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A review of the life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: Considering the influence of batteries
Abstract
The automotive industry is currently on the verge of electrical transition, and the environmental performance of electric vehicles (EVs) is of great concern. To assess the environmental performance of EVs scientifically and accurately, we reviewed the life cycle environmental impacts of EVs and compared them with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Considering that the battery is the core component of EVs, we further summarise the environmental impacts of battery production, use, secondary utilisation, recycling, and remanufacturing. The results showed that the environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is higher than that of ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. EVs in the use phase obtained a better overall image than ICEVs, although this largely depended on the share of clean energy generation. In the recycling phase, repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries are helpful in improving the environmental benefits of EVs. Over the entire life cycle, EVs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption; however, they have higher impacts than ICEVs in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential. In summary, optimising the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving the recycling efficiency are of great significance for the large-scale promotion of EVs, closed-loop production of batteries, and sustainable development of the resources, environment, and economy.
... Instead, this study will be limited to the sustainability assessment based on two indicators: global warming potential expressed as greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and financial cost. Table 1 presents a summary of recent peer-reviewed publications on the life cycle assessment of LIB recycling [19][20][21][22][23][24][25]. Fewer recent and detailed studies combining the environmental impact and cost analysis of battery recycling have been reported [20,24]. ...
... Several studies on the life cycle assessment (LCA) of lithium-ion battery recycling have focused on discussing the state of the art of recycling process technologies such as pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling and comparing the overall carbon emission reductions of these recycling methods at the battery pack and cell levels [19][20][21][22][23]25,[31][32][33]. Some peer-reviewed articles have also discussed both the economic and environmental impacts of battery pack recycling [20,24,34,35]. ...
... The system boundary of the cathode active material manufacturing from virgin battery materials from raw material extraction to CAM manufacturing was discussed broadly in the literature [1,25,33,34,47,48] and summarized and depicted in Figure 4. A major difference, not often reported in the literature, is the simplicity of the recycling pathways ...
Lithium-ion battery (LIB) pack is the core component of electric vehicles (EVs). As the demand is continuously increasing, it puts a lot of strain on the battery raw material supply chains. Likewise, the large quantity of spent LIBs from different sources will add to the complexity of end-of-life (EoL) management. Battery recycling processing is a potential source of critical cathode precursor materials as an alternative to virgin raw material sourcing. Indeed, metal sulfates (nickel, cobalt, and manganese) and lithium carbonate could be recovered through EoL processing. This study aims to provide an economic and environmental life cycle sustainability assessment of recycled battery materials. This assessment is based on a bottom-up approach considering geographical boundaries and process data inputs. The two sources of critical cathode battery materials, virgin and recycled battery materials, are compared based on economic and environmental indicators. This study identified the province of Quebec in Canada as the geographical boundary where several battery processing plants have been recently announced. The best available recycling process (hydrometallurgy) was selected. For the virgin materials, this study considers the option of importing from other jurisdictions by using global average supply chain values. Furthermore, a comparison of alternative supply chain configurations was performed using a spatially differentiated approach. The main findings of this study are as follows: (i) the environmental credit of recycled cathode active materials (CAMs) is estimated as −6.46 kg CO2e/kg CAM, and (ii) the overall cost and environmental impacts of producing LIB cathode active material from recycled battery materials can be 48% and 54% lower than production from virgin materials, respectively, considering the upstream, midstream, and downstream stages of the CAM supply chain. The main drivers for the reduction in these financial costs and emissions are the local transportation and the hydrometallurgical process. The assessment results provide insights to support the development of appropriate policies and R&D solutions adapted to local considerations as well as offer additional possibilities to improve the design of sustainable supply chains for LIB recycling.
... LIBs are extensively applied in devices such as portable electronic equipment as well as hybrid/electric vehicles worldwide due to their excellent electrochemical performance at high voltage, high energy density, low discharge, low memory effect, good stability cycle and long life [1][2][3]. ...
... Electric vehicles may play an important role in sustainable environmental development goals to reduce air pollution and climate change [4][5][6]. In the future, sales of electric vehicles are expected to significantly grow to 18 million in 2025 and 21 million in 2030 [3,7]. According to a report by the International Energy Agency (IEA), the global electric car stock will rise to 50 million by 2025 and 140 million by 2030 [2]. ...
In this research, two different hydrometallurgical processes were introduced for recycling the cathodes of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from spent LIBs. The cathode materials were leached by malonic acid (MOA), as a leaching agent, and ascorbic acid (AA), as a reducing agent, in the first process, and by l-Glutamic acid (l-Glu), as a leaching agent, and AA, as a reducing agent, in the second process. The results of the tests showed that, with a similar solid-to-liquid (S/L) ratio of 10 g/L and a recovery time of 2 h for both processes, when using MOA of 0.25 M and AA of 0.03 M at 88 °C, 100% lithium (Li), 80% cobalt (Co), 99% nickel (Ni), and 98% manganese (Mn) were extracted, and when using l-Glu of 0.39 M and AA of 0.04 M at 90 °C, 100% Li, 79% Co, 91% Ni, and 92% Mn were extracted. The kinetics of the leaching process for the two systems were well justified by the Avrami equation, which was diffusion-controlled in the MOA + AA system, with the apparent activation energy of 3.23, 14.72, 7.77, and 7.36 kJ/mol for Mn, Ni, Co, and Li, respectively. The l-Glu + AA involved chemical-diffusion kinetic control, with the apparent activation energy for Mn, Ni, Co, and Li of 9.95, 29.42, 20.15, and 16.08 kJ/mol, respectively. Various characterization techniques were used to explain the observed synergistic effect in the l-Glu + AA system, which resulted in reduced acid consumption and enhanced recovery compared to the case of MOA + AA. This occurred because l-Glu is not able to reduce and recover metals without a reductant, while MOA has reductant properties.
... Multiple studies have shown that the non-use phases in a vehicle's lifetime, regardless of the propulsion system, are significant contributors to lifetime total emissions and environmental impacts, requiring their consideration while evaluating the ecologic impact of any system [1][2][3]. ...
... The production of the Li-on battery is the main cause for the disparity in favor of the CETC driven-vehicle (Fig. 8). This result is consistent with published LCA analyses of BEVs [1][2][3][4][5][6][7]. The only category in which the CETC powertrain is inferior in the production phase is the marine eutrophication category. ...
... Recycling of LIBs is important not only because the vast volume of potential waste creates dangers of spontaneous fires and toxic leakage, but also because some of the materials used to make LIBs are unsustainable, or have poor geo political security. [6][7][8][9] Moreover, EV manufacturing has a high CO2 cost, currently around 60% greater than for the construction of an internal combustion vehicle 10 ; efficient recycling and reuse routes are critical to reducing this impact. ...
... 10 Raman spectra were taken after certain periods of air exposure for a) QCR II before water submersion and b) after. The same was done for c) EoL II before water submersion and d) after. ...
Early electric vehicle anodes utilised poly(vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF) as the binder. Due to its lack of solubility in non-harmful solvents, PVDF potentially leads to challenges with anode recycling. In this...
... For instance, in relation to LCAs that are specific to electric vehicles, Xia and Li's (2022) review of the literature shows that the overall environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is often higher than that of the internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVS) due to battery manufacturing. Moreover, they also show that the superior performance of EVs use phase over ICEVs is highly dependent on the share of clean power generation, and they end by stressing the relevance of optimising battery technologies, recycling efficiency, and the power grid structure as a mean to further promote EVs. ...
... Finally, we note that the results from SD and LCA analyses (either used independently or in combination) are highly dependent on the various assumptions and quality of the data that are fed into the analyses (Garcia, 2017). For instance, both Hou et al. (2021) and Xia and Li (2022) highlight the extent to which assumptions about the geographical location and distribution of power plants in a given region will impact significantly on the environmental performance indicators of electric vehicles. In the particular case of biofuel use, Pereira et al. (2019) reports that major discrepancies in GHG emissions' estimates produced by these models have jeopardized their credibility and legitimacy in policy discussions surrounding sustainability goals. ...
Dynamic models are routinely used in the development of sustainable transportation systems. Yet, policymakers question the reliability of the estimates they produce. More holistic models that include a dynamic well-to-wheel system perspective, built-in sensitivity tests, and ask ‘what if’ policy questions can potentially improve the robustness of the estimates. Accordingly, we develop a system dynamics, fleet-based, life cycle model that offers these features and apply it to Brazil’s electric-vs-ethanol debate. We present the results through different scenarios, from business-as-usual to more extreme dependence on particular energy sources. Amongst other things, they show that ethanol dominates in most scenarios except under certain long term land use assumptions that heighten well-to-tank emissions. They also highlight the sensitivity of LCA results to underlying assumptions and encourage the standardisation of reporting norms. Finally, our model highlight where ambiguities are likely to materialise, providing useful insights to practitioners in Brazil and elsewhere.
... Additionally, the material footprint LCA (MF-LCA) method was used to assess the environmental impacts of BEVs from the materials perspective [23]. Similarly, other papers have assessed the environmental impacts of BEVs and compared them to that of ICEVs using LCA [24][25][26][27]. In addition to the environmental impacts, some papers have assessed the economic aspects of BEVs as well. ...
... Table 1 summarizes the aforementioned literature review by indicating the type of vehicle(s) assessed and the sustainability pillar(s) targeted by each assessment. [19] LCA [20] LCA [21] LCA [22] LCA [23] MF-LCA [24] LCA [25] LCA [26] LCA [27] LCA [28] Other [29] LCCA [30] Review [31] LCA [32] Other [33] Other [34] Other [35] LCSA, LCA, LCC, SLCA [36] LCA It can be noticed from the conducted literature review that most assessments conducted utilized LCA methods. While none has assessed ICEVs, BEVs, and FCEVs in terms of circularity. ...
Transitioning to zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) is thought to substantially curb emissions, promoting sustainable development. However, the extent of the problem extends beyond tailpipe emissions. To facilitate decision-making and planning of future infrastructural developments, the economic, social, and technological factors of ZEVs should also be addressed. Therefore, this work implements the circular economy paradigm to identify the most suitable vehicle type that can accelerate sustainable development by calculating circularity scores for Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEVs) and two ZEVs, the Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs), and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs). The circularity assessment presents a novel assessment procedure that interrelates the environmental, economic, social, and technological implications of each vehicle type on the three implementation levels of the circular economy (i.e., The macro, meso, and micro levels). The results of our analysis suggest that not all ZEVs are considered sustainable alternatives to ICEVs. BEVs scored the highest relative circularity score of 36.8% followed by ICEVs and FCEVs scoring 32.9% and 30.3% respectively. The results obtained in this study signify the importance of conducting circular economy performance assessments as planning tools as this assessment methodology interrelate environmental, social, economic, and technological factors which are integral for future infrastructural and urban planning.
... As can be seen from this graph, it is very challenging to identify a trend in battery carbon footprint as the results vary depending on the chemistry, geographical location, system boundary and uncertainty level of the study. Figure 2 Battery LCA Study Benchmark [3,[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] It is rare to find calculations of the carbon footprint of electric micro-mobility batteries in the literature. Table 1 shows the results of the benchmark study as kg CO2, kg CO2/kWh, and kg CO2/kg battery, compiled from the studies of Del Duce, Schelte and Ehrenberger. ...
In this paper, a cradle to gate LCA study was implemented on the lithium-ion battery of the micro mobility solution called Rakun, which is being manufactured by Ford Otosan. In the Goal and Scope definition phase, while determining the system boundaries, it was intended to address the deficiency of emission calculations for the batteries within the electrical micro mobilities in the literature. The following Life Cycle Inventory phase is concluded with data from the supplier and Ford Otosan factory. Eventually, the carbon footprint of the Rakun battery was calculated through Ecoinvent-3.8 database within SimaPro and the results were evaluated from different perspectives. Batteries contain carbon-intensive sub-components namely cathode and anode through rare elements in their content. When analyzing the results, it is crucial to focus on components and their impact on the total and to identify hotspots. Taking these into account, the carbon footprint of a Rakun's battery is calculated as 42,76 kg CO2/kWh corresponding to 5,94 kg CO2/kg battery. Approximately 56% are due to cell production, with the cathode being the largest contributing part within the cell at 52%. Although there is limited number of studies in the field of electrical micro-mobility compared to electric vehicles, these results are in accordance with the benchmark study conducted in the literature. This paper extends boundaries of the literature by focusing on batteries and in particular on less-addressed electrical micro mobility solutions, which will provide solutions to many transportation problems. Observing the state-of-the-art of micro mobility 2-3 wheelers in terms of their environmental impacts and identifying hotspots, encourages development of guidelines that will respond to the design and concept level and will lead to more eco-friendly products. Besides, this paper is at a unique point in the literature with its data collection, compilation, and calculation methodology.
... The study [21] evaluates and compares the potential environmental effects of electric, hybrid, petrol, and diesel cars in Spain using a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment approach, and it highlights that BEV life cycle CO 2 -eq emissions are 48% lower than petrol ICEVs, but it will produce an increase in fine particulate matter formation, human carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic toxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity, and marine ecotoxicity relative to petrol vehicles. An LCA analysis from cradle to grave is conducted in [22]; the results indicate that, in the production phase, EVs have a higher environmental impact than ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. During the usage phase, EVs show a better environmental performance, which largely depends on the proportion of clean energy generation. ...
Green logistics is an approach aimed at reducing the environmental impact of transport, storage, and distribution practices, through low-emission vehicles, optimized routes, clean energy tech in warehouses, and efficient waste management. These solutions can contribute to achieving the sustainable development goals of the European Green Deal. The main research question of this paper is whether an electric vehicle has a lower environmental impact compared to a gasoline vehicle. This study presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of an electric vehicle using lithium-ion battery technology (BEV) and compares it to an internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV), considering the transportable load within the context of Italy. Through a gate-to-grave approach, both vehicles’ life cycle use and disposal phases were evaluated to identify the hotspots of environmental impact. The LCA methodology allows for an objective comparison and the results show that BEV emits slightly less kgCO2eq than ICEVs. The primary contributor to the vehicles’ impact is the dependency of the electric energy primary source from fossil fuels. Therefore, a second analysis was conducted to analyse the benefit of photovoltaic panels to generate the electric energy, showing that it can result in a significant 50% reduction in impact, making the electric vehicle a valid solution for achieving green logistics objectives. However, the questions of electric energy production, management, and distribution together with the supply of raw material and disposal of lithium batteries remain open. This issue raises a concern regarding the BEV in a country like Italy where the lack of recharging points limits the adoption of electric vehicles in green logistics.
... According to the International Energy Agency's 2022 report, global sales of EVs reached a new record of 6.6 million in 2021, primarily led by China, accounting for half of the growth, with Europe showing continued strong growth and the United States showing moderate growth (IEA, 2022). As new EVs models continue to be developed and adopted, there is an increasing need for proper recycle of spent lithium-ion batteries (SLIBs) (Xia and Li, 2022). Manual disassembly is the main method used to recover SLIBs, but it has high labor costs, personal safety concerns, and repetitive movements (Tian et al., 2022;Yang et al., 2019). ...
... As can be seen from this graph, it is very challenging to identify a trend in battery carbon footprint as the results vary depending on the chemistry, geographical location, system boundary and uncertainty level of the study. Figure 2 Battery LCA Study Benchmark [3,[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16] It is rare to find calculations of the carbon footprint of electric micro-mobility batteries in the literature. Table 1 shows the results of the benchmark study as kg CO2, kg CO2/kWh, and kg CO2/kg battery, compiled from the studies of Del Duce, Schelte and Ehrenberger. ...
Climate change and the associated CO2 challenge led to the Paris Agreement at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in 2015. Nations agreed to substantially reduce global greenhouse gas emissions to limit the global temperature increase in this century to 2 degrees Celsius while pursuing efforts to limit the increase even further to 1.5 degrees over the reference. The Agreement also introduced the notion of carbon neutrality. But the path to carbon neutrality is as important as the destination; it is urgent to mitigate the impact of cumulative emissions, a sharper decrease in the amount of CO2 emitted annually will create long term benefits on the way to any previously agreed lower CO2 emission target levels. The automotive industry has made considerable efforts over the last 30 years to reduce CO2 emissions, notably through initiatives such as Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) regulations; and it has developed technologies to meet the increasingly stringent emissions and fuel economy regulations introduced in the world’s major automotive regions. Carbon neutral mobility involves primarily the automotive industry, but it cannot be achieved without the additional input of a much wider network that includes energy providers, raw material suppliers, national and regional authorities, and, significantly, consumers. [https://www.fisita.com/product-page/fop2023-09-01]
... To date, the existing types of LIBs in EVs can be subdivided into lithium iron phosphate (LFP), lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NCM), and lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) batteries [58,59]. These forms of EV-based LIBs differ mainly due to their elemental composition. ...
Within the automotive field, there has been an increasing amount of global attention toward the usability of combustion-independent electric vehicles (EVs). Once considered an overly ambitious and costly venture, the popularity and practicality of EVs have been gradually increasing due to the usage of Li-ion batteries (LIBs). Although the topic of LIBs has been extensively covered, there has not yet been a review that covers the current advancements of LIBs from economic, industrial, and technical perspectives. Specific overviews on aspects such as international policy changes, the implementation of cloud-based systems with deep learning capabilities, and advanced EV-based LIB electrode materials are discussed. Recommendations to address the current challenges in the EV-based LIB market are discussed. Furthermore, suggestions for short-term, medium-term, and long-term goals that the LIB-EV industry should follow are provided to ensure its success in the near future. Based on this literature review, it can be suggested that EV-based LIBs will continue to be a hot topic in the years to come and that there is still a large amount of room for their overall advancement.
... 8 This low percentage is explained by the emissions associated with battery manufacturing and the still high share of fossil energy sources in the energy mix used to power EVs in many countries. [9][10][11] Although technical innovations in the manufacturing phase of batteries are discussed, 12 Mental accounting theory may further explain the cognitive mechanisms underlying co-adoption and especially the simultaneous purchase of technologies. 53,54 The hedonic editing principle from the mental accounting literature proposes that consumers tend to take more risk when losses are aggregated, in other words when losses are perceived as a single unit (e.g., installing a heat pump and a solar system as part of a house-renovation plan) rather than as recurring events (e.g., considering separate offers for a solar system and a heat pump at different time points). ...
Low-carbon technology adoption is an essential element of energy transitions toward net-zero emissions around the world. To exploit the full potential of low-carbon technologies, households should ideally co-adopt multiple low-carbon technologies. Whereas previous research primarily investigated predictors of single-technology adoption in isolation, here we focus on the co-adoption of multiple low-carbon technologies, including solar photovoltaics, stationary batteries, heat pumps, and electric vehicles, to examine the interconnections between adoption decisions and the potential of certain technologies to serve as “entry points” for the co-adoption of multiple low-carbon technologies. Based on a sample of 1967 homeowners, we identified unique demographic and psychological variables associated with co-adoption. We moreover observed specific co-adoption patterns across time in that the adoption of one technology increased the likelihood of adopting another technology. This effect, however, was primarily driven by co-adoption in close temporal proximity, pointing to opportunities for targeted policies that support technology bundles.
... Therefore, many studies have explored the lifecycle carbon emissions of EVs and compared them with those of traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). [15][16][17] Some studies have shown that batteries, as the core component of EVs, have a significant impact on their carbon emissions. [18,19] Specifically, the high energy consumption and emissions during battery production make EVs have higher carbon emissions in the production stage than traditional ICEVs. ...
Under the global carbon neutrality initiative, carbon emissions from the transportation sector are becoming increasingly prominent due to the growth in vehicle ownership. And electric mobility may be a potentially effective measure to reduce road traffic carbon emissions and achieve a green transformation of transportation. This paper systematically collates the relevant carbon accounting standards for the automotive industry and elaborates the current status of road transport greenhouse gas emissions by combining the data from the International Energy Agency. And by comparing the lifecycle carbon footprint of various energy types of vehicles, the necessity and feasibility of electric mobility to reduce carbon emissions are discussed. However, the comparison of vehicle lifecycle carbon footprints shows that electric vehicles (EVs) are not as environmentally friendly as expected, although they can significantly reduce road traffic carbon emissions. The high carbon emissions from the manufacturing process of the core components of EVs, especially the power battery, reduce the low‐carbon potential of electric mobility. Therefore, the carbon emission reduction strategies and outcomes of automakers in the automotive industry chain have been further reviewed. Finally, focusing on vehicle power batteries, this article reviews the technologies such as refined management and echelon utilization that can make EVs more environmentally friendly and promote carbon neutrality in the transportation sector.
... This will enable to reduce the load on grid during the peak hours. The application of EV batteries in energy storage will not only extend their life but will also double the GHG advantages of vehicle electrification through better utilization of off-peak low-cost energy (Xia & Li, 2022). It is estimated that the number of EVs can increase from 3 million to 125 million by the year 2030 (Shariff et al., 2019). ...
The emerging economies are moving toward electric vehicles (EVs), which are much sustainable means of transportation. However, many social, economic, and technological blockades of EV mobility remain to be addressed. The study investigates social, economic, and technological blockades for e‐mobility in an emerging economy and simultaneously concentrating on their existing and future business implications. Identification of e‐mobility blockades is obtained through literature review and consensus of the experts. Kappa analysis is used to strain the priority map of the mentioned blockades on the basis of developing consensus among experts. Thereafter, a multi criteria decision making approach that is, best‐worst method is adopted to rank the identified potential blockades. The study models the social, economic, and technological blockades of EV mobility in context of emerging economy. To cater blockades in a desired sequence, the study further suggests the ranking sequence of blockades to enhance e‐mobility toward sustainable development. The findings from the study reveals that “costs associated with EVs and “the lack of government policies, standards, and regulations” are the most important blockades to sustainable EV adoption. Thus, the organizations and the Government need to find ways to reduce the cost of EVs and simultaneously should plan and develop policies to enhance EV adoption and to reduce the usage of gasoline vehicles. The third most important blockade that is, “low demand due to undetermined sustainable benefits” indicates that there is an urgent need to spread awareness among the consumers about the sustainable benefits for the adoption of EVs. Further, the sensitivity analysis reveals that sensitivity range for weightage of the group of academicians lies between 0.3 and 0.7 on a scale of 1. If more weightage is provided to the practical scenario, it is discovered that “location of charging station (BEV4)” is more important than “lack of flexible distribution network (BEV2)” to enhance the amount of EV adoption in India. The study provides insights to practitioners dealing with e‐mobility in emerging economies, showing the appropriate sequence of the blockades to help them build up strategies to mitigate these blockades.
... Indeed, the use of green sources is required as much in the production phase as in the use one (Shafique & Luo, 2022) including the use of energy storage systems (Gupta & Shankar, 2022). The environmental impact battery should be investigated considering its impacts (Xia & Li, 2022), and a significant amount of components and raw materials are required (Baars et al., 2021), in particular lithium (Sun et al., 2022). Here, the attention should be paid to their end-of-life management (D'Adamo & Rosa, 2019), by encouraging circular solutions along the entire supply chain (Taddei et al., 2022) and providing benefits and opportunities (Molla et al., 2023). ...
Even if the European Commission is acting against the climate change, greenhouse gas emissions are still increasing in the transport sector. In this scenario, the flexibility characterizing the automotive sectors could invert this negative trend. The goal of this work is identifying suitable methodologies to evaluate flexible initiatives in automotive contexts, with a specific focus on sustainable mobility and electric vehicles (EVs). The results show that stakeholders identify purchase price as a determinant in the choice to purchase an EV, while for a model toward a sustainable e-mobility transition, experts place emphasis on renewable energy production and consumers on charging stations. A flexible approach in policy choices is also suggested in order to foster a pragmatic sustainability model in which the deployment of EVs is accompanied by green and circular practices. However, such change also requires attention to be paid to the social sphere with job creation and a spread of consumer knowledge toward sustainable choices.
... While EVs offer environmental benefits such as reduced CO 2 emissions and improved air quality, their production involves materials that are scarce and have negative impacts on energy consumption, water usage, CO 2 emissions, and air pollution [58]. Compared to internal combustion engine vehicles, EVs have higher impacts in terms of metal and mineral consumption as well as human toxicity potential; hence, optimizing the energy structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving recycling efficiency are of major importance for the widespread promotion of EVs [59]. The adoption of circular economy models is critical for managing the increasing volume of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from EVs. ...
The deployment of automated vehicles (AVs) has the potential to disrupt and fundamentally transform urban transportation. As their implementation becomes imminent on cities’ streets, it is of great concern that no comprehensive strategies have been formulated to effectively manage and mitigate their potential negative impacts, particularly with respect to the components of the do no significant harm (DNSH) framework recently introduced in the EU taxonomy. The methodology employed comprises three steps: (i) An extensive literature review on the impact of AVs on the DNSH components; (ii) exploration of designing a coherent pro-active vision by integrating measures identified in the literature as key elements to mitigate the harm; and (iii) an interdisciplinary focus group (FG) to verify whether the impacts of AVs and potential mitigation measures for Bucharest are similar to those identified by the literature and integrated into the pro-active vision. The results suggest that while there are commonalities, variations exist in focus and perspective, underscoring the necessity of examining the mitigation measures encompassed in the vision through additional focus groups conducted in different cities.
... Xia and Li (2022), evaluated the environmental performance of vehicles, the environmental impacts of the life cycle of electric vehicles and compared them with the effects of internal combustion engine vehicles. In short, optimizing the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving recycling efficiency is of great importance for the widespread introduction of electric vehicles, closed-loop battery production, and sustainable development of resources, the environment, and the economy [7]. By Şenyürek et al. (2022), battery technologies used in electric vehicles and the causes of fires encountered in these technologies and fire response methods were examined. ...
In this study, different battery types to be used in the conversion of a small and light (600-1000 kg) internal combustion engine vehicle into an electric vehicle were analyzed. The study was conducted to ensure that this vehicle is suitable for urban use and has a range of approximately 100 km. Each battery technology capacity is evaluated to be approximately 15 kWh. While performing the techno-economic analysis of different battery types, it was taken into account that they provide the necessary energy for about 10 years. Seven different battery technologies (lead-acid, gel, Ni-Cd, Li-Ion, LiFePo4, LiPo, Ni-MH) were used for comparison. In analysis; price assessment in US Dollars ($), 10-year investment cost, weight and volume values, weight and volume values required to produce 1 kWh of energy were presented in tables. In addition to these, a review of battery life was made. Finally, the advantages and disadvantages of battery technologies compared to each other are given. As a result of the study, it can be seen that for a 10-year lifetime, the cheapest lead-acid battery technology is 30% cheaper than the next cheapest technology, gel battery technology, and 82% cheaper than the most expensive technology, LiPo technology. It can be seen that LiPo battery technology, which is the lightest in terms of weight, is 85% lighter than gel technology, which is the heaviest technology. In addition, data on cycle life, self-discharge, advantages and disadvantages are presented in tabular form.
... (García-Salirrosas & Rondon-Eusebio, 2022). In recent years, a lot of pressure has been built on businesses to redesign their products and processes to match international standards set by governments and international environmental groups (Xia & Li, 2022). Previous studies have proven that companies using green branding are getting customers' attention and, in turn, increasing their profits. ...
Green branding is a marketing approach that highlights the environmental benefits of a brand. It is another method that companies can use to differentiate their brand. Communicating their resolution towards a better environment can increase profit and create a blue ocean, especially in developing countries. In Developed countries, companies are already working towards their environmental goals and achieving them in developing nations. Companies are still learning the effect of green branding on purchase intentions. Despite its product's nature, Toyota has used green branding successfully to communicate its pledge to sustainability. This study was conducted to determine the perceptions of Pakistani consumers regarding the relations among Green Brand Positioning (GBP), Attitude towards Green Brands (ATGB), Environmental Concern (EC), and Green Purchase Intention (GPI), with a focus on Green Brand Knowledge (GBK). The quantitative method uses a cross-sectional design to collect data from organic product purchasers by applying stratified random sampling. Partial Least Squares, Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis demonstrated that the Green Purchase Intention is significantly related to study variables (GBP, ATGB, and EC). This Study is filling some gaps in the previously available information on green branding. Therefore, elucidating the moderating effect is crucial for advancing knowledge that can influence future research into this relationship. Results suggest that familiarity with green brands would increase the impact of GBP and EC on GPI; furthermore, GBK acts as a mediator between GBP and GPI. This Study will be helpful for business managers and proprietors who wish to understand how green branding can be used while creating a brand image in this environmentally sensitive era.
... Several studies quantifying the environmental impacts of PEV have been carried out in recent years (e.g., Bekel and Pauliuk, 2019;Xia and Li, 2022). The resulting emission factors vary considerably depending on methodological and spatial framework conditions (Ryan et al., 2016). ...
Growing numbers of plug-in electric vehicles in Europe will have an increasing impact on the electricity system. Using the agent-based simulation model PowerACE for ten electricity markets in Central Europe, we analyze how different charging strategies impact price levels and production- as well as consumption-based carbon emissions in France and Germany. The applied smart charging strategies consider spot market prices and/or real-time production from renewable energy sources. While total European carbon emissions do not change significantly in response to the charging strategy due to the comparatively small energy consumption of the electric vehicle fleet, our results show that all smart charging strategies reduce price levels on the spot market and lower total curtailment of renewables. Here, charging processes optimized according to hourly prices have the strongest effect. Furthermore, smart charging strategies reduce electricity purchasing costs for aggregators by about 10% compared to uncontrolled charging. In addition, the strategies allow aggregators to communicate near-zero allocated emissions for charging vehicles. An aggregator’s charging strategy expanding classic electricity cost minimization by limiting total national PEV demand to 10% of available electricity production from renewable energy sources leads to the most favorable results in both metrics, purchasing costs and allocated emissions. Finally, aggregators and plug-in electric vehicle owners would benefit from the availability of national, real-time Guarantees of Origin and the respective scarcity signals for renewable production.
... for "free". The production of BEVs, particularly the manufacturing of batteries, usually emits more greenhouse gas (GHG) than ICEVs 17,18 . This GHG debt can only be offset until BEVs are driven to the breakeven point [19][20][21][22][23] . ...
Although battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are climate-friendly alternatives to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), an important but often ignored fact is that the climate mitigation benefits of BEVs are usually delayed. The manufacture of BEVs is more carbon-intensive than that of ICEVs, leaving a greenhouse gas (GHG) debt to be paid back in the future use phase. Here we analyze millions of vehicle data from the Chinese market and show that the GHG break-even time (GBET) of China’s BEVs ranges from zero (i.e., the production year) to over 11 years, with an average of 4.5 years. 8% of China’s BEVs produced and sold between 2016 and 2018 cannot pay back their GHG debt within the eight-year battery warranty. We suggest enhancing the share of BEVs reaching the GBET by promoting the effective substitution of BEVs for ICEVs instead of the single-minded pursuit of speeding up the BEV deployment race.
... Comprising of two electrochemically active electrodes that consist of dissimilar components, namely positive and negative, they are submerged in an electrolytic solution to facilitate conduction of electric charge. When connected to an external carrier, the power battery pack supplies electrical energy by converting its internal chemical energy [58][59][60][61]. Electric energy is stored and discharged chemically within the power battery pack. ...
The significant challenges are fossil fuel dependence, climate change, and incremental energy cost in the twenty-first century. Looming environmental problems and growing concerns about the global energy crisis, individuals and organizations have sought new opportunities and technologies to meet the growing demand for clean and sustainable energy systems. Electrification of transportation system is a promising way to green transportation system and reduce climate change. In recent years, new energy electric vehicles (NEEVs) have become increasingly popular in the automotive industry and are poised to replace the internal-combustion engine (ICE) to protect environment from pollution. This paper provides an in-depth investigation into the present status, latest deployment, and future prospects in the implementation of NEEVs while introducing the subsystems and their components: electrification transportation degrees, power battery pack, electrical propulsion system, charring architecture, and international standards. Additionally, extending from limited knowledge and ability, the enabling technologies and prospects for future development of NEEVs are also presented in this paper. A total of 131 publications are arranged and appended for quick referencing. It is envisaged that researchers and engineers involved in these fields could find this paper very valuable and a one-stop source of rich information.
... In order to immediately increase the environmental advantages of BEVs, the recycling process, reusing, repurposing, and remanufacturing of the retired batteries are beneficial [19]. The terms "reuse" and "repurpose" have different definitions. ...
This study discusses the use of a retired battery from an electric vehicle for stationary energy storage electric vehicle charging in a residential household. This research provides a novel in-depth examination of the processes that may be necessary to investigate the life loss of a battery, whether new or used. The main contribution is to promote the feasibility of the application from both a technical and economic point of view. The semi-empirical models are then utilized to analyze the life fading that is used in economic studies. In terms of lower initial investment costs for the battery and solar photovoltaics, the numerical calculation demonstrates that the used second-life battery with a DOD of 85% has more advantages over a new battery in the same condition. Additionally, compared to a new battery, a second-life battery gradually loses life and benefits from recycling after a projected 10-year lifespan. These results support the feasibility of the project. A discussion of project hurdles is included in which the hybrid converter modification may be achieved. Policymakers are encouraged to keep this valuable scheme in mind for the sake of margin profit and environmental preservation.
... Therefore, it is necessary to normalize the corresponding input and output indexes of each DMU. In this study, tangent function conversion is used for the normalization process [28]: ...
As one of the basic industries in the manufacturing industry, the modeling and evaluation of resource utilization efficiency in the machining process is the premise of energy conservation and consumption reduction in the manufacturing industry. Mechanical processing is the process of using resources to change the shape and performance of the blank to form the workpiece and generate emissions. However, the current research on the utilization of machining process resources, whether focusing on energy efficiency or emissions, cannot provide a comprehensive solution to this problem. Therefore, this paper proposes a Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) model with a slacks-based measure (SBM) to evaluate the resource utilization efficiency of a machining process with non-expected output. Through the relative effectiveness of DEA, the resource utilization efficiency of each processing process can be compared, which can provide a feasible and specific method for enterprises to evaluate their existing processing processes from the perspective of reducing unexpected output. In this case, the input-output model of the machining process is used to analyze the processed resource list. Then the mathematical model of each process in the processing process is established, and the dynamic resources are determined quantitatively. Finally, the accuracy of the method is verified by combining the resource utilization efficiency of each working procedure in the shaft gear machining process of an enterprise.
... Considering that the service life of the battery pack is usually 6-8 years, globally this will usher in a wave of end-of-life EVs. [8,9] The challenges that will be posed by the corresponding generation of huge numbers of endof-life EVs and LIBs to the environmental protection are still unknown, but is it expected to be significant unless appropriate recycling technologies are developed. The LIBs contain toxic but valuable non-renewable metals such as lithium (Li), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), manganese (Mn), aluminum (Al), and copper (Cu), as well as fluorine compounds such as lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF 6 ) and polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). ...
In the recycling of retired lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs), the cathode materials containing valuable metals should be first separated from the current collector aluminum foil to decrease the difficulty and complexity in the subsequent metal extraction. However, strong the binding force of organic binder polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) prevents effective separation of cathode materials and Al foil, thus affecting metal recycling. This paper reviews the composition, property, function, and binding mechanism of PVDF, and elaborates on the separation technologies of cathode material and Al foil (e.g., physical separation, solid‐phase thermochemistry, solution chemistry, and solvent chemistry) as well as the corresponding reaction behavior and transformation mechanisms of PVDF. Due to the characteristic variation of the reaction systems, the dissolution, swelling, melting, and degradation processes and mechanisms of PVDF exhibit considerable differences, posing new challenges to efficient recycling of spent LIBs worldwide. It is critical to separate cathode materials and Al foil and recycle PVDF to reduce environmental risks from the recovery of retired LIBs resources. Developing fluorine‐free alternative materials and solid‐state electrolytes is a potential way to mitigate PVDF pollution in the recycling of spent LIBs in the EV era. The state‐of‐the‐art separation technologies are evaluated for cathode materials and Al foil of spent lithium‐ion batteries, including physical separation, solid‐phase thermochemistry, solution chemistry, and solvent chemistry, as well as the corresponding reaction behavior and transformation mechanisms of the organic binder polyvinylidene fluoride.
... The widespread use of vehicles powered by traditional fuels has contributed to severe problems, such as the current fossil fuel energy crisis and air pollution. Several nations are promoting electric vehicles (EVs) as a key solution for the aforementioned issues [1]. Owing to their high energy density, low self-discharge rate, and long cycle-life, lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have gradually become the standard energy storage components for EVs [2]. ...
Overcharging due to an abnormal charging capacity is one of the most common causes of thermal runaway (TR). This study proposes a method for diagnosing abnormal battery charging capacity based on electric vehicle (EV) data. The proposed method can obtain the fault frequency and output the corresponding state of charge (SOC) when a fault occurs. First, a machine-learning-based data cleaning framework is developed to overcome the limitations of the interpolation method. Then, offline training is implemented, based on big vehicle operation data and an improved Gaussian process regression (GPR). Thereafter, online monitoring of the discrete capacity increment (DCI) is used to identify the abnormal charging capacity. The abnormal charging capacity fault is identified by the absolute error between the GPR outputs and the true DCI, and the thresholds are determined using a Box–Cox transformation with a value of 3σ. The diagnostic results indicate that the abnormal charging capacity of the TR vehicle is identified two months in advance, and the fault frequency of the abnormal and normal vehicles is 0.5221 and 0.0311, respectively. EV operation data and various methods are used to validate the robustness and applicability of the proposed method.
... Raw materials that constitute the battery electrodes thereby underwent steep price upswings, which are expected to continue for a few more decades. Processes and technologies for recycling spent LIBs such as leaching and regeneration have garnered substantial attention and are being actively carried out at industrial levels to reduce the carbon emission and rise in LIB-manufacturing costs (Li et al., 2022a;Xia and Li, 2022). The most essential component of recycling is the recovery of valuable metallic resources, and therefore, there have been many studies on the separation and recovery of valuable metals from spent LIBs such as nickel (Kim et al., 2021;Thompson et al., 2022), cobalt (Kim et al., 2021;Lin et al., 2021;B. ...
Recycling lithium-ion batteries has recently become a major concern. Ammonia leaching is commonly employed in such battery recycling methods since it has various advantages such as low toxicity and excellent selectivity toward precious metals. In this study, an electrochemical system with intercalation-type electrodes was used to investigate the selective recovery of lithium and ammonium from ammonia battery leachate. Using an activated carbon electrode as a counter electrode, the selectivity of lithium from the lithium manganese oxide (LMO) electrode and the selectivity of ammonium from the nickel hexacyanoferrate (NiHCF) electrode were examined within the system. The LMO//NiHCF system was next evaluated for lithium and ammonium recovery using a synthetic solution as well as real ammonia battery leachate. When compared to previous ammonium recovery methods, the results revealed good selectivity of lithium and ammonium from each LMO and NiHCF electrode with relatively low energy consumption for ammonium recovery (2.43 Wh g-N-1). The average recovery capacity of lithium was 1.39 mmol g-1 with a purity of up to 96.8% and the recovery capacity of ammonium was 1.09 mmol g-1 with 97.8% purity from the pre-treated leachate. This electrochemical method together with ammonia leaching can be a promising method for selective resource recovery from spent lithium-ion batteries.
... These approaches are indeed aligned with circular economy streams, as the literature states that these environmental benefits are reached from being unnecessary to build new batteries for those purposes. However, it seems that this statement is not entirely correct, and doubts arise regarding the so-called benefits of battery reuse [27,28]. Be it as it may, at the very end, vehicles should be recycled, and the recycling of batteries is still in the early stages in comparison to the other alternatives, including FCEV [29]. ...
It is, undoubtedly, a widespread belief that the electric vehicle (EV) is considered sustainable. However, in the manufacturing and retirement phases, EVs do not appear to be as sustainable as internal combustion vehicles (ICVs) and during the use phase, the pollution produced by EVs depends on the source of electricity generation to recharge the batteries. From an economic point of view, EVs do not appear to be competitive compared to ICVs either. However, current market trends push hard on battery EVs (BEV) and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEV). This study aims to analyze which of the possible mobility alternatives has more sense to be considered as the option with higher penetration in the future. To this end, four known mobility technologies (ICVs, PHEVs, BEVs, and hydrogen fuel cell EVs or FCEVs) are compared for a mid-size car using published data, through environmental and techno-economic criteria, by applying the analytic hierarchy process method in an objective manner on multiple scenarios. Putting all criteria together, it seems that the ICV alternative is the one receiving the best results in most of the scenarios, except in the case where the environmental criteria have the greatest weight. The BEV solution has almost always turned out to be the worst alternative, but it is the only choice we have right now.
... Regression analysis based on data from the UK Euro 6 database for 24 EVs released in 2019 or 2020 [216] Average mass of car excluding the battery, 2020 for battery production, thus realising the closed loop for battery production. Around 13-14.7 tonne CO 2 e is generated for producing an EV, which is much higher than the 9.2 tonne of an ICEV [222,223]. Around 35-50% of the total GHG emissions in the production phase of an EV is due to the production of the battery system [83,222]. Thus reusing and recycling of batteries in the end-of-use phase of EVs can significantly improve the resource efficiency of batteries and cut GHG emissions. ...
In this review paper, we show that the current battery electric vehicle (BEV) scale-up relies on several key technologies which all have detailed roadmaps with good track records for being met. These roadmaps include lightweighting of vehicle bodies using lightweight materials and architecture/structure design, and improvements in BEV powertrain with regard to the powertrain architecture/system design, battery and motor technology development. However, as technology take-up accelerates, our novel analysis suggests supply of zero carbon electricity may become a serious constraint. We find that the technical potential for abating the demand for electricity through powertrain and lightweighting improvements is just over a quarter of the projected total. Four promising avenues to mitigating this constraint – battery reusing and interoperable charging technology, shared mobility, advanced sensing technology, and novel compact space frame construction - are explored in brief, potentially enabling the large-scale deployment of BEVs without exhausting the supply of non-emitting electricity.
The recycling and reutilization of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have become an important measure to alleviate problems like resource scarcity and environmental pollution. Although some progress has been made, battery recycling technology still faces challenges in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and environmental sustainability. This review aims to systematically review and analyze the current status of spent LIB recycling, and conduct a detailed comparison and evaluation of different recycling processes. In addition, this review introduces emerging recycling techniques, including deep eutectic solvents, molten salt roasting, and direct regeneration, with the intent of enhancing recycling efficiency and diminishing environmental repercussions. Furthermore, to increase the added value of recycled materials, this review proposes the concept of upgrading recycled materials into high value-added functional materials, such as catalysts, adsorbents, and graphene. Through life cycle assessment, the paper also explores the economic and environmental impacts of current battery recycling and highlights the importance that future recycling technologies should achieve a balance between recycling efficiency, economics and environmental benefits. Finally, this review outlines the opportunities and challenges of recycling key materials for next-generation batteries, and proposes relevant policy recommendations to promote the green and sustainable development of batteries, circular economy, and ecological civilization.
Purpose
The study concerns the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of a prototype electric racing car, Formula Student, developed by students of the Poznan University of Technology under the name of eVarta. The main objective of this study is to identify environmental critical points and indicate key elements of the vehicle's life cycle, along with the impact of the assumptions made.
Methods
In the first part of the work, a literature review and standards review is conducted to organise the information and methodological steps for LCA components and their application in the subsequent stages of the study. The work focusses on defining the right assumptions, the process of data collection, and its appropriate aggregation, as well as the creation of a functional structure for the object under study. SimaPRO software is used to perform the assessment.
Results
The results of the evaluation show the high importance of the vehicle transportation phase in the entire life cycle and the significant impact of the transport-related processes, mostly considering the fact, that eVarta is a concept racing car, used only in specific conditions of Formula Student races all over the world. Most of the distances between races are covered using external transport means, and eVarta is used only for racing. The second main source of environmental impacts is related with the use of resources associated with the production of the high-voltage traction battery and the use of aluminium and related processes.
Conclusions
eVarta is a customized concept racing car, designed and built by the team of students of different faculties at Poznan University of Technology (Poland). As a prototype, eVarta demonstrates high levels of environmental burdens related with production materials and techniques. The ratio of these impacts may be limited by using a 3D CAD models to improve the information flows regarding the production of all parts. Moreover, the reduction of the environmental impacts may be reached by enhancement of production of traction battery, substitution of construction materials and improvements during use phase, e.g. implementation of energy recovery systems during braking.
The growing influence of renewable energy in the economy raises concerns about the need for perfecting the relevant international legal regime so as to satisfy all the stakeholders concerned. This article analyzes the relevant legal position of Russia as one of the largest exporters of energy-related products, while focusing on cooperation in this area as the BRICS Energy Prospects. The research reveals a number of findings: Russian Energy Policy has so far cautiously supported the promotion of renewable energy internationally in the context of energy efficiency and energy security; nevertheless, Russia has demonstrated a very restrained approach to the development of legally binding instruments on the matter. The authors conclude that it may be viable to find a reasonable “compromise of compromises” for the evolving international legal regime of renewable energy, and if this were to be accomplished, BRICS could assume a leading international position for the creation of such a regime.
Flame shape temperature distribution, CO2, and O2 concentrations in the pulverized coal-fired boiler at Seyitömer Thermal Power Plant are numerically investigated for real operating conditions. The numerical results are compared with the measured results to validate the model. It is observed that the calculated and measured temperature differences are less than 50 K. For both numerical analysis and measurements, a decrease in O2 concentrations and an increase in CO2 concentrations in the flame zone of the furnace are observed. The flame shape was numerically analyzed for various operating conditions of the burners. It is observed that the flame does not fill the boiler, narrows along the boiler, and disturbs the homogeneity of the temperature distribution for the cases when the opposite burners 2 and 5 are switched off separately. As a result, coal burners should be shut down during operation, considering proper flame formation. This study has provided important information to the literature for more efficient and environmentally friendly coal combustion in thermal power plants.
The Covid pandemic has amplified the hardships people are experiencing from human-induced climate change and its impact on weather extremes. Those in the Majority World are most effected by such global crises, and the pandemic has exposed the vulnerabilities of these populations while highlighting the differences between them and those fortunate to live in the Minority World. This book presents an overview of the impact of the climate emergency punctuated by a pandemic, discussing the expanding inequalities and deteriorating spaces for democratic public engagement. Pandemic responses demonstrate how future technological, engineering, political, social, and behavioural strategies could be constructed in response to other crises. Using a critical analysis of these responses, this book proposes sociotechnical alternatives and just approaches to adapt to cascading crises in the Majority World. It will be valuable for social science students and researchers, policymakers, and anyone interested in inequality and vulnerability in developing countries.
New Zealand's goal to be carbon neutral by 2050 has led to the development of strategic policies and schemes to encourage the use of electric vehicles (EVs). However, most studies are focused on the greenhouse gas emissions of EVs while limited studies are available on their other potential environmental impacts. Using life cycle assessment (LCA), the environmental impacts of EV adoption, specifically the battery electric vehicle (BEV), were assessed to determine the future environmental challenges for New Zealand. Due to 87.1 % share of renewable sources of electricity generation in New Zealand in 2022, EV adoption has demonstrated its strong potential to reduce the CO2 emission of the transport sector. Results showed that lithium-ion battery (LIB), including production and disposal, is the major contributor to the environmental impacts of BEV adoption. The direct environmental impacts of BEV in New Zealand range from 0.34 % to 42.5 %. The results are sensitive to the assumptions of the driving range and number of LIB replacements where they could increase up to 34.5 % per km and up to 48.9 % per replacement of LIB on environmental impacts, respectively. Scenario analysis also showed that when the renewable energy share in electricity production is 100 %, the environmental impacts of the BEV life cycle could be reduced by up to 14.5 % while it could decrease by up to 69.6 % in New Zealand. Additionally, reusing the spent LIB for other purposes would have the least environmental impacts on disposal among the options considered in the study. Therefore, New Zealand would benefit the most from BEV adoption by generating 100 % electricity from renewable sources, and developing policies and schemes to repurpose LIB at its end of life.
The demand for lithium-ion batteries has significantly increased due to the increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs). However, these batteries have a limited lifespan, which needs to be improved for the long-term use needs of EVs expected to be in service for 20 years or more. In addition, the capacity of lithium-ion batteries is often insufficient for long-range travel, posing challenges for EV drivers. One approach that has gained attention is using core-shell structured cathode and anode materials. That approach can provide several benefits, such as extending the battery lifespan and improving capacity performance. This paper reviews various challenges and solutions by the core-shell strategy adopted for both cathodes and anodes. The highlight is scalable synthesis techniques, including solid phase reactions like the mechanofusion process, ball-milling, and spray-drying process, which are essential for pilot plant production. Due to continuous operation with a high production rate, compatibility with inexpensive precursors, energy and cost savings, and an environmentally friendly approach that can be carried out at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperatures. Future developments in this field may focus on optimizing core-shell materials and synthesis techniques for improved Li-ion battery performance and stability.
The recently increasing development of electric vehicles (EVs) is the world's attention to reducing greenhouse gas emissions as mandated in the Paris Agreement of 2015. The development of EVs in parallel is also aimed at reducing fossil fuel consumption. Countries in Europe, America, China, and South Korea showed leadership in developing the number and market share of EVs. On the other hand, ASEAN countries, including Indonesia, are still in their early stages, and the market share of EVs is still under 1%, although various policies have been launched. Answering this gap, the purpose of this study is to conduct a literature review related to the factors affecting EV adoption and an understanding of the role and relation of each actor or subsystem in the EV ecosystem. Furthermore, based on the literature review results, a conceptual model of the relationship between actors in the EV ecosystem is constructed based on variable EV adoption factors. In the following study, this conceptual model can be further improved regarding the interdependence of actors within the EV ecosystem in the system thinking framework to select effective EV production and adoption policy under a dynamic EV ecosystem.
E-waste generated from end-of-life spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is increasing at a rapid rate owing to the increasing consumption of these batteries in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage worldwide. On the one hand, landfilling and incinerating LIBs e-waste poses environmental and safety concerns owing to their constituent materials. On the other hand, scarcity of metal resources used in manufacturing LIBs and potential value creation through the recovery of these metal resources from spent LIBs has triggered increased interest in recycling spent LIBs from e-waste. State of the art recycling of spent LIBs involving pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy processes generates considerable unwanted environmental concerns. Hence, alternative innovative approaches toward the green recycling process of spent LIBs are essential to tackle large volumes of spent LIBs in an environmentally friendly way. Such evolving techniques for spent LIBs recycling based on green approaches, including bioleaching, waste for waste approach, and electrodeposition, are discussed here. Furthermore, the ways to regenerate strategic metals post leaching, efficiently reprocess extracted high-value materials, and reuse them in applications including electrode materials for new LIBs. The concept of "circular economy" is highlighted through closed-loop recycling of spent LIBs achieved through green-sustainable approaches.
In their efforts to implement a circular economy (CE) for lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in electric vehicles, automotive manufacturers need to take into account the perspective of energy consumers when assessing the environmental benefits of LIB repurposing in life cycle assessment (LCA). In response to this issue, this study presents a novel LCA framework, which allows manufacturers to assess different cases of LIB repurposing in an energy system and interpret the results in a CE context. The framework firstly uses energy flow modelling to enable the assessment of combining different battery storage applications in multi-use cases. Secondly, it includes a comparison of repurposing with alternative circular business models options for LIB. The framework is applied to an automotive manufacturer, seeking to assess a real-world project of LIB repurposing in different combinations of behind-the-meter applications at an industrial production site in Germany. As a key outcome, results reveal that from the perspective of the energy consumer, climate change benefits in multi-use cases are 10–22% lower than in single applications. Furthermore, from the perspective of the automotive manufacturer, repurposing is identified as the most beneficial option of circular business models available for LIB, taking into account additional recycling benefits resulting from the delay of end-of-life. Based on these findings, the study contributes to the application of LCA for decision-making in a CE and highlights pitfalls and potentials for a sustainable implementation of LIB repurposing in the future.
Economically viable electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling is increasingly needed; however routes to profitability are still unclear. We present a comprehensive, holistic techno-economic model as a framework to directly compare recycling locations and processes, providing a key tool for recycling cost optimization in an international battery recycling economy. We show that recycling can be economically viable, with cost/profit ranging from (−21.43 - +21.91) $·kWh⁻¹ but strongly depends on transport distances, wages, pack design and recycling method. Comparing commercial battery packs, the Tesla Model S emerges as the most profitable, having low disassembly costs and high revenues for its cobalt. In-country recycling is suggested, to lower emissions and transportation costs and secure the materials supply chain. Our model thus enables identification of strategies for recycling profitability.
The use of electric vehicles is for reducing carbon emissions, thereby reducing environmental pollution caused by transportation. However, the large-scale production and application of electric vehicle batteries have brought another notable issue, i.e., the production and application of these batteries also cause environmental pollution. Particularly, the precious metal materials used in the batteries are harmful to human health and the surrounding ecological system. Nowadays, many types of batteries are available. It is essential to understand which of them is most suitable for electric vehicles from the perspective of environmental protection. To answer this question, the life cycle environmental impact assessment of LiFePO 4 battery and Li(NiCoMn)O2 battery, which are being popularly used in pure electric passenger vehicles, are conducted in this paper. The research has shown that the two types of batteries show different environmental impact features in different phases. For example, LiFePO 4 batteries are more environmentally friendly in the phase of production, while Li(NiCoMn)O2 batteries are more eco-friendly in the application and transportation phases. Despite this, LiFePO 4 batteries are generally more environmentally friendly than Li(NiCoMn)O2 batteries from the perspective of the entire life cycle. In addition, the research results also suggest that due to the heavier mass, LiFePO 4 batteries can probably gain more benefit when used for energy storage.
A life cycle assessment is presented for a current vehicle’s greenhouse gas impact when using a combination of electrification and renewable fuels. Three degrees of electrification are considered: a hybrid electric vehicle, a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, and a battery-electric vehicle. These are combined with fuels with various degrees of renewable content, representing a fossil fuel, a first-generation biofuel and a second-generation biofuel. For charging, the 2020 European electricity mix is used and compared with an electricity mix of low greenhouse-gas intensity. Renewable fuels are found to have a greater potential to reduce the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions than a low carbon electricity mix. The results are discussed in terms of the supply potential for renewable fuels on the fleet level. It is found that plug-in hybrid vehicles may enable the automotive sector to reach more ambitious climate goals than battery-electric vehicles. An assessment is also made of how the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions compare with the emissions as measured by current policy instruments. The discrepancies indicate that current climate policy instruments are inadequate for minimizing the automotive sector’s climate impact and suggestions for improvements are made.
Electric vehicle (EV) are the future of the automobile industry in terms of reducing the greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution and the better life comfort level all over the world. This paper compares the results obtained by various authors in terms of life cycle assessment (LCA) of EV and conventional vehicles powered by fossil fuels, and the life cycle cost (LCC) analysis of the both types of vehicles, as every new technology comes with an additional cost which need to be feasible with respect to the present trends. And also discuss some of the software used for both type of LCA and LCC analysis. The finding of review concludes that with the adoption of EV there is a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) but there is an increase in the human toxicity level due to the larger use of metals, chemicals and energy for the production of powertrain, and high voltage batteries. And in terms of cost it has flexible pricing as there is uncertainty in pricing of future gasoline and electricity mix, higher initial cost at the time of purchasing due to higher pricing of battery.
This paper presents the results of an environmental assessment of a Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) Lithium-ion traction battery for Battery Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles (BEV-LDCV) used for urban and regional freight haulage. A cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of NMC111 is provided, operation and end-of-life stages are included, and insight is also given into a Life Cycle Assessment of different NMC chemistries. The environmental impacts of the manufacturing stages of the NMC111 battery are then compared with those of a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride (ZEBRA) battery. In the second part of the work, two electric-battery LDCVs (powered with NMC111 and ZEBRA batteries, respectively) and a diesel urban LDCV are analysed, considering a wide set of environmental impact categories. The results show that the NMC111 battery has the highest impacts from production in most of the impact categories. Active cathode material, Aluminium, Copper, and energy use for battery production are the main contributors to the environmental impact. However, when vehicle application is investigated, NMC111-BEV shows lower environmental impacts, in all the impact categories, than ZEBRA-BEV. This is mainly due to the greater efficiency of the NMC111 battery during vehicle operation. Finally, when comparing BEVs to a diesel LDCV, the electric powertrains show advantages over the diesel one as far as global warming, abiotic depletion potential-fossil fuels, photochemical oxidation, and ozone layer depletion are concerned. However, the diesel LDCV performs better in almost all the other investigated impact categories.
We compiled 50 publications from the years 2005–2020 about life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li-ion batteries to assess the environmental effects of production, use, and end of life for application in electric vehicles. Investigated LCAs showed for the production of a battery pack per kWh battery capacity a median of 280 kWh/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 200–500 kWh/kWh_bc) for the primary energy consumption and a median of 120 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 70–175 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc) for greenhouse gas emissions. We expect results for current batteries to be in the lower range. Over the lifetime of an electric vehicle, these emissions relate to 20 g CO2-eq/km (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 10–50 g CO2-eq/km). Considering recycling processes, greenhouse gas savings outweigh the negative environmental impacts of recycling and can reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions by a median value of 20 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 5–29 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc). Overall, many LCA results overestimated the environmental impact of cell manufacturing, due to the assessments of relatively small or underutilized production facilities. Material emissions, like from mining and especially processing from metals and the cathode paste, could have been underestimated, due to process-based assumptions and non-regionalized primary data. Second-life applications were often not considered.
This study is a critical review of the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to lithium ion batteries in the automotive sector. The aim of this study is to identify the crucial points of the analysis and the results achieved until now in this field. In the first part of the study, a selection of papers is reviewed. In the second part of the study, a methodological approach to LCA is adopted to make clear the strengths and weaknesses of this analysis method. The lack of primary data is a crucial concern. Even if the cradle-to-grave approach is the most chosen system boundary, further scientific contribution to the life cycle inventory phase is necessary. It is likely that the more the electric vehicle becomes widespread, the more data will be accessible. Many authors have not specified the chemistry of the used batteries (5% of the studies), the software tool used (30%) or the functional unit used (17%) and, consequently, their obtained results can be questionable. However, even with the aforementioned limitations, the performed review allows us to point out the potential of electric vehicles and lithium ion batteries to reduce the overall contribution of the transportation sector to GHG emissions.
Changes in the mobility patterns have evoked concerns about the future availability of certain raw materials necessary to produce alternative drivetrains and related batteries. The goal of this article is to determine if resource use aspects are adequately reflected within life cycle assessment (LCA) case studies of electric vehicles (EV). Overall, 103 LCA studies on electric vehicles from 2009 to 2018 are evaluated regarding their objective, scope, considered impact categories, and assessment methods—with a focus on resource depletion and criticality. The performed analysis shows that only 24 out of 76 EV LCA and 10 out of 27 battery LCA address the issue of resources. The majority of the studies apply one of these methods: CML-IA, ReCiPe, or Eco-Indicator 99. In most studies, EV show higher results for mineral and metal resource depletion than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The batteries analysis shows that lithium, manganese, copper, and nickel are responsible for the highest burdens. Only few publications approach resource criticality. Although this topic is a serious concern for future mobility, it is currently not comprehensively and consistently considered within LCA studies of electric vehicles. Criticality should be included in the analyses in order to derive results on the potential risks associated with certain resources.
Direct recycling of lithium-ion is a promising method for manufacturing sustainability. It is more efficient than classical methods because it recovers the functional cathode particle without decomposition into substituent elements or dissolution and precipitation of the whole particle. This case study of cathode-healing™ applied to a battery recall demonstrates an industrial model for recycling of lithium-ion, be it consumer electronic or electric vehicle (EV) batteries. The comprehensive process includes extraction of electrolyte with carbon dioxide, industrial shredding, electrode harvesting, froth flotation, cathode-healing™ and finally, building new cells with recycled cathode and anode. The final products demonstrated useful capability in the first full cells made from direct recycled cathodes and anodes from an industrial source. The lessons learned on recycling the prototypical chemistry are preliminarily applied to EV relevant chemistries.
Electric vehicles based on lithium-ion batteries (LIB) have seen rapid growth over the past decade as they are viewed as a cleaner alternative to conventional fossil-fuel burning vehicles, especially for local pollutant (nitrogen oxides [NOx], sulfur oxides [SOx], and particulate matter with diameters less than 2.5 and 10 μm [PM2.5 and PM10]) and CO2 emissions. However, LIBs are known to have their own energy and environmental challenges. This study focuses on LIBs made of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), since they currently dominate the United States (US) and global automotive markets and will continue to do so into the foreseeable future. The effects of globalized production of NMC, especially LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111), are examined, considering the potential regional variability at several important stages of production. This study explores regional effects of alumina reduction and nickel refining, along with the production of NMC cathode, battery cells, and battery management systems. Of primary concern is how production of these battery materials and components in different parts of the world may impact the battery’s life cycle pollutant emissions and total energy and water consumption. Since energy sources for heat and electricity generation are subject to great regional variation, we anticipated significant variability in the energy and emissions associated with LIB production. We configured Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET®) model as the basis for this study with key input data from several world regions. In particular, the study examined LIB production in the US, China, Japan, South Korea, and Europe, with details of supply chains and the electrical grid in these regions. Results indicate that 27-kWh automotive NMC111 LIBs produced via a European-dominant supply chain generate 65 kg CO2e/kWh, while those produced via a Chinese-dominant supply chain generate 100 kg CO2e/kWh. Further, there are significant regional differences for local pollutants associated with LIB, especially SOx emissions related to nickel production. We find that no single regional supply chain outperforms all others in every evaluation metric, but the data indicate that supply chains powered by renewable electricity provide the greatest emission reduction potential.
In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.
Silicon nanowires (SiNWs) and silicon nanotubes (SiNTs), with high specific capacity and low volume expansion during charging and discharging processes, have been recognized among the most promising anode materials for use in next-generation lithium ion batteries (LIBs). However, the life cycle impacts of SiNW-and SiNT-based LIBs are of grave concern due to the heavy use of toxic chemicals and potential nanoparticle emissions during their manufacturing processes. In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) method is adopted to evaluate the environmental impacts of two battery packs, which are configured with the same capacity of 63.5 kWh to power a mid-size electric vehicle (EV). Both battery packs are based on a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2, NMC) cathode, but one uses a SiNW anode, whereas the other uses a SiNT anode (NMC-SiNW and NMC-SiNT). Following a cradle-to-gate approach, the analysis is conducted based on LCA databases and literature. Results indicate that to obtain the same capacity, the NMC-SiNW LIB battery is with higher material consumptions and environmental impacts than the NMC-SiNT LIB battery. This study provides insights into life cycle impacts of SiNW-and SiNT-based LIBs and can be useful for understanding and improving the environmental performance of nanostructured Si-based LIBs for next-generation EV applications.
This paper presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) study that examines a number of scenarios that complement the primary use phase of electric vehicle (EV) batteries with a secondary application in smart buildings in Spain, as a means of extending their useful life under less demanding conditions, when they no longer meet the requirements for automotive purposes. Specifically, it considers a lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery to analyze four second life application scenarios by combining the following cases: (i) either reuse of the EV battery or manufacturing of a new battery as energy storage unit in the building; and (ii) either use of the Spanish electricity mix or energy supply by solar photovoltaic (PV) panels. Based on the Eco-indicator 99 and IPCC 2007 GWP 20a methods, the evaluation of the scenario results shows that there is significant environmental benefit from reusing the existing EV battery in the secondary application instead of manufacturing a new battery to be used for the same purpose and time frame. Moreover, the findings of this work exemplify the dependence of the results on the energy source in the smart building application, and thus highlight the importance of PVs on the reduction of the environmental impact.
As the consumption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for the transportation and consumer electronic sectors continues to grow, so does the pile of battery waste, with no successful recycling model, as exists for the lead–acid battery. Here, we exhibit a method to recycle LIBs using deep eutectic solvents to extract valuable metals from various chemistries, including lithium cobalt (iii) oxide and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide. For the metal extraction from lithium cobalt (iii) oxide, leaching efficiencies of ≥90% were obtained for both cobalt and lithium. It was also found that other battery components, such as aluminium foil and polyvinylidene fluoride binder, can be recovered separately. Deep eutectic solvents could provide a green alternative to conventional methods of LIB recycling and reclaiming strategically important metals, which remain crucial to meet the demand of the exponentially increasing LIB production.
Finding scalable lithium-ion battery recycling processes is important as gigawatt hours of batteries are deployed in electric vehicles. Governing bodies have taken notice and have begun to enact recycling targets. While several battery recycling processes exist, the greenhouse gas emissions impacts and economic prospects of these processes differ, and could vary by specific battery chemistry. Here we use an attributional life-cycle analysis, and process-based cost models, to examine the greenhouse gas emissions, energy inputs and costs associated with producing and recycling lithium-ion cells with three common cathode chemistries: lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC-622), lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide and lithium iron phosphate. We compare three recycling processes: pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling processes, which reduce cells to elemental products, and direct cathode recycling, which recovers and reconditions ceramic powder cathode material for use in subsequent batteries—retaining a substantial fraction of the energy embodied in the material from their primal manufacturing process. While pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes do not significantly reduce life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions, direct cathode recycling has the potential to reduce emissions and be economically competitive. Recycling policies should incentivize battery collection and emissions reductions through energetically efficient recycling processes. © 2019, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.
Traction batteries are a key factor in the environmental sustainability of electric mobility and, therefore, it is necessary to evaluate their environmental performance to allow a comprehensive sustainability assessment of electric mobility. This article presents an environmental assessment of a lithium-ion traction battery for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, characterized by a composite cathode material of lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide Li(NixCoyMn1-x-y)O2. Composite cathode material is an emerging technology that promises to combine the merits of several active materials into a hybrid electrode to optimize performance and reduce costs. In this study, the environmental assessment of one battery pack (with a nominal capacity of 11.4 kWh able to be used for about 140,000 km of driving) is carried out by using the Life Cycle Assessment methodology consistent with ISO 14040. The system boundaries are the battery production, the operation phase and recycling at the end of life, including the recovery of various material fractions. The composite cathode technology examined besides a good compromise between the higher and the lower performance of NMC and LMO cathodes, can present good environmental performances.
The results of the analysis show that the manufacturing phase is relevant to all assessed impact categories (contribution higher than 60%). With regard to electricity losses due to battery efficiency and battery transport, the contribution to the use phase impact of battery efficiency is larger than that of battery transport. Recycling the battery pack contributes less than 11% to all of the assessed impact categories, with the exception of freshwater ecotoxicity (60% of the life cycle impact). The environmental credits related to the recovery of valuable materials (e.g. cobalt and nickel sulphates) and other metal fractions (e.g. aluminium and steel) are particularly relevant to impact categories such as marine eutrophication, human toxicity and abiotic resource depletion.
The main innovations of this article are that (1) it presents the first bill of materials of a lithium-ion battery cell for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with a composite cathode active material; (2) it describes one of the first applications of the life cycle assessment to a lithium-ion battery pack for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with a composite cathode active material with the aim of identifying the “hot spots” of this technology and providing useful information to battery manufacturers on potentially improving its environmental sustainability; (3) it evaluates the impacts associated with the use phase based on primary data about the battery pack's lifetime, in terms of kilometres driven; and (4) it models the end-of-life phase of the battery components through processes specifically created for or adapted to the case study.
Transportation represents one of the major contributors to several environmental burdens such as Green-House-Gas (GHG) emissions and resource depletion. Considering the European Union, light duty vehicles are responsible for roughly 10% of total energy use and air emissions. As a consequence, the need for higher fuel/energy efficiency in both conventional and electric cars has become urgent and the efforts across industrial and research players have proposed a range of innovative solutions with great potential.
This study presents a comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and electric vehicles. The analysis follows a “from cradle-to-grave” approach and it captures the whole Life-Cycle (LC) of the car subdivided into production, use and End-of-Life stages. The inventory is mainly based on primary data and the assessment takes into account a wide range of impact categories to both human and eco-system health. The eco-profile of the different vehicle configurations is assessed and the main environmental hotspots affecting conventional and electric cars are identified and critically discussed. The dependence of impacts on LC mileage is investigated for both propulsion technologies and the break-even point for the effective environmental convenience of electric car is determined considering several use phase electricity sources. The analysis is completed with a comparison of GHG emissions with the results of previous LCA studies.
Different powertrains passenger cars, homologate in compliance with Euro 6 standard, were compared in a life cycle perspective for assessing both environmental and human health impacts. For this latter aspect, some correlation between the emission of heavy metals, elemental carbon, organic carbon, the oxidative potential of particulate matter and the adverse effect on human health were also analyzed and discussed. Battery electric vehicle (BEV) showed the lower greenhouse gases emissions, from 0.1 kgCO2eq/km to 0.2 kgCO2eq/km but were charged by the higher emissions of freshwater eutrophication and freshwater ecotoxicity, about 6 × 10⁻⁶ kgPeq/km and 4 CTUe/km, respectively. Lower resource depletion was detected for cars powered by internal combustion and hybrid powertrains. Amount of particulate matter (PM) emitted resulted lower for petrol-hybrid electric vehicles (Petrol-HEV), of about 5 × 10⁻⁵ kgPM2.5eq/km. BEV were charged by the higher values of human toxicity cancer, from about 2 × 10⁻⁵ CTUh/km to about 5 × 10⁻⁵ CTUh/km whereas Petrol-HEV were credited by the lower impact on human health (DALY/km). The large contribution to PM emission from all the analyzed cars was from tyre and brake wear. Main PM components were elemental (ElC) and organic carbon (OC) compounds. ElC is also a specific marker of PM emitted from traffic. Both ElC and OC were characterized by a strong correlation with the oxidative potential of PM, indicating a threat for human respiratory tract only marginally decreased by the transition from conventional to electric poweretrains vehicles.
The transportation and electricity sectors are in the midst of leading changes in the endeavor to mitigate climate change and air pollution issues. In future years, traditional fossil-fuelled vehicles are estimated to be substituted with electric vehicles (EVs), resulting in higher electricity demand from the transport sector. Meanwhile, the electricity sector is transforming due to policies to adopt renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, and hydropower in the future. However, there are still societal concerns regarding the environmental benefits of these vehicle technologies and how new energy options and vehicles benefit the 2050 HK Carbon Neutral Plan. To address these concerns, this paper aims to analyse the environmental burdens of current (2019) and future (2050) vehicle scenarios in Hong Kong using a life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA was performed for internal combustion vehicles (ICEVs) fuelled by diesel and petrol and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) and EVs with future electricity energy mix scenarios (2025–2050). The results revealed that EVs with the 2050 HK electricity mix are an optimal choice and have the least environmental impact in selected impact categories. Additionally, PHEV with diesel were the second most optimal choice to reduce the environmental impacts in current scenarios. In contrast, the petrol ICEV has the utmost environmental impacts in all damage category results. The study shows that clean energy could decrease the environmental impact and mitigate climate change in Hong Kong.
As the World's dependence on lithium battery technology continues its rapid growth, reserves of key manufacturing minerals are not forecast to keep pace with demand. Repurposed electric vehicle batteries offer a viable means to reduce the number of retired lithium-ion batteries proceeding directly to landfill and prolong their useful life while end of life solutions, including recycling, are developed and matured. This paper presents a novel physical allocation method based on the critical performance criteria: remaining capacity, module retention rate and repurposed electric vehicle battery lifetime (second life). To verify the allocation method, a case study directly compares the emissions generated by a repurposed electric vehicle battery and a virgin stationary storage battery of equivalent capacity in Australia. The repurposed battery has a smaller footprint across all eight environmental impact categories, provided it operates for a minimum of six years. A sensitivity analysis shows battery repurposing can achieve carbon reductions if the repurposed electric vehicle battery lifetime exceeds 4.25 years. The breakeven points for remaining capacity and module retention rate at the beginning of the second life occur at 66% and 75% respectively. In addition, a comprehensive repurposing life cycle inventory was developed for the repurposing phase which includes all added components and processes required to repurpose an electric vehicle battery to function as a stationary storage battery. Further analysis discusses the influence of increased production efficiencies over time when comparing product systems, and the need to account for these changes in allocation methodology.
Intense and large-scale applications of lithium-ion batteries have brought significant convenience to our daily life; however, when these batteries enter recycling, they cause major challenges such as environmental pollution and wastage of resources. For the sustainable point of view, it is preferable to establish a full-cycle value chain from designing and manufacturing of electrodes to recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries. It is important to perform materials and product design as the first and most important step in the cycling process, particularly for the cathode materials. This critical review focuses on the issues in element recycling of the spent cathode materials, and discusses the criteria for cathode materials design that can simplify the recycling process and avoid a build-up of hazardous materials. Using Li transition metal oxides (LiCoO2, LiNi1-x-yCoxMnyO2, x+y < 1) as an example, it is shown that the crystal structure, morphology, and microstructure also play vital roles in enhancing the electrochemical performance of the cathode materials. Compared to complicated composition in the cathode materials, the structure-regulated design has a unique potential to build a circular economy model featuring the lowest energy consumption and the least environmental disruption. It not only highlights the green and sustainable aspects of the recovery of metal resources, but also prospects them with recycling-oriented materials design. The circular economy can be built with both high efficiency and stable battery performance.
The rapid urbanization witnessed in the last few decades has contributed to the increasing demand for vehicles worldwide. An overwhelming majority of these vehicles run on fossil fuels, leading to environmental degradation. Emissions from the transport sector are a major contributor to local as well as global air pollution and deterioration in air quality. Countries such as the United States of America, China, India, Indonesia, etc., having the largest number of registered vehicles, are also responsible for a higher proportion of vehicular emissions. As new technologies emerge, electric vehicles (EV) are being envisioned as a replacement to the conventional internal combustion engine (ICEV) vehicle fleet, thus directly reducing tailpipe emissions. However, their indirect emissions are dependent on the energy grid of that particular nation. This study aims to assess the viability of implementing electric vehicles in the nations with high vehicle population. The top ten countries with the highest number of vehicles were identified, along with their power grid characteristics. A detailed review of emission factors of various power generation sources was carried out considering exergy analysis. Furthermore, battery degradation models were used to estimate the lifetime emissions from the battery of electric vehicles. The viability index calculations include well to wheel (WTW) emissions for power generation sources, in case of EVs, and for conventional vehicle fuels. The study concludes that EV implementation has varying effect on nations’ air pollution, which depends upon their share of renewable sources in power generation. Implementation of EVs is found to be sustainably viable for France and Brazil, marginally viable for nations including China and India, while it is found to be not viable for Indonesia.
This work demonstrates an experimental methodology for reusing anode material from end of life commercial lithium ion batteries (LiB) in order to create new LiB anodes. End-of-life LiB cells were safely opened and assessed as a source of anode material. Anode material extracted from LiB cells through a basic mechanical separation was cycled stably with minimal processing. The LiB cells produced with recovered anode material showed equivalent cycling capacity and lower first cycle capacity loss than similarly produced virgin graphite anodes, regardless of recycled material source or morphology, as shown by SEM imaging. The effects of some graphite pre-lithiation were seen, mainly in a lowered initial voltage of the cells before the first cycle. A methodology for scaling-up this laboratory process for industrial recycling is discussed.
As attractive energy storage technologies, Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely integrated in renewable resources and electric vehicles (EVs) due to their advantages such as high energy/power densities, high reliability and long service time. Although EVs basically do not produce pollution, the end-of-life (EOL) issues of LIBs cannot be ignored due to their potential economic benefits and environmental risks. Current methods for the retired batteries mainly include disposal, recycling and reuse. EV LIBs can be reused in a variety of applications with less demanding. Compared with recycling and disposal, reuse process can obtain better economic and environmental benefits. Many second life EV LIBs projects have been undertaken and demonstrated the great potential of reuse. However, the reuse should consider economic, environmental, technical, and various market perspectives. Technical challenges that must be faced include safety issues, assessment methods, screening and restructuring technologies, and comprehensive management during the reuse process. Economic feasibility issues, comprehensive supply chains, and the lack of relevant regulations also hinder large-scale development of reuse. It is foreseeable that improvements including standardization, big data and cloud-based technologies are desperately needed to maximize the industrialization of reuse and recycling.
The emergence and dominance of lithium-ion batteries in expanding markets such as consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage are driving enormous interests and investments in the battery sector. The explosively growing demand is generating a huge number of spent lithium-ion batteries, thereby urging the development of cost-effective and environmentally sustainable recycling technologies to manage end-of-life batteries. Currently, the recycling of end-of-life batteries is still in its infancy, with many fundamental and technological hurdles to overcome. Here, the authors provide an overview of the current state of battery recycling by outlining and evaluating the incentives, key issues, and recycling strategies. The authors highlight a direct recycling strategy through discussion of its benefits, processes, and challenges. Perspectives on the future energy and environmental science of this important field is also discussed with respect to a new concept introduced as the Battery Identity Global Passport (BIGP).
China has become the largest electric vehicle (EV) market in the world since 2015. Consequently, the lithium-ion battery (LiB) market in China is also expanding fast. LiB makers are continually introducing new types of LiBs into the market to improve LiBs’ performance. However, there will be a considerable amount of waste LiBs generated in China. These waste LiBs should be appropriately recycled to avoid resources’ waste or environmental pollution problems. Yet, because LiBs’ type keeps changing, the environmental impact and profitability of the waste LiB recycling industry in China become uncertain. In this research, we reveal the detailed life cycle process of EVs’ LiBs in China first. Then, the environmental impact of each type of LiB is speculated using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. Moreover, we clarify how LiBs’ evolution will affect the economic effect of the waste battery recycling industry in China. We perform a sensitivity analysis focusing on waste LiBs’ collection rate. We found that along with LiBs’ evolution, their environmental impact is decreasing. Furthermore, if waste LiBs could be appropriately recycled, their life cycle environmental impact would be further dramatically decreased. On the other hand, the profitability of the waste battery recycling industry in China would decrease in the future. Moreover, it is essential to improve waste LiBs’ collection rate to establish an efficient waste LiB industry. Such a trend should be noticed by the Chinese government and waste LiB recycling operators to establish a sustainable waste LiB recycling industry in the future.
The secondary use of recycled lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from electric vehicles (EVs) can reduce costs and improve energy utilization rate. In this paper, the recycled LIBs are reused to construct a 3MW*3h battery energy storage system (BESS) for power load peak shaving (PLPS). Taking the BESS as an example, a cost-benefit model is established after the systematical analysis of compositions. The cost model is divided into eight components in detail, which can be grouped into three categories: initial investment costs, operation and maintenance costs (O&M costs) and batteries replacement costs. The benefit model comprises seven parts, such as environmental benefit, battery dismantling and recovery benefit and residual value. In the case study, the life model is established by exponential function through the character analysis of the recycled LIBs. The economic analysis of the BESS is carried out in three techno-economic statuses of optimism, business, and research, which is based on two interest-subjects of grid company and non-grid company. Furthermore, both battery purchasing cost (BPC) and government subsidy are performed to sensitivity analysis. The results show that the BESS with recycled LIBs for PLPS, especially those invested by grid company, have a good application prospect in China.
Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has drawn considerable attention in recent years, as an economic solution to the resource shortage. Selective ammonia leaching is recognized as an economical and environment-friendly method, yet it is difficult to separate and reuse the valuable metals from the leachate. In this study, we proposed an NH3–(NH4)2CO3-Na2SO3 leaching system to selectively recover the valuable metals from commercial LiNixCoyMn1−x−yO2 (NCM) and spent NCM. For single-stage leaching, 79.1% of the lithium, 86.4% of the cobalt, and 85.3% of the nickel were selectively leached under optimal conditions, and a mere 1.45% of the manganese was dissolved in the solution. The leaching process in the NH3–(NH4)2CO3-Na2SO3 system was consistent with the surface chemical reaction control model. For multistage leaching, almost all metals (98.4% of the lithium, 99.4% of the cobalt, 97.3% of the nickel) could be leached and a high-purity (>99%) MnCO3 product was simultaneously obtained. The introduction of CO3²⁻ not only led to the production of MnCO3 with wide application prospects, but also greatly reduced the consumption of the reducing agent. This study is thus beneficial for recycling of the valuable metals and synthesis of the MnCO3 product from the spent LIBs.
This study evaluated and quantified the life cycle environmental impacts of lithium-ion power batteries (LIBs) for passenger electric vehicles to identify key stages that contribute to the overall environmental burden and to find ways to reduce this burden effectively. Primary data for the assessment were collected onsite from the one Chinese leading LIB supplier, two leading cathode material producers and two battery recycling corporations from 2017 to 2019. Six environmental impact categories, including primary energy demand (PED), global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), photochemical oxidant creation potential (POCP), eutrophication potential (EP) and human toxicity potential (HTP), were considered in accordance with the ISO 14040/14044 standards.
The results indicate that material preparation stage is the largest contributor to the LIB’s life cycle PED, GWP, AP, POCP, EP and HTP, with the cathode active material, wrought aluminum and electrolytes as the predominant contributors. In the production stage, vacuum drying and coating and drying are the two main processes for all the six impact categories. In the end-of-life stage, waste LIBs recycling could largely reduce the life cycle POCP and HTP.
Sensitivity analysis results depict that optimizing the mass of cathode active material and wrought aluminum could effectively reduce the environmental impacts of the LIB, but the recycling benefits could vary with impact categories and with life cycle stages. We hope this study is helpful to reduce the uncertainties associated with the life cycle assessment of LIBs in existing literatures and to identify opportunities to improve the environmental performance of LIBs within the whole life cycle.
The penetration rate of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is continuously growing in China. Since EV is considered as an environment-friendly vehicle with lower cost of operation, many studies have paid attention to the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission evaluation on EVs. This study aims to expand the scope and provide comprehensive results for LCC and GHG emission comparison between ICEV and EV under different driving cycles, which refer to the driving patterns and parameters such as velocity and acceleration changed by years. The charging infrastructure and battery pilot use have also been involved in the evaluation. Results show that the LCC of an EV is about 9% higher than that of an ICEV under the driving cycle in Beijing in 2020. At the same time, the life cycle GHG emissions of an EV are about 29% lower than those of an ICEV. If the lifetime mileage is not as long as expected, the gap of LCC would be larger and the gap of GHG emissions would be smaller. Recycling is very effective in reducing the GHG emissions but does not work for LCC reduction. Battery pilot use has large potentials on LCC reduction but it still needs time to realize. In this scenario without battery pilot use, the cost effectiveness of an EV is about 4 kg CO2eq/$.