Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and Remediation

Abstract

Biochar is a solid material derived from different feedstocks that is added to the soil for various agronomic and environmental purposes, such as nutrient sources and CO 2 emission mitigators. In modern agriculture, the application of herbicides directly in the soil is common for pre-emergent weed control; however, biochars may interfere in the degradation processes of these agrochemicals, increasing or decreasing their persistence. Long persistence is desirable for some herbicides in determined cultivation systems, especially in monoculture, but persistence is undesirable in crop rotation and/or succession systems because the subsequent cropping can be sensitive to the herbicide, causing carryover problems. Therefore, knowing the interactions of biochar-herbicide is essential, since these interactions depend on feedstock, pyrolysis conditions (production temperature), application rate, biochar aging, among other factors; and the physical-chemical characteristics of the herbicide. This chapter shows that the addition of biochar in the soil interferes in the persistence or remediation processes of the herbicide, and taking advantage of the agricultural and environmental benefits of biochars without compromising weed control requires a broad knowledge of the characteristics of biochar, soil, and herbicide and their interactions.

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
Chapter
Degradation Process of Herbicides
in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact
on Persistence and Remediation
Kamila CabralMielke, Kassio FerreiraMendes,
Rodrigo Nogueirade Sousa
and Bruna Aparecidade Paula Medeiros
Abstract
Biochar is a solid material derived from different feedstocks that is added to the
soil for various agronomic and environmental purposes, such as nutrient sources
and CO2 emission mitigators. In modern agriculture, the application of herbicides
directly in the soil is common for pre-emergent weed control; however, biochars
may interfere in the degradation processes of these agrochemicals, increasing or
decreasing their persistence. Long persistence is desirable for some herbicides in
determined cultivation systems, especially in monoculture, but persistence is unde-
sirable in crop rotation and/or succession systems because the subsequent cropping
can be sensitive to the herbicide, causing carryover problems. Therefore, knowing
the interactions of biochar-herbicide is essential, since these interactions depend
on feedstock, pyrolysis conditions (production temperature), application rate,
biochar aging, among other factors; and the physical-chemical characteristics of
the herbicide. This chapter shows that the addition of biochar in the soil interferes
in the persistence or remediation processes of the herbicide, and taking advantage
of the agricultural and environmental benefits of biochars without compromising
weed control requires a broad knowledge of the characteristics of biochar, soil, and
herbicide and their interactions.
Keywords: bioavailability, sorption, weed control, pollution soil
. Introduction
Herbicides are the pesticides most applied in modern agriculture for weed
control worldwide, in pre-emergency, directly in the soil, or in post-emergence
in leaves. Regardless of the application of herbicides, these reach the soil and may
persist with residual effect (carryover) or contaminate the non-target organism and
environment. The behavior of the herbicide in the soil is governed by the physico-
chemical properties of the molecule and the soil and can have retention, transport,
and transformation processes [1]. In transformation processes, the herbicide
molecule is degraded into secondary compounds (metabolites) by physical (photo-
degradation), chemical, and biological processes (Figure ) [2].

Biodegradation

Biological degradation is the most common way to dissipate the herbicides in
the environment, and it is carried out mainly by the soil microbiota which use the
herbicide molecules as an energy source and transforms it into compounds without
herbicidal action, the process is also known as detoxification [3, 4]. The chemical
complexity of the herbicide determines the higher or lower facility of microorgan-
isms to degrade the molecules, characterizing it in low or high persistence in the soil
[5], being measured by degradation or dissipation half-life time (DT50) in labora-
tory or field conditions, respectively [2].
The degradation of herbicides in the soil by microorganisms can be aerobic
(with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen). In the presence of oxygen, the herbi-
cide is mineralized in CO2 and water. Without oxygen, the herbicide is mineralized
in CH4, CO2, and water [6]. The efficiency of aerobic degradation of herbicides is
higher than the anaerobic. The aerobic bacteria oxygen act as an oxidizing agent,
and they are present in the region of the soil where there is a higher content of
organic matter (OM) and an excellent soil-water-air ratio for the microbiota [7]. In
conditions of absence of oxygen, the herbicide can become more persistent in the
soil and its degradation pathways are different from microorganisms with aerobic
metabolism [8].
The addition of organic materials, like biochar, in the soil directly influences
the microbial community, responsible for herbicide degradation [9]. Biochar is a
carbonaceous material produced by different feedstocks in pyrolysis conditions
with the limited presence of oxygen. Naturally, biochar is found in the anthro-
pogenic soil, known as “Terra Preta de Índio”, i.e., Amazonian Dark Earths in
the Amazon, which gave rise to synthetic biochar produced worldwide [10].
Pyrolyzed feedstocks and pyrolysis conditions determine the physico-chemical
properties of biochar, such as nutrient content, porosity, specific surface area,
among others.
Figure 1.
Degradation process (chemical, biological, and photodegradation) of herbicides in the soil.


Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101916
In agricultural soils, the biochar has been added to increase porosity, water-
holding capacity, reduce acidity, sequester carbon, reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions, plant growth promotion, improve soil fertility, and immobilize (reme-
diation) herbicides by increasing sorption and microbial diversity [11]. This chapter
showed that is possible to recommend the addition of biochar in the soil to interfere
in the persistence or remediation processes of the herbicide.
. Biochar characteristics
Biochar is the carbon-rich product resulting from the pyrolysis of organic resi-
dues such as wood, animal wastes, crop residues, and biosolids [12]. The feedstock
usually determines the chemical composition, quantity of macropores, and nutrient
content in biochar. Pyrolysis conditions (such as temperature, heating rate, and
residence time) determine the morphology and surface structure changes in feed-
stock and C/H content [11]. The dominant properties affecting herbicide sorption
and degradation by biochar include porosity, specific surface area, pH, functional
groups, carbon content and aromatic structure, and mineralogical composition [13].
More porous structures and higher specific surface area will result in higher
sorption capacities and lower degradation of herbicides [13]. Higher pH of biochar
can accelerate the hydrolysis of organophosphorus and carbamate herbicides in the
soil through the alkali catalysis mechanism [14]. Surface functional groups includ-
ing carboxylic (–COOH), hydroxyl (–OH), lactonic, amide, and amine groups are
essential for the sorption capacity of biochar [15, 16]. Carbon content and aromatic
structure can increase herbicide sorption and reduce their bioavailability to be
degraded [13]. The mineralogical composition can reduce the bioavailability of
herbicides through surface chelation and/or surface acidity mechanisms [17].
Biochar amendment also affects the degradation of herbicides in the soil in
several ways and the effects can be either stimulatory or suppressive [18]. Biochar
may contain available nutrients that stimulate overall microbial activity and,
thus, degradation of herbicides [19, 20]. However, the degradation of herbicides
in biochar-amended soils is most commonly reduced because herbicide sorption
increases [21]. Biochar also sorbs dissolved organic carbon (OC), which can con-
tribute to co-metabolic biodegradation [22]. Some changes in the degradation rate
can be a result of indirect effects of biochar amendment, e.g., changes in soil pH,
albedo, and aeration [18].
. Microbial diversity in biochar-amended soils
Soil correction with biochar can affect the soil microbiota in different ways: (1)
It can provide an increase in the microbiota [23, 24]; (2) It can negatively affect the
resident microbiota by the amount of organic substances (volatile compounds)
formed in the production of biochar [25, 26]; or (3) It may not effect the soil micro-
biota [27, 28]. The possible interaction mechanisms of biochar and soil microbiota
are exemplified in Figure  [29, 30]. The physical–chemical structures of the
biochar surface (macro and micropores, roughness, surface load, and hydrophobic-
ity) are a refuge for the soil microbiota [31, 32], where microorganisms can find
nutrients and ions adsorbed in biochar particles useful for their growth [29, 33]. In
addition, biochars can contain significant amounts of organic substances (volatile
organic compounds and free radicals) [34, 35], improve the soil’s physical–chemical
properties, which are important for microbial growth by modifying habitats (aera-
tion, water content, and pH) [36], affect the enzymatic activity of the soil [37, 38],

Biodegradation

and increase the sorption of herbicides, reducing the bioavailability and toxicity of
these agrochemicals for the soil microbiota [29, 39, 40].
Biochar-amended soil has a higher respiratory rate and microbial communi-
ties due to carbon mineralization by soil microorganisms [41]. Microbial biomass
carbon and nitrogen increased by 18% and 63% with the application of 1% of
sugarcane bagasse biochar [42]. The role of biochar nutrients in the biodegradation
of coexisting dichlobenil and atrazine in soil by their respective bacterial degraders
was evaluated. The degradation increased with increasing biochar content, due to
nutritional stimulation on microbial activities [43]. The application of hardwood-
derived biochar increased atrazine mineralization by stimulating atrazine-adapted
microflora compared to unamended soil [19]. Soil amended with biochar derived
from wheat straw increased the abundance and diversity rate of bacteria and fungi
beneficial to plants in the rhizosphere of wheat seedlings [24]. In addition, these
microorganisms use fomesafen as a source of nutrients, which favors their prolifera-
tion from the soil [24]. The change and proliferation of the soil microbiota with the
addition of biochar is related to the chemical characteristics of biochar (mainly pH
and nutrient content) and physical properties (pore size, pore-volume, and specific
surface area), OM content, and water retention that provide favorable conditions
for soil microbiota [28]. Although soil microbial biomass is generally benefited with
the addition of biochar, the response depends on the type of raw material, pyrolysis
temperature, and biochar application rate, since these factors directly interfere with
the physical–chemical characteristics of biochar and consequently on the response
of the microbiota in herbicide degradation. The proposed mechanisms involved in
biochar and microbiota interactions require further studies to elucidate the impact
of biochar on soil microbial activity.
. Influence of biochar amendment in soil on the herbicide degradation
Herbicides are applied to the soil to control weeds during a certain time after
application; however, long persistence may affect the subsequent crop, a process
known as carryover. Therefore, the process of degradation of the herbicide is
Figure 2.
Interactions between biochar and soil microbiota and environmental effects. Source: Adapted from Zhu
et al. [29].


Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101916
important for the dissipation of herbicides in the soil when the intention is the
remediation of the product. However, under agronomic conditions in which a
residual effect of the herbicide on the soil is desired for weed control, the addition
of biochar can reduce the persistence of the product, consequently reducing its
effectiveness in management [2, 9, 44].
The degradation of herbicide molecules into secondary compounds (metabo-
lites) can occur by biotic (biological degradation) or abiotic (hydrolysis, reduction,
oxidation, and photolysis) processes [45]. Biodegradation, carried out by the soil
microbiota (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and actinomycetes), is the main decom-
position pathway for most herbicides [13, 46]. Microorganisms can use herbicide
molecules as an energy source and transform them into compounds without
herbicide action, a process known as catabolism, or through co-metabolism, in
which herbicide degradation requires the presence of a growth substrate that is used
as primary carbon and energy source [3, 47], i.e., microorganism does not obtain
energy or benefit from the herbicide degradation. The transformation process is
usually mediated by non-specific enzymes that are capable to transform various
organic compounds [4]. Herbicides have varied susceptibility to microbial degra-
dation depending on the complexity of the molecule that influences low or high
persistence in the soil [5].
Microbial degradation generally reduces the DT50 of herbicides in the soil;
however, the addition of biochar, according to studies performed, may increase
or decrease the DT50 values, depending on the herbicide and pyrolyzed feedstock
(Table ). The high sorption capacity for herbicides in the biochar-amended soil
decreases herbicide degradation, providing a higher DT50 than the unamended
soil [46, 49]. For example, less atrazine degradation was observed in amended
soils with sugarcane bagasse biochar (0.5% w/w) (Table ), increasing in 15days
the DT50 of the herbicide in relation to unamended soil [49]. Flumioxazin DT50
increased by ~10 days when bamboo biochar (10% w/w) was added compared to
unamended soil (Table ) [51]. The DT50 of 2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyaceticacid
(MCPA) increased from 5.2days (unamended soil) to 21.5days in amended soil
with 1% of wheat straw biochar [59].
The application of biochar can also increase soil microbial activity, improving
herbicide degradation [29, 60]. The increase in microbial biomass may be due to the
addition of available organic substrates, which are the main energy source readily
available to soil microorganisms [55]. The high content of dissolved OC in the soil
MO can reduce herbicide sorption by biochar particles, as dissolved OC competes
with herbicide molecules to occupy available biochar sorption sites [61]. Biochar
also sorbs dissolved OC, which can contribute to co-metabolic biodegradation
[22]. Some changes in degradation rate may result from indirect effects of biochar
amendment, e.g., changes in soil pH and aeration [18]. The highest degradation of
oxyfluorfen was observed in amended soils with different rates of application of
rice husk biochar, decreasing DT50 between 2 and 23days compared to unamended
soil (Table ) [50]. Alachlor mineralization increased up to 50% using biochar
derived from soybean stoves, sugarcane bagasse, and wood chips compared to
unamended soil (Table ) [58].
Photolysis and hydrolysis are the main abiotic processes involved in herbicide
degradation [48, 62]. Photolysis or photodegradation occurs when herbicides are
exposed to sunlight [63] and can be direct (a herbicide molecule absorbs light
energy, is later excited and transformed) or indirect (species photochemically
produced in the soil matrix react with the herbicide molecule triggering its degra-
dation) [64]. Water degrades herbicides by dividing large molecules into smaller
molecules, breaking them in the process called hydrolysis [65]. The hydrolysis of
herbicides in the soil can be influenced by several factors such as dissolved ion

Biodegradation

Location
(Country)
Soil texture () Feedstock Application
rate ()b
Pyrolysis
temperature (°C)
Herbicide DT (biochar-
amended soil)
DT (unamended
soil)
References
Sand Silt Clay OMa
Australia n.a. n.a. 36.1 2.4 Wheat straw 0.5 450 Atrazine 61.5d76.5dNag et al. [44]
157.9d
n.a. n.a. 28 4.0 0.5 65.9d68.6d
152.0d
Australia n.a. n.a. 36.1 2.4 Wheat straw 0.5 450 Trifluralin 73.6d75.4dNag et al. [44]
171.1d
n.a. n.a. 28 4.0 0.5 63.2d66.4d
161.2d
Brazil n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Industrial-
production of
charcoal
3350-550 Sulfometuron-
methyl
52.1 36.6 Alvarez et al.
[48]
655.4
China n.a. n.a. n.a. 3.2 Sugarcane bagasse 0.2 500 Atrazine 38.5 28.1 Huang et al.
[49]
0.5 45.0
2.0 0.2 35.5 23.7
0.5 41.2
3.6 0.2 41.2 39.8
0.5 54.8


Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101916
Location
(Country)
Soil texture () Feedstock Application
rate ()b
Pyrolysis
temperature (°C)
Herbicide DT (biochar-
amended soil)
DT (unamended
soil)
References
Sand Silt Clay OMa
China 21.4 51.4 27.2 2.8 Coal 1.5 n.a.cIsoproturon 53.3 54.6 Si et al. [46]
560.8
871.4
27.9 33.6 38.5 1.5 1.5 67.9 16
5102
8136
44.9 39.5 15.6 1.2 1.5 58.2 15.2
588.9
8107
China 32.1 24.7 43.2 0.84 Rice husk 0.5 500 Oxyfluorfen 59 65 Wu et al. [50]
157
253
73.2 12.3 14.5 0.98 0.5 104 108
185
277
55 23.1 21.9 2.2 0.5 43 45
142
235

Biodegradation

Location
(Country)
Soil texture () Feedstock Application
rate ()b
Pyrolysis
temperature (°C)
Herbicide DT (biochar-
amended soil)
DT (unamended
soil)
References
Sand Silt Clay OMa
China 7 7.4 4.4 18.2 1.5 Cornstalk 10 500 Flumioxazin 15.4 11.1 Chen et al. [51]
Rice husk 500 16.7
Bamboo 700 23.2
21 17 62 1.7 Cornstalk 500 18.5 11.5
Rice husk 500 22.3
Bamboo 700 25.4
6.8 55.3 37.9 3.8 Cornstalk 500 20.5 15.4
Rice husk 500 22.6
Bamboo 700 29.2
3.7 64.7 31.6 4.3 Cornstalk 500 21.0 20.8
Rice husk 500 24.7
Bamboo 700 30.7
Germany 30.1 62.5 7.8 1.2 Hardwood 0.1 500 Atrazine 74.0d72.4dJablonowski et
al. [19]
172.4d
568.0d
24.4 25.2 50.3 3.1 0.1 53.0d42.6d
149.8d
544.4d


Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101916
Location
(Country)
Soil texture () Feedstock Application
rate ()b
Pyrolysis
temperature (°C)
Herbicide DT (biochar-
amended soil)
DT (unamended
soil)
References
Sand Silt Clay OMa
India 56.6 29.6 13.8 n.a. Rice straw 0.25 350 Bispyribac-
sodium
10.7 2 7.1 Sharma et al.
[39]
0.5 11.5
112.1
0.25 550 8.8
0.5 9.9
111.2
Latvia 89.2 8.9 1.9 n.a. Wood chips 5.3 725 MCPA 1986f94.5fMuter et al.
[52]
4.1 3854f11.1f
Wheat straw 5.3 1636f94.5f
4.1 15.3f11.1f
Malaysia 40 21.5 37. 9 0.99 Oil palm empty
fruit bunches
1300 Imazapic 46.2 34.6 Yavari et al.
[53]
Imazapyr 53.3 38.5
Rice husk Imazapic 40.7 34.6
Imazapyr 46.3 38.5

Biodegradation

Location
(Country)
Soil texture () Feedstock Application
rate ()b
Pyrolysis
temperature (°C)
Herbicide DT (biochar-
amended soil)
DT (unamended
soil)
References
Sand Silt Clay OMa
Russia 3.1 30.4 66.5 n.a. Woods (Betula sp.
and Piceaabies)
1400 Diuron 47 40 Zhelezova et
al. [18]
10 42
20 56
30 45
1Glyphosate 187 17
10 151
20 131
30 51
83.7 8.8 7.5 n.a. 1Diuron 58 112
10 33
20 35
30 40
1Glyphosate 83 182
10 66
20 78
30 53


Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101916
Location
(Country)
Soil texture () Feedstock Application
rate ()b
Pyrolysis
temperature (°C)
Herbicide DT (biochar-
amended soil)
DT (unamended
soil)
References
Sand Silt Clay OMa
Spain 24 47 30 1.3 Hardwood
(Caryatomentosa)
2350 Clomazone 97 29 Gámiz et al.
[54]
400 77
700 99
Hardwood
(Caryaillinoinensis)
350 107
400 65
700 67
Hardwood
(Caryatomentosa)
350 Bispyribac-
sodium
n.a. 21
400 n.a.
700 84
Hardwood
(Caryaillinoinensis)
350 n.a.
400 n.a.
700 33

Biodegradation

Location
(Country)
Soil texture () Feedstock Application
rate ()b
Pyrolysis
temperature (°C)
Herbicide DT (biochar-
amended soil)
DT (unamended
soil)
References
Sand Silt Clay OMa
Spain 43 32 23 0.9 Olive mill waste 2.5 n.a. Metribuzin 39 22 López-Piñeiro
et al. [55]
548
Olive mill waste
plus leaves
2.5 13
517
53 32 14 0.6 Olive mill waste 2.5 49 35
552
Olive mill waste
plus leaves
2.5 19
522
43 14 42 0.9 Olive mill waste 2.5 40 29
543
Olive mill waste
plus leaves
2.5 18
516
USA n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.7 Sugarcane bagasse 0.2 350 Metribuzin 54 25 White Junior
et al. [56]
Sugarcane bagasse 0.1 700 25
n.a. n.a. n.a. 0.8 Sugarcane bagasse 0.2 350 74 57
Sugarcane bagasse 0.1 700 39
n.a. n.a. n.a. 1.2 Pine wood 0.4 400 39 28
USA 22 55 23 >2 Mixed sawing 5500 Acetochlor 34.5 9.7 Spokas et al.
[57]
USA n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Soybean waste 10 500 Alachlor 4.6e10.4eMendes et al.
[58]
Sugarcane bagasse 350 3.4e
Wood bark (grape) 500 3.8e
aOrganic Matter; bApplication rate in relation to soil mass (ww−); cData not available; dDegradation (); eMineralization () to CO; fHerbicide concentration after incubation period (μgkg−).
Table 1.
Effect of biochar amendment in soil on the degradation half-live time (DT50 - days) of different herbicides.


Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101916
concentration, soil pH, and content of clays and metal oxides capable of catalyzing
this herbicide degradation process [14, 66].
The application of biochar can influence the degradation of herbicides by
hydrolysis and photolysis, since persistent free radicals existing or photogenerated
in biochars can react with the herbicide by the activation of other free radicals such
as hydroxyl, sulfate, anion, and superoxide [67, 68]. In addition, the increase in soil
pH, the presence of active groups on the mineral surface of biochar, and the high
sorption of herbicides have a direct effect on the chemical degradation processes of
herbicides [64, 66]. Atrazine was hydrolyzed by 27.9% in the presence of biochar
derived from pig manure (700°C) after 12h due to the mineral surface and dis-
solved metal ions released from biochars that catalyze hydrolysis [66]. In contrast,
imazapic and imazapyr were resistant to degradation by hydrolysis in amended soil
with biochar derived from empty fruit bunch of oil palm and rice husk, and their
DT50’s increased by ~6 to 12days because the photodegradation rate diminished [53]
(Table ). The addition of biochar to the soil at 1 or 5% inhibited the photodegrada-
tion of metribuzin and its metabolites deamino (DA), deaminodiketo (DADK), and
diketometribuzin (DK), which increased their DT50’s due to the immobilization of
these compounds the surface layer of the biochar [64]. Therefore, the application
of biochar has a direct impact on herbicide degradation processes and should be
constantly examined for its application in the soil.
. Factors affecting herbicide degradation in biochar-amended soils
The impact on the degradation of herbicides due to their high sorption in the
biochar particles depends on the rate of biochar applied to the soil. The applica-
tion of different rates of application of hardwood biochar in Rhodic Ferralsol soil
increased atrazine degradation by 49% (0.1% of biochar), 51% (1.0% of biochar),
and 62% (5.0% of biochar) after 88days of incubation (Table ) [19]. DT50 of
isoproturon in unamended Alfisol was 16days, however, when biochar was added
at 1.5 and 5%, DT50 increased to 67 and 136days, respectively (Table ) [46], i.e.,
the persistence of isoproturon is prolonged as the rate of biochar added to the soil
increases. DT50 of fomesafen increased from 34.6days in unamended soil to 51, 83,
and 160days in amended soils with rice husk biochar at 0.5, 1, and 2%, respectively
[61]. The increased persistence of fomesafen can be explained by the higher sorb
capacity of biochar and, therefore, little bioavailability of the herbicide for micro-
bial degradation.
Pyrolysis temperature defines the physicochemical characteristics of bio-
chars [69]. Generally, biochar produced at relatively high pyrolysis temperatures
(>500°C) presents an increase in specific surface area, microporosity, and hydro-
phobicity, improving herbicide sorption [70]. However, even with higher herbicide
sorption capacity, degradation at high pyrolysis temperatures may be more intensi-
fied than low temperatures. The addition of sugarcane bagasse biochar produced
at 700°C in clay soil decreased the DT50 of metribuzin from 57 (unamended soil)
to 39days, but when biochar was produced at 350°C, DT50 went from 57 to 74days
(Table ) [56]. These conflicting results could be due to the impact of ash on the
alkalinity of the soil amended with biochar produced at 700°C (20.3% of ash),
which increased the soil pH and improved the conditions for the degradation of
metribuzin, and to the greater amount of dissolved OC from biochar produced
at 350°C (3.78mgg−1), which is more preferred by microorganisms as substrate,
increasing the persistence of the herbicide. The variation in pyrolysis temperature
of eucalyptus wood residue biochar affected the total hexazinone unavailable
(mineralized + non-extractable residue) being higher for 850°C (46%) and 950°C

Biodegradation

(49%) compared to biochar pyrolised at 650°C (33%) and 750°C (42%) [71]. The
addition of biochar did not alter the mineralization of hexazinone, but it did reduce
the bioavailability of this herbicide in the soil due to the greater amount of non-
extracted residue, reducing the risk of environmental contamination [71].
Aging alters the properties of biochar, affecting the degradation of herbicides,
however, these changes are not fully elucidated [72]. Glyphosate showed no varia-
tion in degradation in two tropical soils (Ultisol and Alfisol) amended with euca-
lyptus biochar aged [73]. The aging of soil-wood biochar mixtures (Betula sp. and
Piceaabies) decreased glyphosate and diuron sorption compared to fresh biochar
amended soil [18]. In addition, herbicide degradation was not affected by changes
or biochar aging in the soils studied [18]. The degradation of S-metolachlor was not
affected with the addition of three macadamia nutshell biochars aged [74]. The per-
sistence of mesotrione in different soils amended with fresh and aged biochar was
similar to unamended soils [75]. In contrast, the extractable amounts of picloram
were 20 and 50% lower for soils amended with fresh and aged oak wood biochar,
respectively, in relation to unamended soil [76]. The addition of 10% fresh biochar
from the olive oil industry increased the DT50 of metribuzin from 20 (unamended
soil) to 30.2days, however, the DT50 decreased to 6.4days with the addition of aged
biochar, possibly because microorganisms in soil aged with biochar used metribuzin
as a source of carbon and energy instead of the labile fraction of soil OM (Table  )
[55]. The effects of biochar on herbicide degradation in soils should not be general-
ized due to the different characteristics of biochars and the complexity of the soil
system. The variation of temperature and application rate of biochar can bring dif-
ferent degradation responses for each herbicide studied. Furthermore, the aging of
biochar in the soil can influence the bioavailability of herbicides in soil solution by
altering the sorption capacity of the biochar; therefore, the conditions of pyrolysis,
type of feedstock as well as aging must be taken into consideration when planning
its use in agriculture and for soil remediation purposes [18].
. Simultaneous use of herbicides and biochar
In an agricultural context, the property of biochar that offers potential for
herbicide sorption (environmental remediation) can also decrease the efficacy of
herbicides applied to the soil, influencing their bioavailability and susceptibility to
leaching and consequently their degradation [77]. The bioavailability of diuron and
microbial degradation was reduced in soils amended with rice straw biochar, which
decreased the effectiveness of diuron to jungle rice (Echinocloa colona) control
[78]. The addition of wheat straw biochar to the soil inactivated the herbicides
atrazine and trifluralin, resulting in increased seed germination and biomass of
annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum). In this study, the efficacy of the herbicides for
ryegrass control was achieved when the application doses were four times higher
than recommended [44]. In a bioassay with Echinochloa colona, injuries 9days after
planting decreased with increasing application rates of rice straw biochar indicating
that sorption of clomazone increased and directly influenced the bioavailability
of herbicide in the soil [79]. The control efficiency of S-metolachlor was evaluated
on green foxtail (Setaria viridis) in soil amended with wood biochar at different
application rates (0, 0.5, 1, and 2%) [80]. S. viridis control at the highest application
rate (2%) was lower than the other application rates evaluated, however, better than
the control treatments (no herbicide) [80].
The biochar applied to soil also influences the soil physicochemical properties
and the improved nutritional availability of these directly impacts crop growth
and consequently weed growth [81]. Soil amended with walnut shell biochar

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Degradation Process of Herbicides in Biochar-Amended Soils: Impact on Persistence and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101916
(5Mgha−1) for 4years was evaluated for weed control [82]. Weed density was dra-
matically higher in biochar-amended soils (60-78%) compared to unamended soil,
being related to increased nutrient availability and improvements in soil physico-
chemical properties such as cation exchange capacity (CEC), density and porosity,
increased soil aeration, and water retention. The application of 2Mgha−1 of cow
bonechar prevented weed control by indaziflam which is related to the increase of
soil fertility, especially the phosphorus and carbon content, and to the increase of
pH because it is a basic material [83]. In addition, goosegrass (Eleusine indica) and
crabgrass (Digitaria horizontalis) accounted for about 99.7% of the entire weed
community infestation [83].
On the other hand, the decrease in efficacy depends on the characteristics of the
herbicide evaluated. The dose of pretilachlor to inhibit 50% of E. colona emergence
and biomass was higher in soil amended with rice-husk biochar, however, the
effectiveness of pendimethalin in controlling E. colona was not influenced by the
application rate of biochar [84]. The effectiveness on metribuzin in soils amended
with biochar was evaluated by White Junior et al. [56]. The addition rates of biochar
did not alter Palmer (Amaranthus palmeri) emergence, and it is possible that the
residual activity was sufficient to reduce germination at any rate of biochar [56].
The addition of biochar to soil increases the sorption of different herbicides and
reduces their effectiveness, which may result in the need for higher herbicide appli-
cation rates, additional application times, or more weed control operations required
[85]. Residual herbicides, applied in pre-emergence, can not provide good weed
control regardless of soil type after biochar application. This does not necessarily
mean that biochar should be avoided, however, when biochar is applied to the soil,
management practices need to be adjusted to obtain appropriate weed control [86].
. Conclusions
Modifying soil characteristics with biochar is a world-renowned emerging
practice for either environmental and/or agronomic purposes, and the benefits
these carbonaceous materials brig to the soil are clear. However, the pyrolysis
conditions for biochar production directly interfere with the physical–chemical
properties of the produced material, which govern the biochar-herbicide interac-
tions. If the objective is to apply the herbicide in pre-emergence after the addition
of biochar in the soil, care should be taken, as biochar can decrease or increase
the persistence of the chemical product, interfering in the effectiveness of weed
control over time. On the other hand, if the objective is herbicide remediation in
contaminated soils, the interference of biochar in the bioavailability of the herbi-
cide in the soil solution to increase soil microbiological diversity should be known.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher
Education Personnel (CAPES - 88887.479265/2020-2100) and Foundation for
Research Support of the State of Minas Gerais - Brazil (FAPEMIG - APQ-01378-21)
for the financial support.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Biodegradation

Author details
Kamila CabralMielke1, Kassio FerreiraMendes1*, Rodrigo Nogueirade Sousa2
and Bruna Aparecidade Paula Medeiros1
1 Department of Agronomy, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa,MinasGerais,
Brazil
2 Department of Soil Science, “Luiz de Queiroz” College of Agriculture, University
of São Paulo, SãoPaulo, Brazil
*Address all correspondence to: kfmendes@ufv.br
© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms
of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original work is properly cited.

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