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Centennial 1922–2022: First Transoceanic Flight with Autonomous Aerial Navigation
Abstract
Although the Transoceanic Flights had already piqued the state's attention, the airplane's lack of aerial navigation equipment rendered it unsuitable for this new trend in 1919. Three years later, in 1922, Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho conducted a Transoceanic Flight to demonstrate the autonomy and usefulness of the Sextant with an artificial horizon, in combination with novel air navigation instruments, all handled by a simplified short air navigation method. Unfortunately, due to errors induced by the vertical dynamics associated with the aircraft's speed, the sextant was constantly adjusted to the sea horizon rather than the perfect readings of the artificial horizon. This condition required a search for a suitably clear horizon line, forcing the seaplane's altitude to be often lowered. Furthermore, a few
supplementary navigation devices risked their initial autonomous air navigation. Nonetheless, by measuring the size of the wingspan shadow reflected on the ocean's surface, the pilots managed to adjust their expertise to maintain the seaplane on the planned trajectory.
Furthermore, this novel and reliable steering method allowed them to perform trigonometric calculations to estimate their height, which was critical in calculating the aircraft's positioning. Thus, the Journey was recognized as a significant milestone in aviation history, ushering the
use of the sextant as a key means of air navigation and proving the effectiveness of a revolutionary principle of Coutinho's short methods, never before documented on Astronavigation. Along with the First Transoceanic Flight with Autonomous Aerial Navigation, one of the itineraries featured an 11 ½ hour crossing the Atlantic from Cape Verde
to St. Peter and St. Paul Rocks. When it is remembered that they managed to reach this remote and a pretty small destination (a few hundred ft. long and the highest point 60 ft. above the water) after a flight of nearly 900 nautical miles over the Ocean, it exalts the remarkable feat of the airmen.
... Until his disappearance in November 1924, Cabral showed unparalleled leadership in the History of Portuguese Aviation. [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36] His interactions in the aeronautical, political and governmental meanders shaped the aeronautical vision in Portugal. As a result, the great names of Portuguese Aviation after his disappearance would closely follow all the teachings first initiated by Cabral. ...
The Outset of the Portuguese Military Aeronautics dates back to 1912 when Army and Navy aviation began to be constituted. António José de Almeida, a Portuguese republican politician, in the session of the Chamber of Deputies on June 26, proposed a Draft Law [Bill] and a Supportive Report, both aimed at creating Portuguese Military Aviation. Two months later, the War Ministry appointed a Military Aeronautics Commission to study the creation of a Military Aviation School. Months later, the Commission presented an extensive Official Report outlining the fundamental points for creating an Aeronautical School in Portugal, including its location. After further clarifications, the Minister of War presented a proposal approved in the Chamber of Deputies session on April 22, in the Senate on May 7, drafted a week later, under Law Nº. 162, May 14, 1914. The construction work of the Military Aviation School began on April 5, 1915, in Vila Nova da Rainha. According to the Military Aeronautics Commission report, the first Pilot Aviators should be trained abroad; on August 14, 1915, the Army's Order published a competition for Army and Navy Officers to serve in Aviation. After receiving their diplomas, 11 Officers returned to Portugal to form the initial core of instructors at the newly established School of Military Aeronautics. On September 1, 1916, the Government inaugurated the Military Aeronautics Service and the first Military Aviation School. From November 2, 1916, to May 1917, sixteen candidates were admitted to the first Portuguese Course for Military Aviation Pilots. On September 28, 1917, the School incorporated the Naval Aviation Service. As a result of the Escola de Aeronáutica Militar opening, the Portuguese Government issued Decree Nº 2907 of December 20, 1916, creating symbols and identifiers used by the aeronautical troops in their uniforms.
... The International Evaluation Panel classified LAETA with an Overall Quality Grade of Excellent. The AEROG research activities include basic and applied research in Aerodynamics [37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51][52], V/STOL [53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68], Secondary Atomisation , Liquid Rocket Engines [113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123][124], Aerospace Systems Dynamics [125][126][127][128][129][130][131][132], Optimal Control [133][134][135][136][137][138][139][140][141], Satellites and Space Safety [142][143][144][145][146], finally Portuguese Aeronautics History [147][148][149][150][151][152][153][154][155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162]. ...
In 1991/92, the University of Beira Interior (UBI) established Portugal's first permanent and official civilian Aeronautics program, a 5-year Licenciatura Degree in Aeronautics Engineering. In addition, a Doctorate Degree in Aeronautics Engineering was established in 1993/94, and a Master's Degree in Aerospace Systems Engineering in 1999/2000. By 2007/08, a European intergovernmental reform (Bologna Process) was implemented to achieve the European Higher Education Area to allow students, graduates, and specialized staff working in higher education to benefit from mobility and equal access to high-quality higher education without obstacles. The essential bases are mutual recognition of degrees, transparency (readable and comparable degrees organized in a 3-Cycle structure), and European quality assurance cooperation, emphasizing competency development over knowledge transmission. The degree system was made official in Portugal by Decree-Law nº. 74/2006. According to the expressed perspective, the reformulation of Aeronautical Engineering Studies at UBI followed the adoption of formal structures, corresponding to 6 Semesters for Licenciatura (180 ECTS = 1st Cycle); 4 Semesters for Master's (120 ECTS = 2nd Cycle), and 6 Semesters for Doctorate (180 ECTS = 3rd Cycle). After its implementation, the requirements to accomplish the reformulation created significant national difficulties leading to successive adaptations exposed in six amendments to Decree-Law nº. 74/2006. A Master's and Doctorate Degree in Portugal legally requires the support of an R&D Unit with a minimum classification of Very Good or Excellent in an evaluation process carried out by foreign experts, with concepts and procedures recognized by the international scientific community. The Aeronautics and Astronautics Research Center (AEROG) is a member of the Associated Laboratory for Energy, Transport, and Aeronautics (LAETA). LAETA received an Excellent Overall Quality Grade from the International Evaluation Panel.
... Between March 30 and June 17, 1922, Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral performed the most remarkable historic feat of the Portuguese Atlantic competition: the First Transoceanic Flight with Autonomous Aerial Navigation (Lisbon-Rio de Janeiro). [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Enthusiastically hailed as heroes, the aeronauts had completed not only the first crossing of the South Atlantic, but for the first time in the history of aviation, they had traveled over the Atlantic Ocean only with the aid of navigation astronomy from the airplane. The brilliant consecration of Coutinho and Cabral was memorable for the sharp projection throughout the world, with the entire press referring to the utmost admiration for Portugal and its Aviation Pioneers [20][21][22][23], entitled to the highest commendations on the Aeronautical Hall of Fame. ...
Between September 5 and October 26, 1928, Capt. Pais Ramos, Lieut. João Esteves, Capt. Oliveira Viegas, and Sarg. Manuel Antonio, in the name of Portugal's prestige, devoted themselves to accomplishing a trailblazing exploratory flight sponsored by the Lisbon Commercial Association to demonstrate the feasibility of establishing commercial aviation interconnection among Portugal and its African territories (Guinea, St. Thomas & Prince, Angola, and Mozambique). In the 1920s, confronted with governmental riots and instabilities arising from the turbulent early years of Portugal's Republic and the accumulated repercussions of WWI, Portugal lacked long-term planning for the Overseas expansion of Commercial Aviation. This Journey, entirely planned and devised by prominent naval officers and aviation pioneers, beyond cohesion among the Portuguese Colonial Nation, also contributed to the strategic recovery of the Country's aviation progress and reinforced the reestablishment, recognition, and affirmation of Portugal as a competing power among other countries. The outcome had a significant impact on Mozambique's aviation applicability and development.
From 1912 to 1938, the Amadora became the central location for several of Portugal's most significant aviation events. After a Kite-Flying Competition (1912), Flying Demonstrations (1913), and the 1st Air Festival in Portugal (1917), in 1919, the village became selected to host the Military Aviation Squadron GEAR - Grupo de Esquadrilhas de Aviação «República.» As WWI ended, Aviation shifted its vision to new dimensions of international civil transport. With their minds set on developing Portuguese Civil Aviation, the GEAR pilots started using military aircraft for civilian flight purposes. Thus, between 1920 and 1936, memorable and significant flights departed from Amadora to the most varied Portuguese territories worldwide; 1) Amadora – Madeira Flight Attempt (1920); 2) First Aerial Raid from Portugal to Macau (1924); 3) Amadora – Guinea (1925); 4) A Trailblazing Flight for Portuguese Overseas Commercial Air Route (1928); 5) Amadora – Portuguese India (1930); 6) Round trip Flight Amadora – Guinea – Angola (1930/31); 7) Aerial Journey from Portugal to East Timor, Macau, India, and Return (1934); and 8) Portuguese Empire Mission Amadora – Angola–Mozambique (1935/36). Furthermore, in 1934 and 1935, Amadora received the two firsts International Air Festivals in Portugal. Finally, after nearly Twenty-Five Years of Portuguese Aviation Events in Amadora, Military Aeronautics ended Amadora's connection to national aviation in 1938, thus dictating the end of the Portuguese Pioneer Flights. Organizational reasons, in addition to the smallness and deficiencies of the dirt runway track, determined the extinction of the Grupo de Aviação de Informação n.º 1 [as the GEAR was renamed], whose personnel and material would be later transferred to Tancos.
Two Portuguese aerial navigators, Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral, crossed for the first time, from Europe to the South Atlantic in 1922; they developed and used for the first time scientific methods of astronomic navigation when flying out of sight of land: a path corrector and a precision sextant. Both navigation devices were tested during short flights from Lisbon to Madeira Island (1921) and the encouraging results
obtained, allow the navigators to apply them with quite success into an intercontinental flight. The “path corrector” was invented by Sacadura Cabral and Gago Coutinho with the intent to calculate graphically the angle between the longitudinal axis of an airplane and the direction of flight, taking into account the intensity and the direction of the winds. The regular sextant used by the navy could not be applied to aviation due to the difficulty of the definition of the sky-line at a normal flight altitude. Gago Coutinho developed a new model of sextant that could be used to measure the altitude of a star without the need of the sea horizon; this new device
was called “precision sextant” and was improved with an artificial horizon line defined with the help of a water bubble. This device was later improved with an internal illumination system to allow its use during night flights and was used along the First Aerial South Atlantic Night Crossing, in 1927, performed by Portuguese airmen
Sarmento Beires, Jorge Castilho, Duvalle Portugal and Manuel Gouveia. An advanced version of this instrument started to be manufactured in Germany by C. Plath under the name of “System Admiral Gago Coutinho”.
Gago Coutinho, jointly with another Portuguese aerial navigator, managed to perform
the First Flight from Europe to the South Atlantic in 1922, a Journey exclusively
guided by internal means of navigation. Despite Coutinho being a person with multipurpose
activity on several areas of knowledge, he became known and glorified in
the World in 1922, as an air navigator, a position that he achieved due to an aerial
navigation device that he also had invented. Coutinho developed a new sextant model
that could be used to measure the altitude of a star (when flying overseas) without
the need of the sea horizon. This new device was called precision sextant and was
provided with an artificial horizon line defined with the help of a water bubble. Due
to his knowledge of Navigation, Astronomy, Geography and Mathematics, Coutinho
received from the Portuguese King D. Carlos I, several assignments at Africa and
Asia. Gago Coutinho received several important official medals and prizes, including
the Ph.D. Honoris Causa from the Universities of Lisbon and Oporto and authored
several scientific publications. Coutinho received the distinct position of Admiral of
the Portuguese Navy in 1958 and died in the following year.
This article is intended as a summary of a new area of study on the History of the Portuguese Aeronautics and Aerospace and addresses issues such as: the forthcoming of the aircraft at Portugal, its military and civilian use; the scope of early days concerning Portuguese intercontinental flights and their authors; the development of air navigation devices by Portuguese inventors in the 1920s and 30s; the Aeronautics industry and the need to develop expertise in Aeronautical/Aerospace Engineering in Portugal during the centuries XX and XXI.
The History of the transatlantic flights goes back to 1919 and began with a flight performed from Newfoundland to Lisbon; two weeks later another flight was performed between Newfoundland and Ireland. On 1922, the Portuguese airmen Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral crossed the South Atlantic Ocean by air in a flight performed exclusively with internal means of navigation: a new instrument that consisted in a type of sextant improved with two spirit levels to provide an artificial horizon and also with the help of a “path corrector”. Despite this journey had lasted 79 days to cross South Atlantic Ocean, their flight time was only 62:26 minutes, and they’ve flown 8,383 nautical miles, using 3 different hydroplanes christened: Lusitânia,
Pátria and Santa Cruz. Despite this journey had lasted 79 days, their flight time was only 62 h 26 m; they’ve flown 8,383 nautical miles using 3 different hydroplanes christened: Lusitânia, Pátria and Santa Cruz. The new artificial horizon sextant had proven itself while flying over the ocean, without external references.
The history of the transatlantic flights began in 1919 when Albert C. Read's team flew an NC-4 flight between Newfoundland and Lisbon, Portugal with a stopover at Azores Islands, for fuel and repairs. The flight was made following a chain of 70 US warships in order to guide it along its route and provide assistance if needed. On Two weeks later, John Alcock and Sir Arthur Whitten Brown made the first nonstop transatlantic flight from Newfoundland to County Galway, Ireland, covering more than 3000 km in just 16 hours of
flight. Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral crossed the South Atlantic Ocean by air in 1922, using only internal means of navigation: a modified sextant and a course corrector. For the first time in the aviation history a transatlantic flight was accomplished using exclusively astronomical and estimated navigation processes. Both devices proved its effectiveness. In 2 March 1927 and by following all the knowledge obtained by the First Cross of the South Atlantic, Sarmento de Beires, Jorge Castilho, Duvalle Portugal and Manuel Gouveia started a new mission that became known as the First Aerial South Atlantic Night Cross. During the night of 16 to 17 March 1927 a Portuguese crew flew 2595 km over the Atlantic Ocean from
Guinea, Africa to Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil. The flight was made only by astronomical processes navigation resources that proved again to be absolutely feasible and trustworthy, regardless day or night lighting conditions.
Sacadura Cabral was one of the two Portuguese navigators that crossed by air the South Atlantic in the beginning of the 20th century. From 1901 to 1915 Sacadura was at Mozambique and Angola where he developed geodetic and geographical missions of the greatest importance for Portuguese interest at Africa. With the Great World War requirements as a Navy Officer with 34 years old he decided to serve Portugal at the Aviation. In 1915 he went to France and obtained its pilot license. In 1916 Sacadura returned to Portugal and begun its instructor pilot career. He developed the “path corrector” which he created to compensate the drift caused by wind. In 1922 Sacadura made the First Air cross from Europe to South Atlantic. In 1923 he proposes himself to make an attempt to the First Air Circumnavigation Journey. He developed all its possible efforts to initiate this journey in March of 1924; however some delays had forced him to postpone the journey. Sacadura received important official medals and prizes, including the PhD Honoris Causa from the Universities of Lisbon and Oporto. In 1924 he died before he could carry out its Circumnavigation Air Journey.
Aviation Pioneers were, directly and indirectly, responsible for the advancement of flight and other accomplishments in aviation. Due to the advances on the aircraft along WWI, the 1920s was a formative decade in the Aviation, with a major request falling on aerial navigation. In 1921 Gago Coutinho improved the internal means of aerial navigation with an unprecedented precision that consequently led some Portuguese pioneers to perform several trans-Atlantic flights tracking very high accuracy routes. Seeking to take advantage of the Astronavigation accuracy for the benefit of the Geostrategic Conjuncture of Commercial and Civil Aviation at Portugal in the Early 20th Century, Sacadura Cabral encourages the Country for the aviation progress and for the creation of an International Portuguese Airline with inter-Atlantic Portugal-Brazil aerial connections. In 1927,
Sarmento de Beires wrote a letter to the President of the Portuguese Republic, explaining all factors of indisputable relevance requesting the attention of the Government in the urgent resolution on Geostrategic Conjuncture of Commercial and Civil Aviation at Portugal. Any positive response from the Portuguese Government to this letter could have
resulted in the anticipation of airmail transport between the two continents and a very different Portuguese Aviation History, carrying unpredictably, incalculable and auspicious consequences for Portugal. The historical records in aviation between Europe and South America disclose a first postal flight service in 1934 (7 years later), and commercial passengers flight after WWII.
In the first aerial crossing of the South Atlantic, by Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral in 1922, several methods of astronomical maritime navigation were used with adaptions to aerial navigation. In order to apply these methods, the navigator needed to know the approximate altitude of the aircraft so that its position could be determined. The instrument available at that time, the altimeter, did not give reliable values for altitude. Therefore, Coutinho had to devise a method that enabled the navigator to determine the altitude quickly and efficiently. The method Coutinho devised is based on a mathematical and geometrical procedure. In this paper, we study in detail Coutinho's method to determine altitude, with diagrams to aid understanding of the deductions and calculations. We also present a real example of how this method would be used during the flight.
In 1922, two Portuguese airmen managed to perform the First Aerial Crossing of the South Atlantic exclusively achieved by Aerial Astronavigation in an unprecedent route precision achievement; such feat was a milestone in Aviation History, marking the debut of the sextant as a key mean for air navigation: for the first time, sextant, course corrector and methods of calculations proved their effectiveness and value for aerial navigation. For the first time in the Aviation History, was used an effective and integral method of air navigation - sufficiently rigorous to perform long-distance journeys over the ocean and to reach very small islets (instead of trying to find a country).
The Coutinho Sextant proved once again its great value 5 years later: in 1927, Portuguese airmen managed to perform the First Aerial Night Crossing of the South Atlantic exclusively achieved by Aerial Astronavigation (Precision Sextant developed by Coutinho and Castilho) in an unprecedent night route precision achievement.
Reports of the 1st South Atlantic Air Crossing [Relatórios da 1ª Travessia Aérea do Atlântico Sul] written by Coutinho and Cabral, published in 1922, were included in the International Register of the “Memory of the World” of UNESCO. After July 27, 2011, the reports were considered World Heritage [Património da Humanidade].
The Transatlantic Flights performed at 1919 proved to be a tremendous success; however, aerial navigation over ocean was based on radio equipment. Sextants were very difficult to use, and methods of calculations were quite time-consuming to provide positioning results of an aircraft at great speeds. For these reasons the Aerial Astronavigation was considered unsuitable. 3 years later, two Portuguese airmen managed to perform the First Aerial Crossing of the South Atlantic exclusively achieved by Aerial Astronavigation in an unprecedent route precision achievement; such feat was a milestone in Aviation History, marking the debut of the sextant as a key mean for air navigation: for the first time, sextant, course corrector and methods of calculations proved their effectiveness and value for aerial navigation. Reports of the 1st South Atlantic Air Crossing [Relatórios da 1ª Travessia Aérea do Atlântico Sul] written by Coutinho and Cabral, published in 1922, were included in the International Register of the “Memory of the World” of UNESCO. After July 27, 2011, the reports were considered World Heritage [Património da Humanidade].
The history of the transatlantic flights goes back to 1919, and began with a flight between Newfoundland and Lisbon, and another between Newfoundland and Ireland. Gago Coutinho and Sacadura Cabral crossed the South Atlantic Ocean by air in 1922. This last flight was the first that used only internal means of navigation, and a new instrument that consisted in a type of sextant incorporating two spirit levels to provide an artificial horizon was invented. The flight began with a Fairey hydroplane that did not have enough fuel capacity to make the entire trip so some stops were made along the way. Several problems had to be solved and near the Brazilian coast he aviators were forced to stay some time in the ocean water, having been rescued by a Bristish ship called "Paris City". Finally, the 8,300 km trip was concluded, only with internal means of navigation, after 62 hours of flight using another plane, with a most enthusiastic reception at Rio de Janeiro, and the new artificial horizon sextant had proven itself.
Gago Coutinho was one of the two Portuguese navigators that crossed by air the South Atlantic in the beginning of the 20th century. He developed a new model of sextant that could be used to measure the altitude of a star when flying without the need of the sea horizon. This new instrument was called "precision sextant" and used an artificial horizon line which was defined with the help of a water bubble. Due to his knowledge of Navigation, Astronomy, Geography and Mathematics he received from the Portuguese King D. Carlos I several assignments in Africa and Asia. Gago Coutinho received several important official medals and prizes, including the PhD Honoris Causa from the Universities of Lisbon and Oporto, and authored several scientific publications. He received the distinct position of Admiral of the Portuguese Navy in 1958, and died in the following year.
In the present study the origins of the aeronautics engineering education in Portugal are investigated, as well as the relations between the different initiatives that occurred in the beginning of the twentieth century. This paper aims at reporting the most relevant initiatives in Portugal and the actors involved. From 1963 to 1974 the Portuguese Air Force in together with a Portuguese University taught the first Aeronautics Engineering Military Degree at Portugal. In early 1990s two Portuguese Universities and the Portuguese Air Force started their Aerospace/Aeronautics Engineering Degrees teaching. In the 21st Century the Aerospace/Aeronautics Engineering courses at Portugal are connected with the most advanced Engineering Schools in Europe providing skills and competences integrating several disciplines. Copyright © 2012 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
Two Portuguese navigators crossed the South Atlantic in the beginning of the 20th century. They developed and used for the first time scientific methods of astronomic navigation when flying out of sight of land. A new model of sextant that could be used to measure the altitude of a star without the need of the sea horizon was developed. Another instrument called "path corrector" was introduced to calculate graphically the drift of an airplane and the direction of flight, taking into account the intensity and the direction of the winds. For the very first time in the history of the aviation the crossing of the South Atlantic had been achieved, and using an instrument that enabled an airplane's position to be precisely determined by astronomic navigation when flying out of sight of land.
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