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Citation: Alshaabani, A.; Hamza,
K.A.; Rudnák, I. Impact of Diversity
Management on Employees’
Engagement: The Role of
Organizational Trust and Job
Insecurity. Sustainability 2022,14, 420.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010420
Academic Editor: Hyo Sun Jung
Received: 12 December 2021
Accepted: 28 December 2021
Published: 31 December 2021
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4.0/).
sustainability
Article
Impact of Diversity Management on Employees’ Engagement:
The Role of Organizational Trust and Job Insecurity
Ayman Alshaabani * , Khadija Aya Hamza and IldikóRudnák
Institute of Agricultural and Food Economics, Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences,
2100 Gödöllo, Hungary; khadija.hamza@yahoo.fr (K.A.H.); Rudnak.Ildiko@uni-mate.hu (I.R.)
*Correspondence: a.shaabany@gmail.com; Tel.: +36-70-613-0097
Abstract:
The frequent world changes raised by globalization, new technology development, and the
increase in migration movements have generated an immensely diversified workforce. To face these
challenges, managers started to seek the best strategies to effectively run this mixed environment and
implement the leading diversity management policies for human resource management sustainability,
which is also considered as very constructive in boosting employees’ performance, motivation,
satisfaction, as well as their work engagement. Consistently, this paper examines the impact of
service companies’ diversity management systems on employees’ engagement and the moderating
role of organizational trust and job insecurity in that relationship. As we opted for a quantitative
study, we managed a survey based on a questionnaire dedicated to 580 employees working in
Hungarian companies, specializing in Marketing, Management consulting, IT, and logistics services,
to effectively assess the hypothesis concluded from the literature review. With the use of structural
equation modeling (SEM) as a data analysis tool, our findings reveal that diversity management
has a positive significant effect on Employees’ engagement and that organizational trust and job
insecurity truly and significantly mediate that association. Along with social exchange theory, our
research contributes to affirming that by implementing proper diversity management practices and by
ensuring a trustworthy environment and outstanding work conditions, managers are constructively
able to assist their employees, raise their involvement, and minimize the level of job insecurities.
Keywords: diversity management; employees’ engagement; organizational trust; job insecurity
1. Introduction
Presently, with the world change, the rise of globalization, technology development,
and migration movements, the work environment has become progressively diversified
and mixed [
1
]. These facts were the main reasons for many changes within the business
sector where women, disabled people, and individuals who have different demographic
and socio-cultural characteristics were mostly affected [
2
]. At the beginning of the 1990s,
several managers started to encounter the new tendency of diversity at the workplace,
which was raised by the implementation of liberalization, privatization, and globalization
policies [
3
]. At that time, the topic started to have a huge consideration from researchers’
perspective, where some scholars have mentioned that sooner or later companies’ structures
might reach 90% of women and many of them would be migrants. Without forgetting the
racial groups that will present the largest part of the companies’ businesses [
4
,
5
]. According
to them, the organizations that will appreciate these changes will be more competitive in
the markets and will respond to a vast variety of approaches to managing their diversified
workforce [3].
It was also highly mentioned that diversity management is increasingly important
in ensuring the human resource management sustainability, where [
6
] confirmed that
organizations who guard their diversified workforce by planning a long term diversity
management strategies and include them in the companies’ human resource management
Sustainability 2022,14, 420. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010420 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 2 of 22
activities such as recruitment, payroll, mobility, promotion etc., who ensure structured em-
ployees’ evaluations and who have the right managers with international and multicultural
experiences, flexible and global mindsets, and strong diversified technical and strategical
skills are those who succeed in introducing supportive programs for sustainability and a
skilled, powerful, and solid work environment. In addition, they reported that diversity
implementation with its full requirements incarnated into the firms’ everyday life can
ensure the companies’ sustainable prosperity in a very globalized world.
From the Hungarian outlook, researchers pointed out that some of the Hungarian
employers started to deliver greater importance to promote diversity in the workplace,
by considering the diversity management not only from recruiting diversified employees’
but also from ensuring them the feeling of organizational involvement and equity in the
management policies [
7
], other Hungarian employers still refuse to address this issue
because of the lack of trust [
8
]. To conclude, one of the best ways to keep the highest
competitiveness is then to admit that today’s liveware is progressively mixed and diverse.
That is why huge efforts in promoting policies and practices are needed to ensure indi-
viduals’ inclusion from all backgrounds and push them to reach some positive outcomes
such as profitability, creativity, flexibility, organizational growth, organizational trust, and
employee engagement [
9
]. These positive outcomes also need some other fundamental
measures and changes in the organizational structure such as human resource policies,
operational procedures, style of leadership, and well-structured organizational culture [
3
].
Earlier, from a theoretical stance, the institutional theory was basically used to state
that diversity management is about the rules and norms settled by the company to influence
the employees’ behaviors [
10
]. In the same line, some other studies have mentioned that
corporate ethics enhancing peoples’ sense of respect towards each other ensures organi-
zational commitment [
11
,
12
]. In addition, social exchange theory shaped that exchange
is the best way to show appropriate behaviors valuable to their organization [
13
]. Hence,
our study will focus on exploring this effect in the Hungarian context, as in some of the
local companies the concept of diversity acceptance is still frozen out. We would like to
see how the actual changes (migrants’ movement, technology development, openness)
impacted the diversified Hungarian work environment and how Hungarian managers in
service companies started to deal with this issue to ensure their employees’ engagement.
According to Guadagno [
14
], the foreigner employees’ segment was the most vulnerable
and intensely affected during crisis time (COVID-19 pandemic for instance) due to different
reasons, such as the difficult living circumstances, different working conditions, inade-
quate health services, limited local knowledge, and shortage of government foreigners’
support, etc. These facts have pushed us to focus on this type of employees, in order to
understand the effectiveness of diversity management policies implementation in boosting
their engagement at work.
Correspondingly, Karatepe has mentioned in his study, that employees retain a lower
work engagement, in an environment full of job loss fear and lack of great management.
Contrarily, employees who are full of energetic and enthusiastic feelings towards their job
are usually up to show greater attitudinal and behavioral outcomes [
15
]. Consequently,
these studies have reported that job insecurity, which is considered as a sensation felt by
employees when there is a risk of job loss [
16
], is the reason for lack of engagement and
engenders detrimental outcomes such as nonattendance behaviors and counterproductive
work behaviors [
17
]. Because of the lack of studies dealing with this issue, our study will
try to investigate on reporting the mediation effect of job insecurity in the relationship
between diversity management and employee engagement.
Even though employee engagement was linked to many job outcomes as we mentioned
before, there are few studies that point to the antecedents of engagement such as leadership
and trust [
18
]. That is why understanding the role of trust is a key point to generate
positive job attitudes. From this standpoint, Ugwu et al. [
18
] confirmed that trust is a key
factor for any organization to ensure their employees’ wellbeing because trust maintains
social exchange and ensures positive job attitudes such as being more engaged at work.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 3 of 22
Hence, the current study will try to explore the mediation role of organizational trust in
the relationship between diversity management and employees’ engagement. In addition,
the researchers truly consider the current study as an important contribution, bringing an
additional value to the literature, as no earlier studies were conducted in Hungary linking
diversity management, organizational trust, job insecurity, and employee engagement
variables all together.
For the results’ examination, the researchers opted for a quantitative study using a
questionnaire as a data collection tool sent to 580 respondents from Marketing, Management
consulting, IT, and logistics at local Hungarian service companies. The findings show how
important it is for Hungarian managers to ensure a well-structured diversity management
strategy in promoting their employees’ work engagement and avoiding sensations of job
insecurity. It also shows how trust in the organization could be a significant factor to boost
that engagement.
This paper is then structured as follows, it firstly starts with a literature review con-
taining all concepts, definitions, and links between the model variables from which the
researchers concluded our hypothesis. Then, the methodology part took place followed by
the results, discussion of the data analysis, and as a conclusion, the researchers have tried
to summarize all the theoretical and practical contributions and, finally, state the limitations
and suggestions for future research.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Diversity Management and Employee’s Engagement
Diversity management was largely considered as a general concept, originally taken
as a replacement for and reframing of the earlier affirmative action programs and the equal
employment opportunities act in the United States [
19
]. Many authors introduced this
concept to help in promoting employment and career development and combating racial
and gender discrimination [20].
Previously, the diversity issue was thoroughly ignored in organizations. However,
with the world changes due to globalization, diversity management started to gain a
lot of consideration, and many authors started to examine it from different angles and
different viewpoints [
21
]. Regarding its definition, investigators have mentioned that the
concept is seen as a general and vast notion, hard to be defined in a single and concrete
conceptualization [
21
]. In compliance with this fact, Jackson et al. [
22
] have mentioned
that diversity is the existing dissimilarities in personal attributes between people who
are working in the same groups, and these attributes usually include (age, gender, race,
etc.). In addition, Yadav and Lenka [
21
] (p. 1), added that diversity management is a
perspective to “enhance the performance of a heterogeneous workforce and inclusive
development of people with differences in gender, ethnicity, nationality, cultural and
educational backgrounds”. Furthermore, Thomas [
23
] defined the concept as a practice
that consists of implementing diversity through effective change within the organization,
which has a positive effect on promoting the achievement of the planned objectives. This
variation in the definitions gives an idea about the complexity of the diversity concept.
In this line, many theories were related to diversity management in order to explain
its importance and necessity within organizations, such as, for example, the social identity
theory [
24
], explaining that individuals usually classify their perceptions according to
the social groups and based on some common attributes; similarity-attraction theory [
25
],
highlighting that individuals are willing to be closer to those who share similar attributes
and attitudes and put themselves in challenging situations with those who dispose different
attitudes, values, and experiences; and finally, the social exchange theory [
26
], reporting
the importance of the mutual exchange that grants social stability. Therefore, a safe envi-
ronment could be created when effective diversity management is implemented within the
organizations where people are willing to engage and commit.
Literature on engagement states that employee engagement is considered as a very
recent topic, where authors started to take it into consideration and talk about it widely in
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 4 of 22
2000 [
27
]. Several definitions were dedicated to conceptualizing the notion. Accordingly,
Ref. [
28
] have mentioned that employee engagement is the degree of his/her attachment to
the organization and how they identify themselves towards it. It has also been reported
that employee engagement can occur when people are engaged in their work, and they are
concerned and enthusiastic about their job and position and willing to put a lot of effort
into it [
27
]. Furthermore, Kahn [
29
] (p. 694) who was the first one who introduced the
concept, added that employee engagement can occur when “people employ and express
themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances”.
In this line, we can say that employee engagement aims to enhance the performance,
autonomy, diversity respect, integrity, and personal development [
27
]. In their study,
Schaufeli et al. [
30
] have mentioned that there are three factors of employee engagement,
which are vigor, dedication, and absorption, where “Vigor is characterized by high levels
of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in one’s
work, and persistence even in the face of difficulties and where dedication refers to being
strongly involved in one’s work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm,
inspiration, pride, and challenge and finally, absorption which is characterized by being
fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one’s work, whereby time passes quickly, and
one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work.” [31] (p. 702).
Previous studies, widely focused on the press, on social exchange theory to explain
that higher employee engagement can be reached through providing the right resources
and the right support by the organizations [
32
]. From this standpoint, many authors
tried to indicate that diversity practices are the way to show the employees how the
organization cares about their differences and try always to keep in mind that reaching
their happiness is the most important objective [
33
]. In this line, anterior research confirmed
this relationship by mostly focusing on the effect of fairness, development provision, and
ethical climate presence on employee satisfaction and engagement [
34
,
35
]. In addition,
Hapsari et al. [
36
] reported that employee engagement is highly linked to job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, job involvement, and feelings of empowerment, highlighting
that thanks to those feelings, employees are willing to work harder and adapt themselves
to the company’s values and goals. Furthermore, in a recent study, Alshaabani et al. [
37
]
found that perceived organizational support positively impacts the employees’ engagement.
These results, which was in line with SET, indicated that during the COVID-19 pandemic,
the role of management in providing support to the employees is significant for enhancing
their engagement at work which in turn was positively affecting their organizational
citizenship behaviors.
Thus, managers must take into consideration all these features and keep in mind that
diversity plays extraordinary importance in business because it offers big benefits to both
the employer and the employees, who will be satisfied and engage in their jobs [
36
]. Very
few studies have linked diversity management to employee engagement such as Downey
et al. [
9
], who, by adopting a survey dedicated to 4597 health sector employees, confirmed
that having clear diversity management practices and policies plays a significant role in
boosting employees’ engagement. Similarly, Alshaabani and Benedek [
38
], with sending
an online questionnaire to 202 employees with Middle Eastern nationalities and working
in Western countries, reported that some diversity management practices, such as training,
performance appraisal, and recruitment, play an important role in increasing Egyptian
workers’ engagement levels. In addition, Skalsky and McCarthy [
39
] have also mentioned
in their research, that diversity training was the most effective practice in enhancing
employee engagement levels among Australian employees. From this perspective, we can
conclude our first hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1 (H1).
“Diversity management has a significant positive effect on employees’
engagement
.”
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 5 of 22
2.2. Mediation Role of Organizational Trust
According to the literature, we were able to notice that researchers mostly focused
on either interpersonal trust or organizational trust [40]. In the current research, the focus
will mainly be on organization trust, which was defined by Hon and Grunig [
41
] (p. 3) as
“one party’s level of confidence in and willingness to open oneself to the other party,” and
by Nyhan and Marlowe [
42
] as a global assessment of an organization’s trustworthiness.
Berraies et al. [
40
] have mentioned that organizational trust can be seen through employees’
reliance and through how the organization will treat them fairly and will respect their
different interests with different practices.
The literature review on organizational trust presented three dimensions defining the
concept which are as follows: integrity, which consists of believing that the organization
will perform justly and consider everyone’s expectations; then dependability, highlighting
that the organization should keep its promises to increase the level of trust within employ-
ees; and finally, competence, stating that the organization can fulfill its promises [
43
]. In
addition to this, many researchers have recognized that there are many factors that can be
put up to build and boost organizational trust within companies such as employee empow-
erment, cultural norms, organizational structure, organizational justice, and distributed
leadership [
40
,
44
]. In that context, we will try to explore a non-documented area, which is
how diversity management can promote organizational trust.
It is obvious to see that diversity management and trust in organizations can be
highly connected, and this could be explained by the fact that diversity management
consists of not only employing different people but also ensuring their inclusion within
the organization [
7
,
45
]. It is very important that employees feel they are needed for the
company’s decision-making process so that they will automatically show positive attitudes
and be more engaged; even so, this kind of environment cannot be settled without the
concept of trust.
In this line, it has been widely mentioned that diversity management is the best practice
to ensure fairness, respect, appreciation, and engagement, which can also contribute to
increasing the level of organizational trust [
10
,
12
,
46
]. Alas and Mousa [
47
] reported that
if the organization accepts people as they are with respect to fair treatment, positive
consequences may occur leading to an increase in employee motivation and other positive
outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, loyalty, performance,
and trust. From this perspective, we can suggest our second hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2 (H2).
“Diversity management has a significant positive effect on organizational trust.”
In their study, Ugwu et al. [
18
] explained that engagement was related to several
variables at the organizational level such as leadership [
48
], need for achievement [
49
],
organizational justice [
44
,
50
], and organizational tenure [
51
]. In addition to these variables,
in some other studies, researchers stated the importance of organizational trust in increasing
employee engagement. Thus, organizational trust is seen as a vital factor promoting
employee performance, organizational commitment, and work engagement [52].
Accordingly, Wong et al. [
53
] have found that thanks to the organizational trust that
helps in increasing knowledge exchange, employee engagement can be boosted thereafter.
Thus, a direct positive effect was proven between organizational trust and employee
engagement. In the same line, it turned out that trust helps employees in completing their
jobs and respects their duty towards the company that they are working for [
18
]. From
this point, most of the researchers explained this relationship by the social exchange theory,
which states that if the employees trust that the organization treats them fairly, they tend
to reciprocate the treatment. As conclusion then, trust is a necessary factor to make the
employees concentrate on their work, feel concerned about the whole companies’ issues,
and feel motivated to be more engaged [
18
]. From this perspective, we can suggest our
third hypothesis:
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 6 of 22
Hypothesis 3 (H3).
“Organizational trust has a significant positive effect on employee engagement.”
In recent studies, many researchers tried to investigate the mediating role of organiza-
tional trust between many variables such as between corporate social responsibility and
employee engagement [
54
], confirmed by a survey made for 485 employees working in the
Indian banking sector. In addition, organizational trust was studied as a mediator between
corporate social responsibility and organizational commitment [
55
], based on a survey
made through 289 Vietnamese pharmaceutical enterprises. Moreover, other studies studied
organizational trust as a mediator between diversity management and other variables such
as knowledge sharing [
56
], turnover intentions [
57
], and counterproductive behaviors [
38
].
However, the current study will investigate confirming the mediation role of organizational
trust between diversity management and employee engagement. Therefore, as conclusion
from Hypothesis 2 and Hypothesis 3. we can suggest our Hypothesis 4 stating that:
Hypothesis 4 (H4).
“Organizational trust mediates the relationship between diversity manage-
ment and employee engagement.”
2.3. Mediation Role of Job Insecurity
Discussions around job insecurity commence having huge importance starting from
the 1980s, when researchers argued that the concept is highly related to motivation the-
ory [
58
]. To define the notion, Jung et al. [
59
] explained that job insecurity occurs when
workers feel worried about losing their job and being obliged to face unemployment. In
another word, job insecurity is when employees are threatened to lose their job features
because of economic forces (recession, industry downturn) organizational restructuring,
and interpersonal factors [
60
]. Many scholars insisted on the fact that job insecurity is
considered a psychological factor affecting employees’ physical and mental health [
61
] and
is able to reduce workers’ motivation and engagement [
58
]. Furthermore, previous studies
have tried to probe more into the concept, such as Hellgren et al. [
62
], who have proposed
qualitative and quantitative perspectives of job insecurity. They have mentioned that the
qualitative perspective is about employees’ concern towards their future job conditions and
situation and that the quantitative perspective is about the sequels resulting from losing
their job [
63
]. Additionally, Sverke and Hellgren [
64
] took different angles for job insecurity
and stated the cognitive and affective aspects. They reported that cognitive insecurity is
about employees’ interpretation of the organization and effective insecurity is about their
evaluation of the situation.
In fact, many studies have investigated several predictors and moderators of job
insecurity, as well as the factors that are able of weakening that variable some of the
predictors of job insecurity can contain labor market characteristics, organizational change,
organizational communication, employment contract, uncertainty in the future of the
company, perceived control and employability, role conflict and ambiguity, family control,
and the need for security [
64
,
65
]. On the other hand, other researchers indicated the role of
human resources management in reducing or preventing job insecurity and in building
trust between the employees and the management [
66
,
67
]. Since diversity management
has a set of practices of human resources management, therefore, our study will make
a better understanding of diversity management’s impact on job insecurity. Along with
this idea, Lavaysse et al. [
68
] suggested, according to collected data from 449 employed
individuals within the United States, that diversity management can be an effective method
for reducing job insecurity, especially among minorities. In the same line, Shen et al. [
69
],
with collected data from 530 Chinese employees working in different fields and industries,
noted that the absence of diversity management could lead to higher levels of job insecurity,
job injustice, and less fair payment, which in turn could negatively affect the employees’
OCB. Hence, the following hypothesis can be suggested:
Hypothesis 5 (H5). “Diversity management has a significant negative effect on Job insecurity.”
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 7 of 22
In addition to the predictors and moderators of job insecurity, the concept itself can
have a negative impact on employees’ performance, motivation, satisfaction, as well as
engagement. Sharing these thoughts, Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt [
70
] have mentioned
that if employees are facing a high level of job insecurity, they are more likely to feel less
engaged toward their work and make little effort to follow and reach the organization’s
goals and objectives. In the same line, Presti and Nonnis [
71
] confirmed that employee’s
emotional commitment is hugely and negatively affected by job insecurity, which can also
make their happiness and wellbeing inconsistent [
72
]. Likewise, Wang et al. [
73
] stated that
employees’ job performance can be declined and decreased due to job insecurity impact,
and that is why workers may feel less engaged in their work. This idea was also shared
by Getahun and Chang [
74
]. The negative effect of job insecurity does not directly prevail
only on the attitudes or behaviors of the employees, but it can be reflected negatively
on the employees’ physical, psychological, and mental energy, which can decrease their
engagement consequently [17]. We can, then, suggest our Hypothesis 6:
Hypothesis 6 (H6). “Job insecurity has a significant negative on employee engagement.”
Many studies have looked over the mediating role of job insecurity between many
variables, such as the study of Park and Ono [
75
], who explained how job insecurity could
be a mediator between workplace bullying and work engagement with confirmed data
from employees in Korea using the latent factor approach, as well as the study of Hsieh
and Huang [
76
], who also studied the mediating role of job insecurity in peoples’ core
self-evaluation and their job satisfaction, based on a survey made through 346 full-time
employees in Taiwan. Furthermore, De Beer et al. [
77
] indicated that HR practices that aim
to eliminate discrimination at the workplace and manage diversity can decrease the job
insecurity between the black employees which, in turn, affects their job turnover, whereas
it does not have any effects on their white fellows. From this perspective, we are interested
in seeing the importance of diversity management in employees’ engagement toward their
jobs to make more effort and have more energy and motivation to follow their companies’
goals and objectives. As a conclusion from the Hypothesis 5 and Hypothesis 6, we can
suggest our Hypothesis 7 as follows:
Hypothesis 7 (H7).
“Job insecurity mediates the relationship between diversity management and
employee engagement.”
Based on what was mentioned above, the proposed study’s model is presented in
Figure 1.
Figure 1. The study model.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 8 of 22
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Sample and Procedures
The targeted population of this study was the employees of different private compa-
nies in the Hungarian service sector. A self-administrated questionnaire was prepared in
an online form and sent by online platforms (Facebook, LinkedIn, and e-mails). Snowball
sampling method was used in collecting responses. First, the researchers sent the ques-
tionnaire to their friends who work for private service companies in the following fields
(marketing services, consulting management services, IT services, and logistics services),
and then these employees forwarded the questionnaire to their colleagues and friends,
who later shared it with their friends. The total number of questionnaires that were sent to
possible participants was 580 requests. The number of received responses was 378 with a
rate of 65%, which is an accepted response percentage [
78
]. Table 1presents the personal
characteristics of the sample.
Table 1. The personal characteristics.
Variable Item Count %
Gender “Female” 214 58.6
“Male” 151 41.4
Age
“18–24 years” 77 21.1
“25–34 years” 223 61.1
“35–44 years old” 56 15.3
“45–54 years old” 9 2.5
Job Tenure
“Less than a year” 120 32.9
“Between 1 and 5 years” 192 52.6
“Between 4 and 10 years” 42 11.5
“Above 10 years” 11 3
Education
background
“High school” 39 10.7
“Bachelor’s degree” 133 36.4
“Master’s degree” 139 38.1
“Professional degree” 9 2.5
“PhD degree” 45 12.3
Table 1shows that most of the employees were males (58.6%) belonging to the “25
to 34 years old” age range (62.7%). Furthermore, most of the respondents were having
“between 1 and 5 years” job experience within the current working company (52.6%). The
educational background of the questioned people was mainly around bachelor’s degree
and master’s degree. These percentages were not surprising for us, since they were very
close to the personal characteristics of the employees of the service sector’s organizations
in Hungary as was mentioned in the report of [79]. According to Baksa et al. [79], females
represent 59% of the employees in this sector, the average age of the employees is 33 years
old, 78% of the employees hold university degrees, and the foreign employees present 14%
of the total employment in that sector.
3.2. Measures
All constructs of this study were structured in a questionnaire comprising five sections
built based on adapting previously validated scales from the literature; the respondents
reported their levels of diversity management, job insecurity, organizational trust, and
employee work engagement; and finally, respondent’s general information was also added.
The measures that were used in this study, the number of items, the source of each construct
measurement, and a sample item are shown in Table 2.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 9 of 22
Table 2. The study’s measures.
Construct Author(s) Items No. Example Item Scale
Diversity
management Bizri [10] 6 “Employees’ performance is evaluated objectively
regardless of religion, sect, or ethnicity.” “5-point scale ranging
from 1: strongly disagree
to 5: strongly agree”
Job insecurity Chen and
Eyoun [80]4
“I am afraid that I may not be able to keep my job.”
Trust in
organization
Gabarro and
Athos [81]7
The scale was modified slightly from My employer
to my organization to fit the purpose of the study:
“My organization’s management is open and
upfront with me”
Employee
engagement
Schaufeli
et al. [31]9 “Time flies when I am working”
“7-point scale ranging
from 1: Never disagree to
7: Always/everyday”
In addition, the following controlling variables were included, in line with prior
research: (i) gender (1 = female, 2 = male); (ii) age (“1 = from 18 to 24” to “5 =older than
55 years old”); (iii) the job tenure (“1 = less than a year” to “4 = more than 10 years”); (iv)
educational background (“1 = high school” to “6=PhD”); (v) nationality (1 = Hungarian,
T
).
Table 3shows the descriptive analysis of the variables of the current study and their
intercorrelations.
Table 3. Correlations and descriptive analysis (N = 365).
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1-Gender 1.59 0.49 -
2-Age 1.96 0.63 0.026 -
3-Job tenure 1.85
0.736
−0.100 0.475 ** -
4-Education 3.69
1.104
0.050 0.258 ** −0.060 -
5-Nationality 1.29
0.456
−0.070 0.195 ** 0.208 ** −0.154 ** -
6-Diversity management
3.66
0.611
−0.035 0.075 0.071 0.030 0.186 ** -
7-Job insecurity 2.53 0.88 −0.0115 * 0.036 −0.100 0.025 −0.240 ** −0.295 ** -
8-Trust in organization 3.43
0.623
−0.094 0.100 0.018 0.125* 0.260 ** 0.507 ** −0.241 ** -
9-Work engagement 4.60
0.870
0.005 −0.031 −0.036 0.203** 0.089 0.300 ** −0.295 ** 0.400 **
** p< 0.01; * p< 0.05.
3.3. Measurement Model
To test the model fit, we used the recommendations of Schumacker and Lomax [
82
].
These recommendations suggest that before reaching conclusions about the study’s model,
diagnoses of the goodness fit of the study’s model should be assessed. By using CFA,
the researchers investigated the indices of the goodness fit of the study’s model. While
investigating the proposed framework, authors focused on convergence and discriminant
reliability. The main indices to be reported according to [
82
,
83
] include the “model’s chi-
square” (
χ2
), “degree of freedom of the model” (df),” the ratio of the chi-square statistic
to the respective degrees of freedom (
χ2
/df) “, “comparative fit index” (CFI), the root
mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), “the Tucker-Lewis index” (TLI), and “the
standardized root mean residual” (SRMR). According to Awang [84], there are thresholds
values of these indices that should be met to consider the model as a good fit, these
recommended cutoffs values are
χ2
/df < 5, RMSEA
≤
0.08, CFI > 0.9, TLI > 0.9, and
SRMR < 0.05
. Therefore, assessing the model fit prior to performing the final analysis is
necessary. The key indices are presented in Table 4, indicating the goodness of the study’
model fit.
Table 4. The goodness fit of the study’s model.
Fit Index χ2df χ2/df TLI CFI RMSEA SRMR
Total model 72.239 17 4.249 0.91 0.92 0.076 0.05
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 10 of 22
3.4. Common Method Bias
Since our data were obtained based on self-reporting of the respondents, this can raise
concerns about potential common method bias-variance [
85
]. The variance is “attributable
to the method of measurement instead of the measures that represent the constructs” [
85
]
(p. 879). This bias can threaten the validity of the results of the current study [
86
]. For
this purpose, “Harman’s single-factor test” was used. In Harman’s test, all the studied
variables were loaded into one factor in an “explanatory factor analysis” (EFA) without
rotation solutions of the factors. The results showed that the one-factor solution explained
only 29.01% of explained variance. Favero and Bullock [
87
] suggested obtaining the
data of dependent and independent variables from different resources as a way to remedy
common method bias, which this study has applied to achieve the goal of avoiding common
method bias.
3.5. Reliability and Validity Tests
To test the reliability of the constructs, the internal consistency of the study’s constructs
was examined using Cronbach’s alpha. As was recommended by Sekaran and Bougie [
88
],
the value of Cronbach’s alpha of each construct should exceed the threshold of 0.60. In
our case for all constructs, the values were exceeding 0.75, indicating very good reliability
of the data. Table 3presents the values of Cronbach’s alpha of each construct. Afterward,
performing reliability and validity tests are necessary to assess the validity of the data.
To evaluate the variables’ validity, two validity tests were used: “convergent validity
(CV)” and “discriminant validity” (DV). To conduct CV, first, the researchers used explana-
tory factor analysis (EFA) by using the principal component analysis method, with varimax
rotation and eigenvalue greater than one. The 26 items of the study were subject to the
EFA. The KMO “Kaiser–Myer–Olkin” test and “Bartlett’s test” were employed to identify
the stability of the factor analysis. The value of the KMO test was 0.810, overpassing the
threshold of accepted value (60%). indicating the adequacy of the sample [
89
]. Bartlett’s
test produced an approximation of
χ2
= 6579.299 (df = 276, p< 0.001), indicating that the
sufficiency of the size of the correlations between variables, which indicates the suitability
of the data for performing factor analysis. The EFA test resulted in four factors explaining
an overall variance of 61.5% this value was higher than the recommended value of 50% [
90
].
The values of the items’ loading are presented in Table 5.
Next, a “confirmatory factor analysis” (CFA) was applied to test the variables, and
“convergent validity test (CV)” was performed for this intent. CV determines “the extent to
which a measure correlates positively with alternative measures of the same constructs” [
91
]
(p. 112). To assess the CV of the constructs, checking the average variance extracted (AVE)
and items’ loading values are required. According to Hair et al. [
91
], the items with
low loadings can be removed if higher loading items were able alone to explain around
50 percent of the variance in the construct. Therefore, the researchers retained one item
(Eng 1) from the first construct since it was less than 0.40, then, the AVE value of each
construct was estimated, and it was found to be adequate for all of them (See Table 5).
The second convergent validity measurement was “Composite reliability” (CR). As it was
mentioned by Hair et al. [
91
], CR was determining the internal consistency. The CR test
showed that the threshold of its values was exceeding “0.7” for each construct, and they
are within the accepted range [92,93]. Table 5presents the convergent validity values.
Secondly, the authors conducted discriminant validity. Discriminant validity is used to
assess the validity of the constructs and assure its distinctions compared to other constructs,
as it was suggested by Fornell and Larcker [
94
]. Following the recommendations of [
94
],
we calculated “the square root of the AVE” of the constructs. Next, we compared these
values with the values of the correlations among the study constructs, as it is presented
in Table 6. The value of “the square roots of AVE” should be higher than the values of
the correlation among the constructs, which indicates that the study tool is considered as
validated [94].
The flowchart of the methods is displayed in Figure 2.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 11 of 22
Table 5. Reliability, convergent validity, and item loadings of the constructs.
Variables Items Items Loadings CR AVE Alpha’s Cronbach
Work
Engagement
Eng1 Item deleted.
0.81 0.51 0.88
Eng2 0.703
Eng3 0.795
Eng4 0.774
Eng5 0.575
Eng6 0.733
Eng7 0.743
Eng8 0.837
Eng9 0.511
Trust
Tr1 0.720
0.78 0.51 0.84
Tr2 0.579
Tr3 0.747
Tr4 0.770
Tr5 0.631
Tr6 0.804
Tr7 0.690
Job insecurity
JIS1 0.826
0.83 0.66 0.89
JIS2 0.721
JIS3 0.785
JIS4 0.900
Diversity
management
DM1 0.678
0.76 0.51 0.77
DM2 0.655
DM3 0.766
DM4 0.777
DM5 0.712
DM6 0.690
Note: the full questionnaire statements are displayed in Appendix A(Table A1).
Table 6. Discriminant validity—Fornell–Larcker.
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4
1-Diversity management 3.66 0.611 (0.71)
2-Job insecurity 2.53 0.88 −0.295 ** (0.81)
3-Trust in organization 3.43 0.623 0.507 ** −0.241 ** (0.71)
4-Work engagement 4.60 0.870 0.299 ** −0.295 ** 0.0397 ** (0.72)
** p< 0.001.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 12 of 22
Figure 2. Methods flowchart.
4. Results
4.1. Data Analysis
To assess the hypothesis of the study, “structural equation modeling” (SEM) was used
with the AMOS v.22 packages. To assess the weight of the direct effect of the independent
variable over the dependent ones, this study used SEM. The main advantage of SEM is that
it provides the possibility to conduct “confirmatory factor analysis” (CFA) and “regression
analysis” at the same time, SEM helps in assessing indirect effects as well [95,96].
Hair et al. [
96
] recommended a method to test the mediation, which consists of two
steps. To apply this method the researchers used SEM to assess the hypothesized mediating
relationship. Testing the significance of the direct effects between the X variable to the other
two variables (M and Y) is the first step, the second step is to examine the indirect effect of
X on Y as follows (X
→
M1
→
Y) and (X
→
M2
→
Y). For these purposes, the techniques
of SME’s path analysis were applied. It is used to evaluate whether the mediation effect
between the constructs exists or not and to examine the type of mediation, i.e., full or partial
mediation. To determine the level of mediation [
97
] (p. 89) has described the following
points (see Figure 3):
Figure 3. The mediation’s theoretical model.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 13 of 22
If a, b, and c are significant but the direct coefficient value is c < b, then it is partial
mediation.
If a and b are significant, but c is not significant, then it is full mediation.
If a is significant, b is significant, and c is also significant, but the coefficient value is
c = b, it is not mediation.
If a or b or both are insignificant, it is not mediation.
4.2. Hypotheses Test
The results of the analysis and the hypotheses numbers are presented in Table 7. It
describes the direct and indirect effects.
Table 7. SEM results.
Hypotheses (Paths) b βse T Value pValue
H5 (a2) Diversity management →Job insecurity −0.390 −0.277 0.071 −5.438 ***
H2 (a1) Diversity management →Org. trust 0.440 0.437 0.047 9.403 ***
H6 (b1) Job insecurity →Employees’ engagement −0.225 −0.213 0.053 −4.250 ***
H3 (b2) Org. trust →Employees’ engagement 0.430 0.289 0.081 5.313 ***
H1 (c’)
Diversity management
→
Employees’ engagement
0.156 0.104 0.081 1.930 0.550
Gender →Employees’ engagement 0.032 0.017 0.092 .343 0.730
Education →Employees’ engagement 0.210 0.250 0.044 4.734 ***
Age →Employees’ engagement −0.199 −0.135 0.087 −2.274 0.023
R2
Job insecurity 16.3%
Org. Trust 28.1%
Employees’ engagement 25.6%
F 15.354
DF (8356)
Indirect effect
H7 Diversity →job insecurity →Engagement 0.088 (LLCI: 0.043–ULCI:
0.154)
H4 Diversity →Org. trust →Engagement 0.189 (LLCI: 0.124–ULCI:
0.308)
*** p< 0.001.
The analysis of the results are shown in Table 7. The results explained that diversity
management is associated directly with employees’ engagement (
β
= 0.288, p< 0.001), indi-
cating that proper diversity management practices can positively influence the employees
to be more engaged at the workplace. Additionally, the path analysis revealed that diver-
sity management is positively associated with organizational trust (
β
= 0.440, p< 0.001)
and negatively associated with job insecurity (
β
=
−
0.282, p< 0.001). These results have
confirmed hypotheses (Hypothesis 1, 2 and 5), which show that there is a direct effect of
diversity management on organizational trust, job insecurity, and employees’ engagement.
Furthermore, organizational trust is positively associated with employees’ engagement
(
β
= 0.290, p< 0.01), whereas job insecurity is negatively impacting employee engagement (
β
=
−
0.187, p< 0.01), these results lead us to accept Hypotheses 3 and 6, which indicates that
organizational trust and job insecurity are significantly linked with employees’ engagement.
Following the suggestions of Hair et al. [
97
], who mentioned that “full median exists if
(a) and (b) direct effects are significant but (c) is not significant”, it is evident from the results
(Table 7) that organizational trust positively and significantly mediates the effect of diversity
management on employee engagement. As suggested by [
96
], this mediation is a full
mediation. Whereas job insecurity significantly and negatively mediates the relationship
between diversity management on employees’ engagement, and this mediation is full
mediation as well. Both mediators were significantly mediating the relationship between
diversity management and employees’ engagement since the direct effect (path c’) became
insignificant and decreased pointedly (
β
= 0.107, p= 0.550) in the existence of organizational
trust and job insecurity.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 14 of 22
As it may be noted, both organizational trust and job insecurity mediates the relation-
ship between diversity management and employee engagement. Organizational trust was
a stronger mediator compared to job insecurity. That implies that the impact of diversity
management within Hungarian organizations on their employees’ engagement can be
explained by the presence of organizational trust and job insecurity together. If employees
are getting more trust towards their organization or have lower levels of job insecurity,
then it is more likely that the diversity management practices that are applied by their
organization will be more reflected on the employees’ engagement. These results support
Hypotheses 4 and 7, which assert that organizational trust and job insecurity mediate the
relationship between diversity management and employees’ engagement. The results of
the hypothesis tests are shown in Figure 4, where standard coefficients are presented.
Figure 4. Hypotheses tests (standard estimates); ** p< 0.001; * p< 0.05.
5. Discussion
This study aimed at investigating the influence of diversity management on employees’
engagement and determine the role of organizational trust and job insecurity in that
relationship. To do so, the study used quantitative methods to test the results, and the data
was analyzed by using SEM procedures. The results confirmed the initial hypothesis that
was suggested by the current research.
First, the results indicated that diversity management boosts employees’ engagement.
The direct relationship between the two variables is considered as a very important job
outcome for any organization [
98
] and is in line with social exchange theory (SET). This
explains that when employees perceive diversity management practices from their orga-
nizations, they manifest different positive attitudes and behaviors such as organizational
commitment [
99
] and organizational citizenship behaviors [
100
]. In the context of employ-
ees’ engagement, SET also suggests that when employees perceive the practices of the
management positively, they tend to be more motivated and engaged at their workplace as
an exchange toward the positively perceived practices [
29
]. Therefore, our results can be
explained under the context of SET, where diversity management practices are perceived
as a positive intention from the organization towards its employees who, in turn, exchange
it with more engagement and more enthusiasm.
The direct effect of diversity management on employees’ engagement in our study
was at a moderate level, which comes in line with different previous studies that were
taken place in different market segments (e.g., [
9
,
38
,
39
]), which assure the importance
of diversity management as a prime factor in creating engaged employees that are full
of motivation and enthusiasm toward their work. Especially in the current time where
the pandemic’s results are still affecting the organizations and the employees where job
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 15 of 22
insecurities are increasing because of the instability in work conditions especially among the
foreign employees who are considered the most vulnerable segment of the employees [
14
].
This result comes to support the results in a previous study that indicated the role of
perceived organizational support on enhancing employees’ engagement in the context of
SET. Indicating the importance of the organization’s management in providing support to
the employees to make them more engaged at work [
38
] and since diversity management is
important to show how the organization support the employees and care about them [
33
]
from these aspects it can be concluded that the role of diversity management is fundamental
in achieving engaged employees at work. The indirect relationship between diversity
management and employees’ engagement was tested by using two different variables:
organizational trust and job insecurity.
The results showed that diversity management has a direct negative impact on job
insecurity indicating the role of diversity management in decreasing job insecurity between
the employees and these results are in line with [
68
]. In addition, the results are similar
to those presented by [
69
], who found that the absence of clear diversity management
practices and policies has a significant impact on increasing job security. Although the
impact of diversity management in decreasing job insecurity was relatively at a low level,
it was significantly affecting the feelings of job insecurity among the foreign employees in
Hungary, indicating the theory of motivation [
58
], which indicates that when employees
perceive diversity management practices positively, they will be more motivated at work
and hence their levels of job insecurity will decrease.
On the other hand, the results also show that there is a direct relationship between
diversity management and organizational trust, indicating that diversity management
enhances trust in organization. Our results are consistent with previous studies that shed
light on the relationship between diversity management and organizational trust such
as [
10
], who explained that diversity management practices can increase the perceived
fairness among the employees which is translated into organizational trust.
According to Shen et al. [
101
], organizational trust is influenced directly by the or-
ganizational policies and practices that are performed by HR management, and since
diversity management is considered as an important part of the policies and practices of
HR management [
102
]. Our findings are consistent with these results, indicating on the
role of diversity management in predicting organizational trust.
The results also revealed that organizational trust is an important predictor of em-
ployees’ engagement. This implies that the more trust in an organization is perceived by
the employees, the more they are engaged at work. It is clearly in accordance with SET,
which emphasizes that when employees perceive trust in their organization and manage-
ment, they exchange it with better work outcomes in order to fulfill their responsibilities
at work [
103
]. The current results are in line with different studies that indicated on the
importance of organizational trust in achieving better-engaged employees [
18
,
104
]. These
results are consistent with different recent studies that tried to connect organizational trust
with different work outcomes [105–108].
The results related to the impact of job insecurity on employees’ engagement showed
that job insecurity negatively affected the employees’ engagement however this impact was
relatively low. Indicating the importance that having employees with job insecurity can neg-
atively affect their engagement at work these results are in line with [
70
,
74
].
Yu et al.
[
109
]
explained that when employees perceive job insecurity, they tend to develop negative
emotions which in the trust will decrease the levels of work engagement. The current result
is inconsistent with different studies that linked having job insecurity with negative work
outcomes [17,110].
The results also showed that organizational trust positively mediated the relationship
between diversity management and employees’ engagement, indicating the positive role
of trust as a mediator. This result is in line with [
9
], who indicated the effectiveness
as a mediator between diversity management and employees’ engagement. This result
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 16 of 22
also indicated the importance of organizational trust as a mediator between diversity
management and different work outcomes [38,56,101].
On the other hand, job insecurity was negatively mediating the relationship between
diversity management and employees’ engagement, indicating that job insecurity could
negatively reduce the effect of diversity management on employees’ engagement. However,
this effect is not strong, which indicates that diversity management is an effective tool in
decreasing job insecurity among the foreign employees in Hungary in times of uncertainty
as the pandemic is still hitting. This result is in line with De Beer et al. [
77
], who mentioned
that the HR policies and practices related to diversity and discrimination could decrease
the levels of job insecurity among the American employees and it reflected directly towards
their engagement at work.
6. Conclusions
In our research, we were able to propound several theoretical and managerial implica-
tions. With applying the study in the Hungarian context, we managed to go through the up
to date conceptualization of diversity management and cover the theoretical and empirical
gaps of the forgoing literature that was linking employees’ engagement to job satisfaction,
organizational commitment, and leadership styles [
36
] and where earlier scholars, despite
of the world change and the increase in migration movements, missed out to highlight
the importance of diversity management, which is currently absent in most Hungarian
companies and in some of the Hungarian managers’ culture. Therefore, with the press on
social exchange theory [
26
], we were first successfully capable of approving and confirming
the significant impact of diversity management, not only on employees’ motivation and
satisfaction but also on their engagement. Second, we demonstrated that organizational
trust could be considered as a mediating variable between diversity management and em-
ployee engagement, as diversity management is the best practice to ensure fairness, respect,
and appreciation, which can also contribute to increasing the level of organizational trust,
which is examined afterward as an important factor to make the employees concentrate
on their work, feel concerned about the whole company’s issues, and feel motivated and
highly engaged. In addition to these two theoretical implications, we were also able to
highlight and confirm the negative significant effect of job insecurity and its mediating role
between diversity management and employees’ engagement. With the help of cognitive
appraisal theory [
111
], we managed to approve that the absence of diversity management
could lead to higher levels of job insecurity, job injustice, and less fair payment, which
in turn negatively affects the employees’ organizational citizenship behaviors and their
engagement toward their jobs and roles.
In addition to the previously mentioned theoretical contributions, managerial implica-
tions were also reachable and are very important to highlight. First, it seems conspicuous
that managing diversity in the workplace is of an increasingly significant concern nowa-
days, and it has widely been mentioned from business perspectives that most employers
should hugely consider it in their corporate culture. However, this is less common for
Hungarian employers, which is why our study opens a good development area for this
issue. We suggest to these managers who are working for service companies to increase
their general awareness around workplace diversity by fostering diversity during the re-
cruitment process by hiring people from different backgrounds, ages, gender, and cultures,
etc., and boost their employment relationships thereafter. In addition, internal policies
should be implemented aiming at minimizing violation and ensuring equal treatment
principles. We think that providing proper training around conflict management, team-
work, and cooperation is critical to involving and flourishing a diverse workplace. Second,
we pointed out how organizational trust could be important to deal with the diversity
in Hungarian service companies and how it could affect the employees’ engagement. It
is absolutely, important to know that implementing trust within the organization is not
only the managers’ responsibility but also the employees’ responsibility. That is why they
should always try to be aware of their changing needs, take care of their own growth, and
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 17 of 22
always try to transfer that to their managers to build a certain trust level and boost their
satisfaction, motivation, commitment towards their jobs, and, of course, their engagement.
Furthermore, implementing well-structured diversity management strategies is a signifi-
cant tool to raise trust between the different organizations’ parties that helps in increasing
knowledge exchange and positively impacts employees’ engagement. Finally, our study
was also engaged in opening another area related to job insecurities. It has been proven
that in Hungary, women and foreigners are those who are really facing the most shocking
forms of direct and indirect discrimination in the workplace. This fact has generated high
levels of job insecurities leading to these workers’ engagement decrease. Consequently, our
study is considered as a pillar encouraging companies to favorize diversity management
policies implementation to avoid any feeling of job insecurities, inequalities, discrimination,
or violation, so that they can be able to provide a great work atmosphere and conditions
for better performance and higher engagements.
Despite, the great contributions provided by our research, we were not able to escape
some of the limitations that took place. First, as we adopted a causal relationship statistic
method, we had to face the risk of bias, which was hard to remove, despite the huge effort
made in ensuring a complete approximation of collinearity and an absolute validation
of the variables’ connections mentioned in the literature review. To skip this problem,
we suggest future studies to adopt longitudinal research in order to investigate the links
between the variables and provide well-grounded and solid results. Second, choosing only
the Hungarian context to confirm our hypothesis especially from Hungarian managers’
perspective who are working for Hungarian service companies, was a reason for reducing
the generalizability of the paper. Consequently, future examinations are advised to go
through a probabilistic sampling method and generalize the study model in other countries
and in other situational or environmental contexts such as crisis times, where we can have
a concrete example the COVID-19 pandemic time and see the changes that may occur
in the model. Third, it is highly recommended to use our research model and add some
other moderating and mediating variables to see to what extent these variables could
affect the relationship between diversity management and employees’ engagement. As an
example, future studies could abord these variables as an example: knowledge sharing,
communication, and leadership styles, etc. Finally, we also suggest to other researchers to
conduct a qualitative study to confirm our results.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, A.A.; methodology, A.A.; software, A.A.; validation, A.A.
and I.R.; formal analysis, A.A.; investigation, K.A.H.; resources, A.A. and K.A.H.; data curation,
A.A. and K.A.H.; writing—original draft preparation, K.A.H. and A.A.; writing—review and edit-
ing, K.A.H. and A.A.; visualization, A.A.; supervision, I.R.; project administration, A.A.; funding
acquisition, I.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: There is no funding provided for this research.
Institutional Review Board Statement:
Ethical review and approval were waived for this study due
to the fact that we used anonymous data that were not traceable to individuals at any time.
Informed Consent Statement:
Informed consent was obtained from all the employees who partici-
pated in the questionnaire.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Sustainability 2022,14, 420 18 of 22
Appendix A
Table A1. The study’s questionnaire.
Code The Statement
Diversity management
DM1 Managers in this company have a track record of hiring and promoting employees
regardless of religion, sect, or ethnicity.
DM2 Employees here are treated fairly regarding promotion without consideration of
their religion, sect, or ethnicity.
DM3 Compensation and benefits policies are applied objectively to all employees
regardless of religion, sect, or ethnicity.
DM4 Training & development opportunities are offered to employees objectively
regardless of religion, sect, or ethnicity.
DM5 Employees’ performance is evaluated objectively regardless of religion, sect,
or ethnicity.
DM6 In this company, there is a general atmosphere of inclusion, tolerance, and
acceptance of the other.
Job insecurity
JIS1 Chances are, I will soon lose my job.
JIS2 I am afraid that I may not be able to keep my job.
JIS3 I feel insecure about the future of my job.
JIS4 I think I might lose my job in the near future.
Organizational trust
Tr1 I believe that the management of my company has high integrity
Tr2 I can expect my organizations’ management to treat me in a consistent and
predictable fashion
Tr3 My organization’s management is not always honest and truthful
Tr4
In general, I believe my organizations’ management motives and intentions are good
Tr5 I don’t think my organizations’ management treats me fairly
Tr6 My organization’s management is open and upfront with me
Tr7 I am not sure I fully trust my organizations’ management
Employees’ engagement
Eng1 At my work, I feel bursting with energy
Eng2 At my job, I feel strong and vigorous
Eng3 I am enthusiastic about my job
Eng4 My job inspires me
Eng5 When I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work
Eng6 I feel happy when I am working intensely
Eng7 I am proud of the work that I do
Eng8 I am immersed in my work
Eng9 Time flies when I am working
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