributed teams from traditional ones: Namely, we examine how being distant from one's team members and relying on technology to mediate communication and collaborative work impacts team members. Our analysis identifies antecedents to conflict that are unique to distributed teams. We predict that conflict of all types (task, affective, and process) will be detrimental to the performance of distributed teams, a result that is contrary to much research on traditional teams. We also investigate conflict as a dynamic process to determine how teams might mitigate these negative impacts over time.
This article posits that privacy issues arising in the United States from the use of social media and the employment relationship are similar to those that have arisen around the world. It suggests, however, that the patchwork of governing legal claims arising under different laws in different jurisdictions may be unique. After a brief introduction, the second section describes the recent passage of legislation in several states that may protect the privacy of job applicants’ passwords to social media sites. The third section describes the various claims employees may bring under the federal Electronic Communications Privacy Act, in tort for invasion of privacy, pursuant to the Fourth Amendment, or to enforce just cause provisions in collective bargaining agreements. The fourth section describes protection from overbroad discovery of social media when employers and former employees are involved in litigation. The article concludes by assessing the likelihood of further legal reform.
In recent decades, alternative organizations and movements —‘quasi-unions’— have emerged to fill gaps in the US system of representation caused by union decline. We examine the record of quasi-unions and find that although they have sometimes helped workers who lack other means of representation, they have significant limitations and are unlikely to replace unions as the primary means of representation. But networks, consisting of sets of diverse actors including unions and quasi-unions, are more promising. They have already shown power in specific campaigns, but they have yet to do so for more sustained strategies. By looking at analogous cases, we identify institutional bases for sustained networks, including shared information platforms, behavioural norms, common mission and governance mechanisms that go well beyond what now exists in labour alliances and campaigns. There are substantial resistances to these network institutions because of the history of fragmentation and autonomy among both unions and quasi-unions; yet we also identify positive potential for network formation.
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