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A review of the life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: Considering the influence of batteries
Abstract
The automotive industry is currently on the verge of electrical transition, and the environmental performance of electric vehicles (EVs) is of great concern. To assess the environmental performance of EVs scientifically and accurately, we reviewed the life cycle environmental impacts of EVs and compared them with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Considering that the battery is the core component of EVs, we further summarise the environmental impacts of battery production, use, secondary utilisation, recycling, and remanufacturing. The results showed that the environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is higher than that of ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. EVs in the use phase obtained a better overall image than ICEVs, although this largely depended on the share of clean energy generation. In the recycling phase, repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries are helpful in improving the environmental benefits of EVs. Over the entire life cycle, EVs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption; however, they have higher impacts than ICEVs in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential. In summary, optimising the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving the recycling efficiency are of great significance for the large-scale promotion of EVs, closed-loop production of batteries, and sustainable development of the resources, environment, and economy.
... Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are emission-free in the vehicle operation phase, offering a pathway to decarbonise the urban bus transport [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] . However, the lifecycle environmental impacts of these vehicles are intrinsically linked to many other factors such as feedstock production, energy sources for electricity generation, fuel production efficiency, battery manufacturing, fuel cell (FC) stack performance, battery technology, and operational energy efficiency [7][8][9]11,13,17,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25] . ...
... Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are emission-free in the vehicle operation phase, offering a pathway to decarbonise the urban bus transport [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] . However, the lifecycle environmental impacts of these vehicles are intrinsically linked to many other factors such as feedstock production, energy sources for electricity generation, fuel production efficiency, battery manufacturing, fuel cell (FC) stack performance, battery technology, and operational energy efficiency [7][8][9]11,13,17,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25] . An extensive life-cycle analysis (LCA) is imperative for a comprehensive understanding of FCVs' and BEVs' decarbonisation potential. ...
... It is observed that 38-44% of the energy is consumed by the AC system during bus operation. In most LCA models and literature, the energy consumed by heating or cooling has not been considered 11,31 . However, considering the extremely hot weather conditions in Makkah, with an average annual temperature of 39°C, the AC system needs to operate continuously while the bus is in operation. ...
With heavy reliance on fossil fuels, countries like Saudi Arabia face challenges in reducing carbon emissions from urban bus transportation. Herein, we address the gaps in evaluating proton-exchange membrane fuel cell buses and develop a globally relevant life-cycle assessment model using Saudi Arabia as a case study. We consider various bus propulsion technologies, including fuel cell buses powered by grey and blue hydrogen, battery electric buses, and diesel engines, and include the shipping phase, air conditioning load, and refuelling infrastructure. The assessment illustrates fuel cell buses using blue hydrogen can reduce emissions by 53.6% compared to diesel buses, despite a 19.5% increase in energy use from carbon capture and storage systems. Battery electric buses are affected by the energy mix and battery manufacturing, so only cut emissions by 16.9%. Sensitivity analysis shows climate benefits depend on energy sources and efficiencies of carbon capture and hydrogen production. By 2030, grey and blue hydrogen-powered fuel cell buses and battery electric buses are projected to reduce carbon emissions by 19.3%, 33.4%, and 51% respectively, compared to their 2022 levels. Fully renewable-powered battery electric buses potentially achieve up to 89.6% reduction. However, fuel cell buses consistently exhibit lower environmental burdens compared to battery electric buses.
... Nonetheless, it is acknowledged that focusing only on direct emissions during vehicle use carries the risk of burden shifting to other environmental concerns or to other life cycle stages. A pronounced example here is the concern around the traction batteries supply chain (Xia and Li, 2022), which is associated with high GHG emissions in the cells production, but also increased impacts on, e.g., toxicity and abiotic resource and water use linked to the supply of raw materials. Life cycle assessment (LCA) can play a fundamental role in assessing this potential burden shifting risk and wisely guiding the intended transition. ...
... Over the past ten years, a plethora of LCAs on EVs and batteries have been conducted. However, different implementations of critical modeling and data choices by different practitioners can lead to very diverse results even for the same product (Bouter and Guichet, 2022;Marmiroli et al., 2018;Nordelöf et al., 2014;Xia & Li, 2022), which hampers comparability and transparency and thus decision-support and communication with end-users. Consequently, there is a dire need to harmonize how LCA is applied in the EV field ensuring that all stakeholders can calculate, monitor, communicate, and support decisions departing from a common ground. ...
It is widely acknowledged that unharmonized methodological and data choices in life cycle assessments (LCAs) can limit comparability and complicate decision-making, ultimately hindering their effectiveness in guiding the rapid transition to electric mobility in Europe. The electric mobility sector aims to harmonize these assumptions and choices to improve comparability and better support decision-making. To support these efforts, this article aims to review the LCA practices across various sources in order to identify where key differences in assumptions, methodological approaches, and data selection occur in relevant LCA topics. In addition to this primary objective, we highlight certain practices that could serve as starting points for ongoing harmonization attempts, pointing out topics where it is challenging to do so. Our results showed that cradle-to-grave system boundary is the most commonly adopted in vehicle and traction battery LCAs, with maintenance and capital goods often excluded. The distance-based functional unit is dominant. Choices in Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) showed the greatest diversity and need for harmonization. Data quality and availability vary significantly by life cycle stage, with no standardized data collection approach in place. A lack of primary data is most prominent in the raw material acquisition and end of life (EoL) life cycle stages. Electricity consumption is a key topic in the EV sector, with major debates surrounding location-based versus market-based and static versus dynamic modeling. Multifunctionality problems are vaguely defined and resolved in the literature. For EoL multifunctionality, cut-off and avoided burden are prevalent, while allocation is common upstream. Impact assessments primarily follow the ReCiPe and CML-IA methods, with climate change, acidification, photochemical ozone formation, and eutrophication being the most reported impact categories. Systematic uncertainty propagation is rare in interpretations, with sensitivity analyses typically focusing on energy consumption, total mileage, and battery recycling rates. Overall, the review showed a big variation in assumptions and choices in EV LCA studies, particularly in the LCI stage. Among the discussed topics, we identified multifunctionality and electricity modeling as particularly contentious.
... This study emphasises the need for investments in disassembly infrastructure and workforce development to improve the overall efficiency of vehicle end-of-life management. In addition, Xia and Li [38] compare the environmental impacts of EVs and internal combustion engine vehicles, highlighting the significant environmental benefits of repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries. The study underscores the need for optimising power structures, upgrading battery technologies, and improving recycling efficiency to support the large-scale promotion of EVs. ...
... This process involves restoring LIBs to a condition where they can be reused in their original applications. Studies indicate that remanufacturing can be cost-effective, offering savings of about 40% compared to new battery production [38,41]. The flowchart in Fig. 4 illustrates the lifecycle and potential EOL pathways for LIBs. ...
The increasing adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and the corresponding surge in lithium-ion battery (LIB) production have intensified the focus on sustainable end-of-life (EOL) management strategies (i.e., reuse, repurpose, remanufacture, and recycle). This paper presents a systematic literature review of the entire remanufacturing process of LIBs, aiming to offer a cohesive perspective on the approach that reduces the environmental impact of LIB waste by prolonging their lifecycle for reuse in their original EV applications. It reveals major issues from EOL collection to renewed batteries, clustering results into six research streams, and proposes a research agenda to develop integrative, data-driven models that incorporate technical, economic, and environmental considerations. Key findings highlight the need for standardised, non-damaging joining techniques, enhanced safety protocols for disassembly, and scalable cathode re-functionalisation methods. Recommendations include leveraging advanced technologies such as AI, machine learning, IoT, and blockchain to optimise remanufacturing processes and enhance supply chain transparency and efficiency. This comprehensive review aims to foster the development of sustainable remanufacturing practices, contributing to the circular economy and supporting the growth of the EV industry.
... O Plano considera que a integração acelerada de tecnologias nos campos automotivos, de energia, ecologia, transporte, informação, comunicação e atualizações no consumo estão redefinindo os produtos automotivos, sendo de extrema importância dos VEs vier de usinas movidas a carvão, por exemplo, pode entrar na conta dos VEs níveis significativamente mais elevados de emissão ambiental em comparação com os veículos a gasolina (DOMINKOVIC et al., 2018;RAHMAN et al., 2021;XIA;LI, 2022). ...
... O Plano considera que a integração acelerada de tecnologias nos campos automotivos, de energia, ecologia, transporte, informação, comunicação e atualizações no consumo estão redefinindo os produtos automotivos, sendo de extrema importância dos VEs vier de usinas movidas a carvão, por exemplo, pode entrar na conta dos VEs níveis significativamente mais elevados de emissão ambiental em comparação com os veículos a gasolina (DOMINKOVIC et al., 2018;RAHMAN et al., 2021;XIA;LI, 2022). ...
Nos ultimos anos a China se tornou um importante produtor, vendedor e consumidor de veículos elétricos, superando países consolidados no setor automobilístico. Dado esse cenário, o objetivo do estudo consiste em fazer um panorama sobre a posição da China no segmento de veículos elétricos, de forma a entender sua trajetória a partir da análise das políticas de desenvolvimento do país como o “Made in China 2025” e 13º e 14º Plano Quinquenais, bem como das políticas específicas de eletrificação da indústria. No que tange aos resultados encontrados, elucida-se que a China é umdos principais vendedores e detentores dos veículos elétricos a bateria, apoiada pelo seu papel relvante na criação de um ambiente para o desenvolvimento de veículos elétricos, dado seu farto mercado consumidor bem como por sua abertura de mercado para entrada de importantes fabricantes de automóveis a partir de joint ventures, Além disso, os achados indicam que a China demonstrou metas ambiciosas para se tornar a maior potência industrial de veículos elétricos, com empresas nacionais referência não apenas no mercado interno, como em todo o mundo.
... Hazards to the natural environment can arise from the extraction of key minerals used in battery production [17]; potential environmental contamination during the manufacturing process itself can result in air and water pollution if proper control measures are not in place. Inadequate disposal or recycling methods lead to the release of harmful chemicals and heavy metals into the environment [18] at the end of the battery's life, which significantly impacts the natural environment [19]. ...
... Inadequate disposal or recycling methods lead to the release of harmful chemicals and heavy metals into the environment [18] at the end of the battery's life, which significantly impacts the natural environment [19]. This includes the extraction of raw materials, such as lithium and cobalt, which can contribute to deforestation, water pollution, and habitat destruction [17]. Furthermore, the extended implication on the environment and national economy for battery systems, including lithium-ion batteries, remains uncertain. ...
LiB's have become the preferred energy storage solution for Powering EV's due to their high energy density and long lifecycle. However, these batteries also pose certain risks, such as thermal runway fire and explosion incidents, if not properly managed, resulting in the release of flammable gases that pose fire and explosion hazards for the compartment housing the cells. The LiB's has raised concerns about their safety and management throughout the lifecycle from their encompassing manufacturing, maintenance, and disposal. In this research, develop an effective Plan to ensure the safe operation and optimal performance of LiB's in EV's throughout their lifecycle at every stage. The environmental impacts of LiB's that characterize as the key to sustainable EV deployment, which enables a resource-efficient and economically feasible recycling system for LiB's and makes planning for future recovery more challenging, as also Review and analysis of the recent LiB's incidents. The findings of this paper offer valuable insights for stakeholders involved in the production and implementation of LiB's in EV's to contribute to the ongoing efforts to enhance the safety and reliability of critical components in sustainable transportation. Ultimately, it is concluded that adequate training for users and emergency responders and establishing protocols for safe handling and disposal.
... Most of these materials have moderate or high recycling rates and once stocks are built up, they can be used as a source of secondary materials. However, primary material production will still need to increase to develop new infrastructure 34,35 . ...
... Second, electrification is an essential strategy to decarbonize mobility 36 . However, detailed life-cycle analyses show that EVs have higher impacts than conventional fossil-fuelled vehicles in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential, even as they reduce GHG emissions over the full life cycle 34 . In the EV industry, substantial supply risks originate in rapidly rising demand for battery-grade natural graphite, lithium and cobalt for batteries, and the rare earth elements (REEs) dysprosium, terbium, praseodymium and neodymium 37 . ...
This pre-print is now published here, with the final title: "Demand-side strategies key for mitigating material impacts of energy transitions" --> https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-02016-z
As societies abandon fossil fuels in favor of renewable energy, electric cars and other low-carbon technologies, environmental pressures shift from atmospheric carbon loading to adverse impacts of material extraction and waste flows, new infrastructure development, land use change, and the provision of new types of goods and services. We call for interdisciplinary modeling to investigate this major change in environmental and social burdens and identify systemic demand-led mitigation strategies that explicitly consider planetary boundaries associated with the earth’s material resources.
... Most of these materials have moderate or high recycling rates and once stocks are built up, they can be used as a source of secondary materials. However, primary material production will still need to increase to develop new infrastructure 34,35 . ...
... Second, electrification is an essential strategy to decarbonize mobility 36 . However, detailed life-cycle analyses show that EVs have higher impacts than conventional fossil-fuelled vehicles in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential, even as they reduce GHG emissions over the full life cycle 34 . In the EV industry, substantial supply risks originate in rapidly rising demand for battery-grade natural graphite, lithium and cobalt for batteries, and the rare earth elements (REEs) dysprosium, terbium, praseodymium and neodymium 37 . ...
As fossil fuels are phased out in favour of renewable energy, electric cars and other low-carbon technologies, the future clean energy system is likely to require less overall mining than the current fossil-fuelled system. However, material extraction and waste flows, new infrastructure development, land-use change, and the provision of new types of goods and services associated with decarbonization will produce social and environmental pressures at localized to regional scales. Demand-side solutions can achieve the important outcome of reducing both the scale of the climate challenge and material resource requirements. Interdisciplinary systems modelling and analysis are needed to identify opportunities and trade-offs for demand-led mitigation strategies that explicitly consider planetary boundaries associated with Earth’s material resources.
... This discrepancy arises from the fact that the emission reduction benefits of EVs cannot be solely attributed to the energy consumption during the use stage 24 . The production of EVs, especially the manufacturing of batteries, typically emits more emissions than ICEVs [25][26][27][28] . Furthermore, there is often an overlooked fact that carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions and air pollutants from EV use occur during the power generation and transmission processes 29 . ...
It is still unclear whether emissions reductions from electric vehicles can be achieved across different regions from a lifecycle perspective. Here we use the life cycle assessment model and Quasi Input-Output model to evaluate the carbon dioxide emissions and air pollutants of internal combustion engine vehicles, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and battery electric vehicles in different provinces of China, with the provincial electricity consumption data and the sales data of electric vehicles. We find that battery electric vehicles have achieved 11.8% and 1.1% reduction in carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions, respectively, compared to internal combustion engine vehicles. In contrast, the emissions of sulfur dioxide and particulate matter 2.5 increased by 10% and 20%, respectively. Due to the coal-based power generation structure and the cold weather, the emission intensity of battery electric vehicles in most northern provinces is higher than that in southern provinces. From 2020 to 2030, improving technological progress and optimizing electricity mix will greatly assist in achieving emissions reduction. The results can help policy-makers better understand the emission characteristics and reasonably plan future emission reduction strategies in transportation.
... To compare environmental impacts, we analyzed annual CO 2 emissions generated from electricity generation for EV operation. The environmental benefits of EVs are highly dependent on power generation mix [57][58][59]. In the current policy scenario, due to grid CO 2 emission reduction (Table 5) and PV penetration (Table 8) policy mitigation scenarios, CO 2 could be reduced by 22% and 25%, respectively, compared to the current policy scenario. ...
Solar electric vehicle (EV) charging stations offer a promising solution to an environmental issue related to EVs by supplying eco-friendly electricity. Herein, we designed and analyzed a grid-connected highway solar EV charging station for 2022, 2030, and 2050 under two scenarios: Current policy scenario with restricted grid sales and policy mitigation scenario allowing grid sale. Future systems consider changes in EV charging station, grid CO 2 emissions, carbon prices, and renewable costs. In 2022, high PV and battery costs led to a grid-only system. By 2030 and 2050, significant reductions in PV costs enabled systems with substantial PV capacity, especially under the policy mitigation scenario. Economic analysis showed that enabling grid sales reduces net present cost (NPC) by 40% in 2030 and 35% in 2050 compared to the current policy scenario, with significantly lower levelized cost of energy. CO 2 emissions from EV operation are projected to be 44% and 3% of 2022 levels by 2030 and 2050, respectively. The policy mitigation scenario further reduces CO 2 emissions by 22% in 2030 and 25% in 2050 compared to the current policy scenario. Sensitivity analyses reveal that increased grid sale capacity leads to higher renewable penetration and lower NPC but also increased grid congestion, highlighting the need for efficient grid management. Policymakers should consider revising regulations to support higher PV penetration and manage grid congestion. This study supports the transition to renewable systems and underscores the importance of policy measures in achieving sustainable energy goals.
... Potentially lower due to simpler manufacturing processes and less stringent environmental controls [99] Higher due to more complex manufacturing processes and the need for stricter environmental controls [143] Energy Density vs. Cost Lower energy density but more cost-effective for applications requiring durability and longevity [30] Higher energy density, but this comes at a higher cost, suitable for applications needing high power and energy [142] Market Price Trends Decreasing costs over time due to technological improvements and scale of production [83] Costs are fluctuating but generally increasing due to raw material price volatility [42] Total Cost of Ownership Lower over the battery's life cycle due to longer lifespan and stability [121] Higher initial cost with a potentially higher total cost of ownership due to shorter lifespan and replacement needs [88] Economies of Scale Increasingly benefiting from economies of scale as adoption grows [83] Well-established but may face challenges from raw material supply risks [88] large-scale applications where it has become increasingly popular in recent years due to low-cost fabrication procedures. However, this is not the case with respect to NMCs that require specific adjustment involving ratio balancing among Nickel Manganese Cobalt constituents within cathode area during manufacture. ...
... LFP batteries have garnered the attentions of electric vehicle (EV) manufacturers because they are cost-effective and exhibit low toxicity 123,124 ; they contain essential minerals, such as lithium and graphite, and are used in various electronic devices. Therefore, NEU Battery Materials developed an electrochemical-separation process to extract high-quality lithium from spent LFP batteries. ...
Lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) are at the forefront of technological innovation in the current global energy‐transition paradigm, driving surging demand for electric vehicles and renewable energy‐storage solutions. Despite their widespread use and superior energy densities, the environmental footprint and resource scarcity associated with LIBs necessitate sustainable recycling strategies. This comprehensive review critically examines the existing landscape of battery recycling methodologies, including pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling techniques, along with emerging approaches such as bioleaching and electrochemical separation. Our analysis not only underscores the environmental and efficiency challenges posed by conventional recycling methods but also highlights the promising potential of electrochemical techniques for enhancing selectivity, reducing energy consumption, and mitigating secondary waste production. By delving into recent advancements and juxtaposing various recycling methodologies, we pinpoint electrochemical recycling as a pivotal technology for efficiently recovering valuable metals, such as Li, Ni, Co, and Mn, from spent LIBs in an environmentally benign manner. Our discussion extends to the scalability, economic viability, and future directions of electrochemical recycling, and advocates for their integration into global battery‐recycling infrastructure to address the dual challenges of resource depletion and environmental sustainability.
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... During the course of this study, we came across work by other authors that: i) investigated the life cycle analysis (LCA) of electric vehicles, including the influence of batteries (e.g., see Xia and Li, 2022); ii) compared the LCA of EVs and internal combustion vehicles (e.g., see Verma et al., 2022). However, to date, none have compared the carbon footprint of the energy needed to charge a set of electric vehicles from a hybrid photovoltaic system with that of a public grid (Leutz, R., 2022), especially in Portugal. ...
... Concurrently, developments in BMS improve the oversight and management of each cell inside a battery pack. These technologies contribute significantly to improving battery cycle life by enhancing charging cycles and regulating temperatures [145][146][147]. ...
The global reliance on electric vehicles (EVs) has been rapidly increasing due to the excessive use of fossil fuels and the resultant CO 2 emissions. Moreover, EVs facilitate using alternative energy sources, such as energy storage systems (ESSs) and renewable energy sources (RESs), promoting mobility while reducing dependence on fossil fuels. However, this trend is accompanied by multiple challenges related to EVs' traction systems, storage capacity, chemistry, charging infrastructure, and techniques. Additionally, the requisite energy management technologies and the standards and regulations needed to facilitate the expansion of the EV market present further complexities. This paper provides a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the state of the art concerning EV-related components, including energy storage systems, electric motors, charging topologies, and control techniques. Furthermore, the paper explores each sector's commonly used standards and codes. Through this extensive review, the paper aims to advance knowledge in the field and support the ongoing development and implementation of EV technologies.
... Moreover, the extraction of raw materials for batteries poses additional pollution risks [141]. The recycling phase also presents challenges; discarded EV batteries retain 70-80% of their capacity, and improper disposal can cause considerable environmental harm [142]. ...
In response to environmental and energy challenges, electric vehicles (EVs) have re-emerged as a viable alternative to internal combustion engines. However, existing research lacks a comprehensive analysis of the technology life cycle of EVs in both global and South Korean contexts and offers limited strategic guidance. This study introduces a novel approach to address these gaps by integrating the S-curve model with social network analysis (SNA), time series analysis, and core applicant layouts. The study specifically utilizes the logistic curve to model technology growth. It applies SNA methods, including International Patent Classification (IPC) co-occurrence analysis and the betweenness centrality metric, to identify the stages of technological development and sustainable research directions for EVs. By analyzing patent data from 2004 to 2023, the study reveals that EV technologies have reached the saturation phase globally and in South Korea, with South Korea maintaining a two-year technological advantage. The research identifies sustainable research directions, including fast charging technology and charging infrastructure, battery monitoring and management, and artificial intelligence (AI) applications. Additionally, the study also determined the sustainability of these research directions by examining the sustainability challenges faced by EVs. These insights offer a clear view of EV technology trends and future directions, guiding stakeholders.
... The cost of batteries escalates when capacities above 500 MW are required, limiting their practical application in long-term energy storage scenarios [11,12]. Furthermore, environmental concerns regarding the lifecycle and disposal of batteries add to their drawbacks, making them less sustainable as a large-scale, long-term storage solution [13,14]. ...
The global transition to renewable energy sources such as wind and solar has created a critical need for effective energy storage solutions to manage their intermittency. This review focuses on compressed air energy storage (CAES) in porous media, particularly aquifers, evaluating its benefits, challenges, and technological advancements. Porous media-based CAES (PM-CAES) offers advantages, including lower costs and broader geographical availability compared to traditional methods. This review synthesizes recent advancements in numerical modeling, simulation, and experimental studies, which have enhanced the understanding of air–water–heat flow interactions and improved efficiency in these systems. Field studies demonstrate that using existing idle and abandoned wells can minimize infrastructure costs and environmental impact. This review underscores the potential of CAES in porous media to support the growing demand for sustainable and reliable energy storage solutions.
... BEV, HEV, and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) are more eco-friendly during the use phase than ICEV. Decarbonizing the electricity sector can reduce the use phase emissions of BEV [13]. ...
The environmental background for reducing greenhouse gas emissions drives a shifting program to gradually replace the internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) with electric vehicles (EVs). Electric vehicles are part of low-carbon emission vehicles promoted in sustainability transportation. In Indonesia, EV sales volume has risen significantly during the last three years. However, it is still far from the targeted number stated in the roadmap of EV development. Economic factors are the main barriers to EV adoption and production, as are other sustainable product problems. Therefore, the research evaluates the structure of the nine economic barriers related to users, EV manufacturers, EV charging station providers, and the government using the DEMATEL method. The result concludes that the most significant barrier is the domination of global original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), followed by EVs as the disruptive technology and products; most automotive customers are economy users, and the EV purchase prices are higher than ICEV prices. The result benefits as the feed for further decision-making analysis determined by the government for more effective affirmative policy to sustainable products.
... Proper disposal of used EVBs helps prevent the release of hazardous substances into the environment, negatively impacting human health and the natural environment (Koroma et al., 2022;Xia & Li, 2022). ...
This study presents an inventive model aligning with sustainable development goals (SDGs) 11, 12, and 9. SDG 11 emphasizes sustainable urban aspects, SDG 12 centers on responsible consumption, and SDG 9 highlights resilient infrastructure. Focused on enhancing operational profits, the model integrates a robust reverse logistics network and policy framework to ensure safe disposal and environmental preservation. Employing the CPLEX solver software, we evaluated various methodologies, including proximity‐based allocation, set covering problems, p‐median allocation, and capacity‐relaxed models, to maximize profitability and efficiency in battery return systems. Our findings underscored the limitations of conventional proximity‐based methods, emphasizing the necessity of advanced optimization. Scenario 3, utilizing the p ‐median problem, emerged as the most profitable, optimizing customer allocation and reducing distance‐related costs. Additionally, our sensitivity analysis highlighted the collection rate parameter's pivotal role in influencing customer behavior and overall system profitability. The study also emphasizes the significance of accessible collection centers, revealing disparities in accessibility across customer zones. These findings call for nuanced analyses to ensure equitable access. Implications include advocating for strategic policies to enhance collection rates, optimize center accessibility, and promote responsible disposal, benefiting policymakers, industry professionals, and environmental stakeholders. Ultimately, this research contributes to sustainable practices, fostering eco‐conscious societies, and accelerating progress toward SDGs.
... The DCP significantly improves the market of NE-vehicles and reduces carbon emissions on the consumption side of the vehicle He et al. (2020); Li et al. (2018); Liu et al. (2023). Many scholars have shown that the carbon emissions of NEvehicles are 50% higher than those of F-vehicles during the production phase Qiao et al. (2019); Xia and Li (2022). So, under the influence of the DCP and the existing production technology, do NE-vehicles have the advantage of lifetime carbon emission reduction compared with traditional F-vehicles? ...
Driven by China’s “Dual Credit Policy” (DCP), numerous fuel vehicles (F-vehicles) manufacturers are considering various strategies, such as withdrawing from the Chinese market, purchase credits to offset negative Corporate Average Fuel Consumption (CAFC) credits, or directly producing new energy vehicles (NE-vehicles) to obtain positive New Energy Vehicle (NEV) credits. These three strategies have produced different supply chain structures and have different impacts on the low-carbon transformation of the automotive market. In this paper, we investigate the conditions under which F-vehicle manufacturers would choose different production strategies to promote the low-carbon transformation of the automotive industry. The results show that: in the evolution of the automobile industry, the gradual electrification of F-vehicles represents a significant transformation. A large sufficient price elasticity of demand α can successfully induce the F-vehicle manufacturers to produce NE-vehicles completely, to achieve Pareto equilibrium with NE-vehicle manufacturers. Then, we construct a lifetime carbon emission performance index and show that an overly tight DCP may result in more carbon emissions from the automobile industry. Based on the results of the model analysis, it proposes strategies for vehicle manufacturers to produce two types of vehicles and reduce fuel consumption, and recommends the government to dynamically optimize the DCP mechanism.
... In brief, an LEV in EU class L6e-B is described as a maximum 6 kW powered four-wheeler with a 45 km/h maximum speed. Due to this and other effects, LEVs show a significant reduction in all environmental lifecycle impact categories [9,10], even if battery recycling or repurposing and the remanufacturing of retired batteries is included [11]. Thus, LEVs are a sustainable alternative to conventional ICEVs and EVs in many fields of application [12]. ...
Among the economic sectors, mobility is showing significant environmental impacts, especially in the use phase of vehicles. By substituting fossil-fuelled propelling systems, environmental impacts such as the Global Warming Potential (GWP) can be reduced. The use of properly designed light electric vehicles (LEVs) significantly reduces further environmental impacts, as well as maintenance costs, which are relevant for a circular economy. For example, the use of low-voltage (42 V) propelling systems enables the maintenance of LEVs in a broader range of existing bicycle workshops. Regarding the environmental impacts, the described LCA results indicate the advantage of LEVs compared with EVs and ICVs, e.g., vehicle weight is found to be a main factor related to environmental impact for each type of vehicle. This implies a reduced need for battery capacity and lower emissions of particulate matter from tire and break abrasion. This study aims to present the application potential of LEVs and the related reduction in environmental impacts. Anonymised inventory lists of municipal vehicle fleets are analysed for quantifying the substitution potential of LEVs in specific use cases. For this purpose, the use phase of vehicles is analysed with a focus on product design for repair and recycling and supplemented by the results of a comparative environmental impact assessment of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), electric vehicles (EVs), and LEVs. The comparison is made on the premise of similar application requirements. These specifications are the ability of each of the vehicles to transport a maximum of three persons (driver included) or one driver and 250 kg of cargo in 3 m3 over a daily distance of 100 km in urban areas. On this basis, the municipal environmental benefits derived from substituting small vehicles in the form of ICEVs and EVs with LEVs are assessed. The results show that in the field of municipal mobility, a relevant number of conventional small vehicles can be substituted with LEVs. The environmental impacts in categories of the highest robustness level, RL I, that is, Global Warming Potential, fine dust emissions, and Ozone Depletion Potential, can be reduced by LEVs by 50% compared with EVs and by over 50% compared with ICEVs. The strong influence of vehicle weight on the abrasive conditions of tires and brakes is considerable, as shown by reduced fine dust emissions.
... In electric vehicle window constraints routing problem is also a major fact. This problem and effective solution describe in Schneider et al [7]. Hermann et al. ...
The global automotive landscape is undergoing a profound transformation, driven by the imperative to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change. Bangladesh, a densely populated country grappling with environmental challenges and urban traffic, stands poised at the brink of embracing electric mobility as a solution. This abstract delves into the future trajectory of the low-cost electric vehicle (EV) market in Bangladesh, examining key factors
influencing its growth, challenges hindering its adoption, and potential strategies for overcoming these barriers. The low-cost EV market in Bangladesh presents a promising avenue for sustainable
transportation, offering the dual benefits of reducing carbon emissions and mitigating dependence on imported fossil fuels. This includes fostering collaboration between the government and private
sector to develop comprehensive EV policies, investing in research and development to enhance battery technology and drive down costs, and implementing targeted financial incentives to make EVs more accessible to a wider demographic. Furthermore, public awareness campaigns and educational initiatives can play a crucial role in dispelling misconceptions and fostering acceptance of EVs among consumers. In conclusion, while challenges persist, the future of the
low-cost EV market in Bangladesh is undeniably bright. With the right mix of policy support, infrastructure development, and industry innovation, Bangladesh has the potential to emerge as a
regional leader in sustainable transportation, paving the way for a cleaner, greener, and more prosperous future.
... Throughout their lifetime, electric vehicles (EVs) emit fewer greenhouse gases than traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Research shows notable reductions in emissions even after accounting for emissions from the production of power [11], [12]. Because they reduce tailpipe emissions of pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [12], EVs help to enhance the quality of the air. ...
... Throughout their lifetime, electric vehicles (EVs) emit fewer greenhouse gases than traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Research shows notable reductions in emissions even after accounting for emissions from the production of power [11], [12]. Because they reduce tailpipe emissions of pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) [12], EVs help to enhance the quality of the air. ...
Recent violent global climate change consequences necessities reducing the consumption of fossil fuel in different sectors. Electric Vehicles (EVs) are growing in popularity as eco-friendly and environmentally compatible solution in transportation industry. This article provides a thoroughly and comprehensive overview of the advancement of topologies and charging techniques for EV. The article is aimed to act as a guide for researchers/engineers in the field of EV and automotive industry. Charging circuits of EVs have been divided into several categories. Comprehensive comparisons are carried out and revealed in appropriate graphs/charts/tables. Moreover, a sufficient high number of recent and updated references are screened. Classifications of electric vehicle charging technologies based on their individual characteristics are provided. Alaa A. Mahmoud et. al.
... A study revealed that EV production emits 59% to 60% more CO 2 than conventional vehicles due to additional components like LiB, traction motors, and electronic controllers [9]. The EVs' battery significantly influences their environmental performance [10]. Research indicates that approximately 80% of EVs' life-cycle environmental impacts stem from the battery and energy source, with the battery alone accounting for 40-50% of total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [11]. ...
Electric vehicle (EV) batteries have lower environmental impacts than traditional internal combustion engines. However,
their disposal poses significant environmental concerns due to the presence of toxic materials. Although safer than lead-acid
batteries, nickel metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries still present risks to health and the environment. This study reviews
the environmental and social concerns surrounding EV batteries and their waste. It explores the potential threats of these
batteries to human health and the environment. It also discusses alternative methods to enhance EV-battery performance,
safety, and sustainability, such as hybrid systems of green technologies and innovative recycling processes. Finding alterna
tive materials for EV batteries is crucial to addressing current resource shortage risks and improving EV performance and
sustainability. Therefore, the development of efficient and sustainable solutions for the safe handling of retired EV batteries
is necessary to ensure carbon neutrality and mitigate environmental and health risks.
The world stands on the brink of an electronics waste (e-waste) revolution, fueled by a drive for sustainability
and technological advancement. In 2022, an astonishing 62 billion kilograms of e-waste were generated globally,
averaging 7.8 kg per person. Yet, only 22.3 % of this massive amount was responsibly recycled. Since 2010, ewaste
production has surged at nearly five times the rate of collection and recycling efforts. With more electronic
devices being discarded, it’s crucial to harness this vast resource effectively. The article dives deep into the core
of this revolution and lays out a roadmap for future progress. It tracks the evolution of e-waste recycling from its
infancy to today’s sophisticated methods. Numerous challenges, like identifying toxic chemicals and dwindling
resources, highlight the pressing need for action. This article provides a review on the development of e-waste
recycling technologies with special emphasis on the nature of mechatronic system and sensor-based automation
in improving the efficiency of the recycling technology. Some of the strategies that have been discussed include
the employ of cyber physical system (CPS) for real-time monitoring, robotic sorting that provides accurate
sorting of materials, and sensor network for detecting risky components. Special attention is paid to such aspects
as scalability and sustainability and how mechatronics can create value in accordance with circular economy and
contribute to the reduction of e-waste while aiming at net-zero emissions.
Purpose
The aim of this study is intended as decision support tool for taxi service industry to identify the most suitable vehicle segment for electric taxis (e-taxi), focusing on B- and C-segment vehicles, which constitute the standard fleet for taxi services. To this end, a comparative Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of e-taxi vehicle batteries is conducted. This assessment incorporates a novel method for quantifying hourly environmental impacts during the battery charging phase. It simulates a typical workday for an e-taxi equipped with digital technologies capable of sharing grid electricity consumptions with online services. These services, in turn, provide carbon intensity values based on regional average electricity emissions, with hourly resolution.
Methods
Assuming B- and C-segment e-taxis differ only on battery capacities, energy consumptions, and battery aging constraints, it has been possible to choose the vehicle battery as the unit process of the comparative analysis. The cradle-to-grave LCA is adopted. The GWP is calculated according to the functional unit of 1 km traveled by the e-taxi. Finally, a sensitivity analysis of the e-taxi daily distance and taxi service life with respect to the Base Case scenario is performed, which considers average values equal to 200 km/day and 10 years, respectively.
Results and discussion
In the Base Case scenario, B-segment and C-segment involve a GWP of 49.3 and 54.6 gCO2eq/km, respectively, with C-segment having a 10.8% higher GWP than B-segment. The use phase dominates GWP impact for both segments, followed by manufacturing and end-of-life phases. The hourly emissions during the use phase were simulated, revealing increased GWP during the night, influenced by a higher charging probability and an unfavorable electricity mix. The sensitivity analysis highlights that B-segment has a higher GWP than C-segment for specific ranges of daily distances and e-taxi service life. This is due to an accelerated battery aging in the smaller vehicle segment and earlier battery replacement. Consequently, there is an addition of supplementary emissions resulting from manufacturing and EoL of extra batteries.
Conclusions
The study contributes to our understanding of the importance of manufacturing and EoL stages of batteries in terms of environmental impacts. These elements can result in interesting conclusions, highlighting how smaller electric vehicles with lower energy consumption may have higher environmental impacts due to accelerated battery aging and the consequent need for additional batteries during their lifecycle.
With the growing concern on climate change, many governments are making efforts to substitute fossil-fuel passenger vehicles in order to meet the urgent need for low-carbon and renewable fuels. Electric and hybrid vehicles reflect the increasing interest in clean and energy-efficient options. Nevertheless, the large-scale adoption of full electric is challenged in some regions due to the higher cost of these vehicles. This research presents a framework to assess the total cost and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in three types of technologies currently present in Brazil: fully electric, hybrid, and combustion flex-fuel cars. Brazil’s light-duty fleet is a
compelling case because it is mainly composed of flex-fuel engine combustion cars. The country also has strong conditions to supply this fleet with ethanol at a large scale with competitive prices. According to our results, full electric can reduce GHG emissions by 85 % if compared to gasoline-powered combustion. Nevertheless, there is a 96 % higher cost per kilometer in comparison to flex-fuel combustion vehicles. Flex-fuel hybrid fueled with ethanol can reduce GHG emissions by 76 %. Combustion flex-fuel vehicles can reduce 59 % of GHG emissions with no additional cost when powered by ethanol. Our findings show that hybrid cars fueled with ethanol are a more cost-viable option for reducing the Brazilian light vehicle fleet carbon footprint in a short time. The methodological approach presented in this study can be replicated in other regions to analyze trade-offs between costs and GHG emissions, thus helping plan the most appropriate path for the light-duty fleet energy transition.
Electric vehicles are promoted as ‘clean’ technologies and offer promising reductions in transportation emissions. Nevertheless, their environmental benefits critically depend on the local electricity grid mix and the type of emission being considered. Here, we conduct a comparative life cycle assessment of the four dominant light-duty vehicle categories at both the global scale and in three representative countries: Norway, the US, and China. By analyzing different environmental indicators, particularly global warming potential and respiratory effects, and quantifying related parametric uncertainties, we reveal that the advantages of electric vehicles vary across these regions and across environmental impact types. While electric vehicles offer considerable decarbonization potential as the grid mix becomes cleaner, they might not mitigate other environmental impacts, such as increased respiratory effects on rural, low-income communities. Our results support stakeholders in identifying environmentally friendly vehicle and policy options while considering multiple factors, and emphasize the importance of tailored approaches over one-size-fits-all solutions in sustainable transportation.
Growing numbers of plug-in electric vehicles in Europe will have an increasing impact on the electricity system. Using the agent-based simulation model PowerACE for ten electricity markets in Central Europe, we analyze how different charging strategies impact price levels and production- as well as consumption-based carbon emissions in France and Germany. The applied smart charging strategies consider spot market prices and/or real-time production from renewable energy sources.
While total European carbon emissions do not change significantly in response to the charging strategy due to the comparatively small energy consumption of the electric vehicle fleet, our results show that all smart charging strategies reduce price levels on the spot market and lower total curtailment of renewables. Here, charging processes optimized according to hourly prices have the strongest effect. Furthermore, smart charging strategies reduce electricity purchasing costs for aggregators by about 10% compared to uncontrolled charging. In addition, the strategies allow aggregators to communicate near-zero allocated emissions for charging vehicles. An aggregator's charging strategy expanding classic electricity cost minimization by limiting total national PEV demand to 10% of available electricity production from renewable energy sources leads to the most favorable results in both metrics, purchasing costs and allocated emissions. Finally, aggregators and plug-in electric vehicle owners would benefit from the availability of national, real-time Guarantees of Origin and the respective scarcity signals for renewable production.
The paper provides a comprehensive exploration of the factors influencing electric vehicle (EV) adoption in India, with a particular focus on barriers related to usability, infrastructure, safety, economics, and performance. The study employs various statistical methods to analyze and discuss the findings, offering valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities for EV adoption in Agra City. Agra city has a very low level of uptake of electric cars (ECs), despite significant efforts put in place by policy makers to stimulate their use. This paper investigates the barriers to wider EC adoption via a survey in May, 2023 to a representative sample (N = 165) of the population of Agra City. We discuss and rank the barriers, we discuss and rank the barriers on the basis of mean, tested H0: All types of barriers have an equal effect on buying decision, through Chi-Square test. Also we discuss and rank the barriers aggregate them via principal component analysis (PCA) on the basis of the Varimax Rotated factor analysis to study the socio-economic determinants of the respondents. The findings of this paper suggest a series of improvements that could be made by various key players. To overcome the Barriers related to usability (BU), Barrier of infrastructure (BI), Barriers related to safety and technology (BST), Barriers related to economic uncertainty (BEU) and Barriers related to performance (BRP), the policy makers should recommend car manufacturers to bring cars to the market with solutions to these factors for the wider adoption of electric cars.
This study underscores the critical importance of adopting circular economy (CE) strategies to enhance sustainability within supply chains and reduce resource requirements, particularly in minimizing raw material extraction. The purpose of this study is to identify the potential barriers that impede the implementation of a circular economy in an Indian electric vehicle batteries (EVBs) manufacturer. A total of 13 barriers are discerned by conducting the literature survey and as well as consulting with experts and academicians. The interrelationship of the barriers is analysed by adopting the total interpretive structural modeling (TISM) approach. The study uses MICMAC (Matrice d'impacts croisés multiplication appliquée á un classment) analysis to validate the model based on driving and dependence power. As a result of the study, four major barriers have been identified with substantial driving power that directly impact CE implementation. These include poor decisions from top management (CEB13), lack of communication and corporate social responsibility (CEB11), poor financial capability for CE adoption (CEB12), and lack of customer awareness (CEB10). The findings demonstrate the practical relevance, usefulness, and efficacy of the proposed framework in identifying and analysing the barriers to the adoption of CE.
Green investment in electric vehicles represents a pivotal shift towards a sustainable future, promising to revolutionize our transportation systems while significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions. This research aims to probe the linkage between green investment and electric vehicles across the top 10 economies with the highest electric vehicle adoption rates (China, USA, Norway, Germany, UK, France, Portugal, Netherlands, Belgium, and South Korea). Unlike earlier studies that primarily utilized panel data methods and overlooked the individual nuances of each country, our investigation employs the advanced ‘Quantile-on-Quantile’ technique. This novel approach enables us to delve into the relationships between variables within each specific country, thereby improving the precision of our analysis. As a result, this study provides a comprehensive global viewpoint, revealing nuanced findings about each nation's distinct characteristics. The study's findings express a positive connection between green investment and the electric vehicle stock in various segments of the sample economies. Furthermore, this research highlights diverse trends in these connections within different nations. The results emphasize policymakers’ need to conduct comprehensive evaluations and develop effective strategies to address changes in both green investment and electric vehicles.
E-waste generated from end-of-life spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) is increasing at a rapid rate owing to the increasing consumption of these batteries in portable electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage worldwide. On the one hand, landfilling and incinerating LIBs e-waste poses environmental and safety concerns owing to their constituent materials. On the other hand, scarcity of metal resources used in manufacturing LIBs and potential value creation through the recovery of these metal resources from spent LIBs has triggered increased interest in recycling spent LIBs from e-waste. State of the art recycling of spent LIBs involving pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy processes generates considerable unwanted environmental concerns. Hence, alternative innovative approaches toward the green recycling process of spent LIBs are essential to tackle large volumes of spent LIBs in an environmentally friendly way. Such evolving techniques for spent LIBs recycling based on green approaches, including bioleaching, waste for waste approach, and electrodeposition, are discussed here. Furthermore, the ways to regenerate strategic metals post leaching, efficiently reprocess extracted high-value materials, and reuse them in applications including electrode materials for new LIBs. The concept of "circular economy" is highlighted through closed-loop recycling of spent LIBs achieved through green-sustainable approaches.
In their efforts to implement a circular economy (CE) for lithium-ion batteries (LIB) in electric vehicles, automotive manufacturers need to take into account the perspective of energy consumers when assessing the environmental benefits of LIB repurposing in life cycle assessment (LCA). In response to this issue, this study presents a novel LCA framework, which allows manufacturers to assess different cases of LIB repurposing in an energy system and interpret the results in a CE context. The framework firstly uses energy flow modelling to enable the assessment of combining different battery storage applications in multi-use cases. Secondly, it includes a comparison of repurposing with alternative circular business models options for LIB. The framework is applied to an automotive manufacturer, seeking to assess a real-world project of LIB repurposing in different combinations of behind-the-meter applications at an industrial production site in Germany. As a key outcome, results reveal that from the perspective of the energy consumer, climate change benefits in multi-use cases are 10–22% lower than in single applications. Furthermore, from the perspective of the automotive manufacturer, repurposing is identified as the most beneficial option of circular business models available for LIB, taking into account additional recycling benefits resulting from the delay of end-of-life. Based on these findings, the study contributes to the application of LCA for decision-making in a CE and highlights pitfalls and potentials for a sustainable implementation of LIB repurposing in the future.
Economically viable electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling is increasingly needed; however routes to profitability are still unclear. We present a comprehensive, holistic techno-economic model as a framework to directly compare recycling locations and processes, providing a key tool for recycling cost optimization in an international battery recycling economy. We show that recycling can be economically viable, with cost/profit ranging from (−21.43 - +21.91) $·kWh⁻¹ but strongly depends on transport distances, wages, pack design and recycling method. Comparing commercial battery packs, the Tesla Model S emerges as the most profitable, having low disassembly costs and high revenues for its cobalt. In-country recycling is suggested, to lower emissions and transportation costs and secure the materials supply chain. Our model thus enables identification of strategies for recycling profitability.
The use of electric vehicles is for reducing carbon emissions, thereby reducing environmental pollution caused by transportation. However, the large-scale production and application of electric vehicle batteries have brought another notable issue, i.e., the production and application of these batteries also cause environmental pollution. Particularly, the precious metal materials used in the batteries are harmful to human health and the surrounding ecological system. Nowadays, many types of batteries are available. It is essential to understand which of them is most suitable for electric vehicles from the perspective of environmental protection. To answer this question, the life cycle environmental impact assessment of LiFePO 4 battery and Li(NiCoMn)O2 battery, which are being popularly used in pure electric passenger vehicles, are conducted in this paper. The research has shown that the two types of batteries show different environmental impact features in different phases. For example, LiFePO 4 batteries are more environmentally friendly in the phase of production, while Li(NiCoMn)O2 batteries are more eco-friendly in the application and transportation phases. Despite this, LiFePO 4 batteries are generally more environmentally friendly than Li(NiCoMn)O2 batteries from the perspective of the entire life cycle. In addition, the research results also suggest that due to the heavier mass, LiFePO 4 batteries can probably gain more benefit when used for energy storage.
A life cycle assessment is presented for a current vehicle’s greenhouse gas impact when using a combination of electrification and renewable fuels. Three degrees of electrification are considered: a hybrid electric vehicle, a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, and a battery-electric vehicle. These are combined with fuels with various degrees of renewable content, representing a fossil fuel, a first-generation biofuel and a second-generation biofuel. For charging, the 2020 European electricity mix is used and compared with an electricity mix of low greenhouse-gas intensity. Renewable fuels are found to have a greater potential to reduce the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions than a low carbon electricity mix. The results are discussed in terms of the supply potential for renewable fuels on the fleet level. It is found that plug-in hybrid vehicles may enable the automotive sector to reach more ambitious climate goals than battery-electric vehicles. An assessment is also made of how the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions compare with the emissions as measured by current policy instruments. The discrepancies indicate that current climate policy instruments are inadequate for minimizing the automotive sector’s climate impact and suggestions for improvements are made.
Electric vehicle (EV) are the future of the automobile industry in terms of reducing the greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution and the better life comfort level all over the world. This paper compares the results obtained by various authors in terms of life cycle assessment (LCA) of EV and conventional vehicles powered by fossil fuels, and the life cycle cost (LCC) analysis of the both types of vehicles, as every new technology comes with an additional cost which need to be feasible with respect to the present trends. And also discuss some of the software used for both type of LCA and LCC analysis. The finding of review concludes that with the adoption of EV there is a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) but there is an increase in the human toxicity level due to the larger use of metals, chemicals and energy for the production of powertrain, and high voltage batteries. And in terms of cost it has flexible pricing as there is uncertainty in pricing of future gasoline and electricity mix, higher initial cost at the time of purchasing due to higher pricing of battery.
This paper presents the results of an environmental assessment of a Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) Lithium-ion traction battery for Battery Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles (BEV-LDCV) used for urban and regional freight haulage. A cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of NMC111 is provided, operation and end-of-life stages are included, and insight is also given into a Life Cycle Assessment of different NMC chemistries. The environmental impacts of the manufacturing stages of the NMC111 battery are then compared with those of a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride (ZEBRA) battery. In the second part of the work, two electric-battery LDCVs (powered with NMC111 and ZEBRA batteries, respectively) and a diesel urban LDCV are analysed, considering a wide set of environmental impact categories. The results show that the NMC111 battery has the highest impacts from production in most of the impact categories. Active cathode material, Aluminium, Copper, and energy use for battery production are the main contributors to the environmental impact. However, when vehicle application is investigated, NMC111-BEV shows lower environmental impacts, in all the impact categories, than ZEBRA-BEV. This is mainly due to the greater efficiency of the NMC111 battery during vehicle operation. Finally, when comparing BEVs to a diesel LDCV, the electric powertrains show advantages over the diesel one as far as global warming, abiotic depletion potential-fossil fuels, photochemical oxidation, and ozone layer depletion are concerned. However, the diesel LDCV performs better in almost all the other investigated impact categories.
We compiled 50 publications from the years 2005–2020 about life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li-ion batteries to assess the environmental effects of production, use, and end of life for application in electric vehicles. Investigated LCAs showed for the production of a battery pack per kWh battery capacity a median of 280 kWh/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 200–500 kWh/kWh_bc) for the primary energy consumption and a median of 120 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 70–175 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc) for greenhouse gas emissions. We expect results for current batteries to be in the lower range. Over the lifetime of an electric vehicle, these emissions relate to 20 g CO2-eq/km (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 10–50 g CO2-eq/km). Considering recycling processes, greenhouse gas savings outweigh the negative environmental impacts of recycling and can reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions by a median value of 20 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 5–29 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc). Overall, many LCA results overestimated the environmental impact of cell manufacturing, due to the assessments of relatively small or underutilized production facilities. Material emissions, like from mining and especially processing from metals and the cathode paste, could have been underestimated, due to process-based assumptions and non-regionalized primary data. Second-life applications were often not considered.
This study is a critical review of the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to lithium ion batteries in the automotive sector. The aim of this study is to identify the crucial points of the analysis and the results achieved until now in this field. In the first part of the study, a selection of papers is reviewed. In the second part of the study, a methodological approach to LCA is adopted to make clear the strengths and weaknesses of this analysis method. The lack of primary data is a crucial concern. Even if the cradle-to-grave approach is the most chosen system boundary, further scientific contribution to the life cycle inventory phase is necessary. It is likely that the more the electric vehicle becomes widespread, the more data will be accessible. Many authors have not specified the chemistry of the used batteries (5% of the studies), the software tool used (30%) or the functional unit used (17%) and, consequently, their obtained results can be questionable. However, even with the aforementioned limitations, the performed review allows us to point out the potential of electric vehicles and lithium ion batteries to reduce the overall contribution of the transportation sector to GHG emissions.
Changes in the mobility patterns have evoked concerns about the future availability of certain raw materials necessary to produce alternative drivetrains and related batteries. The goal of this article is to determine if resource use aspects are adequately reflected within life cycle assessment (LCA) case studies of electric vehicles (EV). Overall, 103 LCA studies on electric vehicles from 2009 to 2018 are evaluated regarding their objective, scope, considered impact categories, and assessment methods—with a focus on resource depletion and criticality. The performed analysis shows that only 24 out of 76 EV LCA and 10 out of 27 battery LCA address the issue of resources. The majority of the studies apply one of these methods: CML-IA, ReCiPe, or Eco-Indicator 99. In most studies, EV show higher results for mineral and metal resource depletion than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). The batteries analysis shows that lithium, manganese, copper, and nickel are responsible for the highest burdens. Only few publications approach resource criticality. Although this topic is a serious concern for future mobility, it is currently not comprehensively and consistently considered within LCA studies of electric vehicles. Criticality should be included in the analyses in order to derive results on the potential risks associated with certain resources.
Direct recycling of lithium-ion is a promising method for manufacturing sustainability. It is more efficient than classical methods because it recovers the functional cathode particle without decomposition into substituent elements or dissolution and precipitation of the whole particle. This case study of cathode-healing™ applied to a battery recall demonstrates an industrial model for recycling of lithium-ion, be it consumer electronic or electric vehicle (EV) batteries. The comprehensive process includes extraction of electrolyte with carbon dioxide, industrial shredding, electrode harvesting, froth flotation, cathode-healing™ and finally, building new cells with recycled cathode and anode. The final products demonstrated useful capability in the first full cells made from direct recycled cathodes and anodes from an industrial source. The lessons learned on recycling the prototypical chemistry are preliminarily applied to EV relevant chemistries.
Rapid growth in the market for electric vehicles is imperative, to meet global targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, to improve air quality in urban centres and to meet the needs of consumers, with whom electric vehicles are increasingly popular. However, growing numbers of electric vehicles present a serious waste-management challenge for recyclers at end-of-life. Nevertheless, spent batteries may also present an opportunity as manufacturers require access to strategic elements and critical materials for key components in electric-vehicle manufacture: recycled lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles could provide a valuable secondary source of materials. Here we outline and evaluate the current range of approaches to electric-vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling and re-use, and highlight areas for future progress. Processes for dismantling and recycling lithium-ion battery packs from scrap electric vehicles are outlined.
Electric vehicles based on lithium-ion batteries (LIB) have seen rapid growth over the past decade as they are viewed as a cleaner alternative to conventional fossil-fuel burning vehicles, especially for local pollutant (nitrogen oxides [NOx], sulfur oxides [SOx], and particulate matter with diameters less than 2.5 and 10 μm [PM2.5 and PM10]) and CO2 emissions. However, LIBs are known to have their own energy and environmental challenges. This study focuses on LIBs made of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), since they currently dominate the United States (US) and global automotive markets and will continue to do so into the foreseeable future. The effects of globalized production of NMC, especially LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 (NMC111), are examined, considering the potential regional variability at several important stages of production. This study explores regional effects of alumina reduction and nickel refining, along with the production of NMC cathode, battery cells, and battery management systems. Of primary concern is how production of these battery materials and components in different parts of the world may impact the battery’s life cycle pollutant emissions and total energy and water consumption. Since energy sources for heat and electricity generation are subject to great regional variation, we anticipated significant variability in the energy and emissions associated with LIB production. We configured Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy use in Transportation (GREET®) model as the basis for this study with key input data from several world regions. In particular, the study examined LIB production in the US, China, Japan, South Korea, and Europe, with details of supply chains and the electrical grid in these regions. Results indicate that 27-kWh automotive NMC111 LIBs produced via a European-dominant supply chain generate 65 kg CO2e/kWh, while those produced via a Chinese-dominant supply chain generate 100 kg CO2e/kWh. Further, there are significant regional differences for local pollutants associated with LIB, especially SOx emissions related to nickel production. We find that no single regional supply chain outperforms all others in every evaluation metric, but the data indicate that supply chains powered by renewable electricity provide the greatest emission reduction potential.
In light of the increasing penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) in the global vehicle market, understanding the environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) that characterize the EVs is key to sustainable EV deployment. This study analyzes the cradle-to-gate total energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, SOx, NOx, PM10 emissions, and water consumption associated with current industrial production of lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries, with the battery life cycle analysis (LCA) module in the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation (GREET) model, which was recently updated with primary data collected from large-scale commercial battery material producers and automotive LIB manufacturers. The results show that active cathode material, aluminum, and energy use for cell production are the major contributors to the energy and environmental impacts of NMC batteries. However, this study also notes that the impacts could change significantly, depending on where in the world the battery is produced, and where the materials are sourced. In an effort to harmonize existing LCAs of automotive LIBs and guide future research, this study also lays out differences in life cycle inventories (LCIs) for key battery materials among existing LIB LCA studies, and identifies knowledge gaps.
Silicon nanowires (SiNWs) and silicon nanotubes (SiNTs), with high specific capacity and low volume expansion during charging and discharging processes, have been recognized among the most promising anode materials for use in next-generation lithium ion batteries (LIBs). However, the life cycle impacts of SiNW-and SiNT-based LIBs are of grave concern due to the heavy use of toxic chemicals and potential nanoparticle emissions during their manufacturing processes. In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) method is adopted to evaluate the environmental impacts of two battery packs, which are configured with the same capacity of 63.5 kWh to power a mid-size electric vehicle (EV). Both battery packs are based on a lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2, NMC) cathode, but one uses a SiNW anode, whereas the other uses a SiNT anode (NMC-SiNW and NMC-SiNT). Following a cradle-to-gate approach, the analysis is conducted based on LCA databases and literature. Results indicate that to obtain the same capacity, the NMC-SiNW LIB battery is with higher material consumptions and environmental impacts than the NMC-SiNT LIB battery. This study provides insights into life cycle impacts of SiNW-and SiNT-based LIBs and can be useful for understanding and improving the environmental performance of nanostructured Si-based LIBs for next-generation EV applications.
This paper presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) study that examines a number of scenarios that complement the primary use phase of electric vehicle (EV) batteries with a secondary application in smart buildings in Spain, as a means of extending their useful life under less demanding conditions, when they no longer meet the requirements for automotive purposes. Specifically, it considers a lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery to analyze four second life application scenarios by combining the following cases: (i) either reuse of the EV battery or manufacturing of a new battery as energy storage unit in the building; and (ii) either use of the Spanish electricity mix or energy supply by solar photovoltaic (PV) panels. Based on the Eco-indicator 99 and IPCC 2007 GWP 20a methods, the evaluation of the scenario results shows that there is significant environmental benefit from reusing the existing EV battery in the secondary application instead of manufacturing a new battery to be used for the same purpose and time frame. Moreover, the findings of this work exemplify the dependence of the results on the energy source in the smart building application, and thus highlight the importance of PVs on the reduction of the environmental impact.
With the rapid growth of the lithium‐ion battery (LIBs) market, recycling and re‐use of end‐of‐life LIBs to reclaim lithium (Li) and transition metal (TM) resources (e.g., Co, Ni), as well as eliminating pollution from disposal of waste batteries, has become an urgent task. Here, for the first time the ambient‐pressure relithiation of degraded LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 (NCM523) cathodes via eutectic Li⁺ molten‐salt solutions is successfully demonstrated. Combining such a low‐temperature relithiation process with a well‐designed thermal annealing step, NCM523 cathode particles with significant Li loss (≈40%) and capacity degradation (≈50%) can be successfully regenerated to achieve their original composition and crystal structures, leading to effective recovery of their capacity, cycling stability, and rate capability to the levels of the pristine materials. Advanced characterization tools including atomic resolution electron microscopy imaging and electron energy loss spectroscopy are combined to demonstrate that NCM523's original layered crystal structure is recovered. For the first time, it is shown that layer‐to‐rock salt phase change on the surfaces and subsurfaces of the cathode materials can be reversed if lithium can be incorporated back to the material. The result suggests the great promise of using eutectic Li⁺ molten–salt solutions for ambient‐pressure relithiation to recycle and remanufacture degraded LIB cathode materials.
As the consumption of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for the transportation and consumer electronic sectors continues to grow, so does the pile of battery waste, with no successful recycling model, as exists for the lead–acid battery. Here, we exhibit a method to recycle LIBs using deep eutectic solvents to extract valuable metals from various chemistries, including lithium cobalt (iii) oxide and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide. For the metal extraction from lithium cobalt (iii) oxide, leaching efficiencies of ≥90% were obtained for both cobalt and lithium. It was also found that other battery components, such as aluminium foil and polyvinylidene fluoride binder, can be recovered separately. Deep eutectic solvents could provide a green alternative to conventional methods of LIB recycling and reclaiming strategically important metals, which remain crucial to meet the demand of the exponentially increasing LIB production.
Finding scalable lithium-ion battery recycling processes is important as gigawatt hours of batteries are deployed in electric vehicles. Governing bodies have taken notice and have begun to enact recycling targets. While several battery recycling processes exist, the greenhouse gas emissions impacts and economic prospects of these processes differ, and could vary by specific battery chemistry. Here we use an attributional life-cycle analysis, and process-based cost models, to examine the greenhouse gas emissions, energy inputs and costs associated with producing and recycling lithium-ion cells with three common cathode chemistries: lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC-622), lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide and lithium iron phosphate. We compare three recycling processes: pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical recycling processes, which reduce cells to elemental products, and direct cathode recycling, which recovers and reconditions ceramic powder cathode material for use in subsequent batteries—retaining a substantial fraction of the energy embodied in the material from their primal manufacturing process. While pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical processes do not significantly reduce life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions, direct cathode recycling has the potential to reduce emissions and be economically competitive. Recycling policies should incentivize battery collection and emissions reductions through energetically efficient recycling processes. © 2019, The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Limited.
Traction batteries are a key factor in the environmental sustainability of electric mobility and, therefore, it is necessary to evaluate their environmental performance to allow a comprehensive sustainability assessment of electric mobility. This article presents an environmental assessment of a lithium-ion traction battery for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, characterized by a composite cathode material of lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4) and lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide Li(NixCoyMn1-x-y)O2. Composite cathode material is an emerging technology that promises to combine the merits of several active materials into a hybrid electrode to optimize performance and reduce costs. In this study, the environmental assessment of one battery pack (with a nominal capacity of 11.4 kWh able to be used for about 140,000 km of driving) is carried out by using the Life Cycle Assessment methodology consistent with ISO 14040. The system boundaries are the battery production, the operation phase and recycling at the end of life, including the recovery of various material fractions. The composite cathode technology examined besides a good compromise between the higher and the lower performance of NMC and LMO cathodes, can present good environmental performances.
The results of the analysis show that the manufacturing phase is relevant to all assessed impact categories (contribution higher than 60%). With regard to electricity losses due to battery efficiency and battery transport, the contribution to the use phase impact of battery efficiency is larger than that of battery transport. Recycling the battery pack contributes less than 11% to all of the assessed impact categories, with the exception of freshwater ecotoxicity (60% of the life cycle impact). The environmental credits related to the recovery of valuable materials (e.g. cobalt and nickel sulphates) and other metal fractions (e.g. aluminium and steel) are particularly relevant to impact categories such as marine eutrophication, human toxicity and abiotic resource depletion.
The main innovations of this article are that (1) it presents the first bill of materials of a lithium-ion battery cell for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with a composite cathode active material; (2) it describes one of the first applications of the life cycle assessment to a lithium-ion battery pack for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with a composite cathode active material with the aim of identifying the “hot spots” of this technology and providing useful information to battery manufacturers on potentially improving its environmental sustainability; (3) it evaluates the impacts associated with the use phase based on primary data about the battery pack's lifetime, in terms of kilometres driven; and (4) it models the end-of-life phase of the battery components through processes specifically created for or adapted to the case study.
Transportation represents one of the major contributors to several environmental burdens such as Green-House-Gas (GHG) emissions and resource depletion. Considering the European Union, light duty vehicles are responsible for roughly 10% of total energy use and air emissions. As a consequence, the need for higher fuel/energy efficiency in both conventional and electric cars has become urgent and the efforts across industrial and research players have proposed a range of innovative solutions with great potential.
This study presents a comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) and electric vehicles. The analysis follows a “from cradle-to-grave” approach and it captures the whole Life-Cycle (LC) of the car subdivided into production, use and End-of-Life stages. The inventory is mainly based on primary data and the assessment takes into account a wide range of impact categories to both human and eco-system health. The eco-profile of the different vehicle configurations is assessed and the main environmental hotspots affecting conventional and electric cars are identified and critically discussed. The dependence of impacts on LC mileage is investigated for both propulsion technologies and the break-even point for the effective environmental convenience of electric car is determined considering several use phase electricity sources. The analysis is completed with a comparison of GHG emissions with the results of previous LCA studies.
Different powertrains passenger cars, homologate in compliance with Euro 6 standard, were compared in a life cycle perspective for assessing both environmental and human health impacts. For this latter aspect, some correlation between the emission of heavy metals, elemental carbon, organic carbon, the oxidative potential of particulate matter and the adverse effect on human health were also analyzed and discussed. Battery electric vehicle (BEV) showed the lower greenhouse gases emissions, from 0.1 kgCO2eq/km to 0.2 kgCO2eq/km but were charged by the higher emissions of freshwater eutrophication and freshwater ecotoxicity, about 6 × 10⁻⁶ kgPeq/km and 4 CTUe/km, respectively. Lower resource depletion was detected for cars powered by internal combustion and hybrid powertrains. Amount of particulate matter (PM) emitted resulted lower for petrol-hybrid electric vehicles (Petrol-HEV), of about 5 × 10⁻⁵ kgPM2.5eq/km. BEV were charged by the higher values of human toxicity cancer, from about 2 × 10⁻⁵ CTUh/km to about 5 × 10⁻⁵ CTUh/km whereas Petrol-HEV were credited by the lower impact on human health (DALY/km). The large contribution to PM emission from all the analyzed cars was from tyre and brake wear. Main PM components were elemental (ElC) and organic carbon (OC) compounds. ElC is also a specific marker of PM emitted from traffic. Both ElC and OC were characterized by a strong correlation with the oxidative potential of PM, indicating a threat for human respiratory tract only marginally decreased by the transition from conventional to electric poweretrains vehicles.
The transportation and electricity sectors are in the midst of leading changes in the endeavor to mitigate climate change and air pollution issues. In future years, traditional fossil-fuelled vehicles are estimated to be substituted with electric vehicles (EVs), resulting in higher electricity demand from the transport sector. Meanwhile, the electricity sector is transforming due to policies to adopt renewable energy resources such as solar, wind, and hydropower in the future. However, there are still societal concerns regarding the environmental benefits of these vehicle technologies and how new energy options and vehicles benefit the 2050 HK Carbon Neutral Plan. To address these concerns, this paper aims to analyse the environmental burdens of current (2019) and future (2050) vehicle scenarios in Hong Kong using a life cycle assessment (LCA). The LCA was performed for internal combustion vehicles (ICEVs) fuelled by diesel and petrol and plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) and EVs with future electricity energy mix scenarios (2025–2050). The results revealed that EVs with the 2050 HK electricity mix are an optimal choice and have the least environmental impact in selected impact categories. Additionally, PHEV with diesel were the second most optimal choice to reduce the environmental impacts in current scenarios. In contrast, the petrol ICEV has the utmost environmental impacts in all damage category results. The study shows that clean energy could decrease the environmental impact and mitigate climate change in Hong Kong.
As the World's dependence on lithium battery technology continues its rapid growth, reserves of key manufacturing minerals are not forecast to keep pace with demand. Repurposed electric vehicle batteries offer a viable means to reduce the number of retired lithium-ion batteries proceeding directly to landfill and prolong their useful life while end of life solutions, including recycling, are developed and matured. This paper presents a novel physical allocation method based on the critical performance criteria: remaining capacity, module retention rate and repurposed electric vehicle battery lifetime (second life). To verify the allocation method, a case study directly compares the emissions generated by a repurposed electric vehicle battery and a virgin stationary storage battery of equivalent capacity in Australia. The repurposed battery has a smaller footprint across all eight environmental impact categories, provided it operates for a minimum of six years. A sensitivity analysis shows battery repurposing can achieve carbon reductions if the repurposed electric vehicle battery lifetime exceeds 4.25 years. The breakeven points for remaining capacity and module retention rate at the beginning of the second life occur at 66% and 75% respectively. In addition, a comprehensive repurposing life cycle inventory was developed for the repurposing phase which includes all added components and processes required to repurpose an electric vehicle battery to function as a stationary storage battery. Further analysis discusses the influence of increased production efficiencies over time when comparing product systems, and the need to account for these changes in allocation methodology.
Intense and large-scale applications of lithium-ion batteries have brought significant convenience to our daily life; however, when these batteries enter recycling, they cause major challenges such as environmental pollution and wastage of resources. For the sustainable point of view, it is preferable to establish a full-cycle value chain from designing and manufacturing of electrodes to recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries. It is important to perform materials and product design as the first and most important step in the cycling process, particularly for the cathode materials. This critical review focuses on the issues in element recycling of the spent cathode materials, and discusses the criteria for cathode materials design that can simplify the recycling process and avoid a build-up of hazardous materials. Using Li transition metal oxides (LiCoO2, LiNi1-x-yCoxMnyO2, x+y < 1) as an example, it is shown that the crystal structure, morphology, and microstructure also play vital roles in enhancing the electrochemical performance of the cathode materials. Compared to complicated composition in the cathode materials, the structure-regulated design has a unique potential to build a circular economy model featuring the lowest energy consumption and the least environmental disruption. It not only highlights the green and sustainable aspects of the recovery of metal resources, but also prospects them with recycling-oriented materials design. The circular economy can be built with both high efficiency and stable battery performance.
The rapid urbanization witnessed in the last few decades has contributed to the increasing demand for vehicles worldwide. An overwhelming majority of these vehicles run on fossil fuels, leading to environmental degradation. Emissions from the transport sector are a major contributor to local as well as global air pollution and deterioration in air quality. Countries such as the United States of America, China, India, Indonesia, etc., having the largest number of registered vehicles, are also responsible for a higher proportion of vehicular emissions. As new technologies emerge, electric vehicles (EV) are being envisioned as a replacement to the conventional internal combustion engine (ICEV) vehicle fleet, thus directly reducing tailpipe emissions. However, their indirect emissions are dependent on the energy grid of that particular nation. This study aims to assess the viability of implementing electric vehicles in the nations with high vehicle population. The top ten countries with the highest number of vehicles were identified, along with their power grid characteristics. A detailed review of emission factors of various power generation sources was carried out considering exergy analysis. Furthermore, battery degradation models were used to estimate the lifetime emissions from the battery of electric vehicles. The viability index calculations include well to wheel (WTW) emissions for power generation sources, in case of EVs, and for conventional vehicle fuels. The study concludes that EV implementation has varying effect on nations’ air pollution, which depends upon their share of renewable sources in power generation. Implementation of EVs is found to be sustainably viable for France and Brazil, marginally viable for nations including China and India, while it is found to be not viable for Indonesia.
This work demonstrates an experimental methodology for reusing anode material from end of life commercial lithium ion batteries (LiB) in order to create new LiB anodes. End-of-life LiB cells were safely opened and assessed as a source of anode material. Anode material extracted from LiB cells through a basic mechanical separation was cycled stably with minimal processing. The LiB cells produced with recovered anode material showed equivalent cycling capacity and lower first cycle capacity loss than similarly produced virgin graphite anodes, regardless of recycled material source or morphology, as shown by SEM imaging. The effects of some graphite pre-lithiation were seen, mainly in a lowered initial voltage of the cells before the first cycle. A methodology for scaling-up this laboratory process for industrial recycling is discussed.
As attractive energy storage technologies, Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely integrated in renewable resources and electric vehicles (EVs) due to their advantages such as high energy/power densities, high reliability and long service time. Although EVs basically do not produce pollution, the end-of-life (EOL) issues of LIBs cannot be ignored due to their potential economic benefits and environmental risks. Current methods for the retired batteries mainly include disposal, recycling and reuse. EV LIBs can be reused in a variety of applications with less demanding. Compared with recycling and disposal, reuse process can obtain better economic and environmental benefits. Many second life EV LIBs projects have been undertaken and demonstrated the great potential of reuse. However, the reuse should consider economic, environmental, technical, and various market perspectives. Technical challenges that must be faced include safety issues, assessment methods, screening and restructuring technologies, and comprehensive management during the reuse process. Economic feasibility issues, comprehensive supply chains, and the lack of relevant regulations also hinder large-scale development of reuse. It is foreseeable that improvements including standardization, big data and cloud-based technologies are desperately needed to maximize the industrialization of reuse and recycling.
The emergence and dominance of lithium-ion batteries in expanding markets such as consumer electronics, electric vehicles, and renewable energy storage are driving enormous interests and investments in the battery sector. The explosively growing demand is generating a huge number of spent lithium-ion batteries, thereby urging the development of cost-effective and environmentally sustainable recycling technologies to manage end-of-life batteries. Currently, the recycling of end-of-life batteries is still in its infancy, with many fundamental and technological hurdles to overcome. Here, the authors provide an overview of the current state of battery recycling by outlining and evaluating the incentives, key issues, and recycling strategies. The authors highlight a direct recycling strategy through discussion of its benefits, processes, and challenges. Perspectives on the future energy and environmental science of this important field is also discussed with respect to a new concept introduced as the Battery Identity Global Passport (BIGP).
China has become the largest electric vehicle (EV) market in the world since 2015. Consequently, the lithium-ion battery (LiB) market in China is also expanding fast. LiB makers are continually introducing new types of LiBs into the market to improve LiBs’ performance. However, there will be a considerable amount of waste LiBs generated in China. These waste LiBs should be appropriately recycled to avoid resources’ waste or environmental pollution problems. Yet, because LiBs’ type keeps changing, the environmental impact and profitability of the waste LiB recycling industry in China become uncertain. In this research, we reveal the detailed life cycle process of EVs’ LiBs in China first. Then, the environmental impact of each type of LiB is speculated using the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. Moreover, we clarify how LiBs’ evolution will affect the economic effect of the waste battery recycling industry in China. We perform a sensitivity analysis focusing on waste LiBs’ collection rate. We found that along with LiBs’ evolution, their environmental impact is decreasing. Furthermore, if waste LiBs could be appropriately recycled, their life cycle environmental impact would be further dramatically decreased. On the other hand, the profitability of the waste battery recycling industry in China would decrease in the future. Moreover, it is essential to improve waste LiBs’ collection rate to establish an efficient waste LiB industry. Such a trend should be noticed by the Chinese government and waste LiB recycling operators to establish a sustainable waste LiB recycling industry in the future.
The secondary use of recycled lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) from electric vehicles (EVs) can reduce costs and improve energy utilization rate. In this paper, the recycled LIBs are reused to construct a 3MW*3h battery energy storage system (BESS) for power load peak shaving (PLPS). Taking the BESS as an example, a cost-benefit model is established after the systematical analysis of compositions. The cost model is divided into eight components in detail, which can be grouped into three categories: initial investment costs, operation and maintenance costs (O&M costs) and batteries replacement costs. The benefit model comprises seven parts, such as environmental benefit, battery dismantling and recovery benefit and residual value. In the case study, the life model is established by exponential function through the character analysis of the recycled LIBs. The economic analysis of the BESS is carried out in three techno-economic statuses of optimism, business, and research, which is based on two interest-subjects of grid company and non-grid company. Furthermore, both battery purchasing cost (BPC) and government subsidy are performed to sensitivity analysis. The results show that the BESS with recycled LIBs for PLPS, especially those invested by grid company, have a good application prospect in China.
Recycling of spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has drawn considerable attention in recent years, as an economic solution to the resource shortage. Selective ammonia leaching is recognized as an economical and environment-friendly method, yet it is difficult to separate and reuse the valuable metals from the leachate. In this study, we proposed an NH3–(NH4)2CO3-Na2SO3 leaching system to selectively recover the valuable metals from commercial LiNixCoyMn1−x−yO2 (NCM) and spent NCM. For single-stage leaching, 79.1% of the lithium, 86.4% of the cobalt, and 85.3% of the nickel were selectively leached under optimal conditions, and a mere 1.45% of the manganese was dissolved in the solution. The leaching process in the NH3–(NH4)2CO3-Na2SO3 system was consistent with the surface chemical reaction control model. For multistage leaching, almost all metals (98.4% of the lithium, 99.4% of the cobalt, 97.3% of the nickel) could be leached and a high-purity (>99%) MnCO3 product was simultaneously obtained. The introduction of CO3²⁻ not only led to the production of MnCO3 with wide application prospects, but also greatly reduced the consumption of the reducing agent. This study is thus beneficial for recycling of the valuable metals and synthesis of the MnCO3 product from the spent LIBs.
This study evaluated and quantified the life cycle environmental impacts of lithium-ion power batteries (LIBs) for passenger electric vehicles to identify key stages that contribute to the overall environmental burden and to find ways to reduce this burden effectively. Primary data for the assessment were collected onsite from the one Chinese leading LIB supplier, two leading cathode material producers and two battery recycling corporations from 2017 to 2019. Six environmental impact categories, including primary energy demand (PED), global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), photochemical oxidant creation potential (POCP), eutrophication potential (EP) and human toxicity potential (HTP), were considered in accordance with the ISO 14040/14044 standards.
The results indicate that material preparation stage is the largest contributor to the LIB’s life cycle PED, GWP, AP, POCP, EP and HTP, with the cathode active material, wrought aluminum and electrolytes as the predominant contributors. In the production stage, vacuum drying and coating and drying are the two main processes for all the six impact categories. In the end-of-life stage, waste LIBs recycling could largely reduce the life cycle POCP and HTP.
Sensitivity analysis results depict that optimizing the mass of cathode active material and wrought aluminum could effectively reduce the environmental impacts of the LIB, but the recycling benefits could vary with impact categories and with life cycle stages. We hope this study is helpful to reduce the uncertainties associated with the life cycle assessment of LIBs in existing literatures and to identify opportunities to improve the environmental performance of LIBs within the whole life cycle.
The penetration rate of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is continuously growing in China. Since EV is considered as an environment-friendly vehicle with lower cost of operation, many studies have paid attention to the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emission evaluation on EVs. This study aims to expand the scope and provide comprehensive results for LCC and GHG emission comparison between ICEV and EV under different driving cycles, which refer to the driving patterns and parameters such as velocity and acceleration changed by years. The charging infrastructure and battery pilot use have also been involved in the evaluation. Results show that the LCC of an EV is about 9% higher than that of an ICEV under the driving cycle in Beijing in 2020. At the same time, the life cycle GHG emissions of an EV are about 29% lower than those of an ICEV. If the lifetime mileage is not as long as expected, the gap of LCC would be larger and the gap of GHG emissions would be smaller. Recycling is very effective in reducing the GHG emissions but does not work for LCC reduction. Battery pilot use has large potentials on LCC reduction but it still needs time to realize. In this scenario without battery pilot use, the cost effectiveness of an EV is about 4 kg CO2eq/$.
The volume of end-of-life automotive batteries is increasing rapidly as a result of growing electric vehicle adoption. Most automotive lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are recycled but could be repurposed as second-life batteries (SLBs) since they have 70–80% residual capacity, which can be adequate for stationary applications. SLBs have been proposed as potential, inexpensive, low-carbon energy storage for residential and utility-level applications, with or without photovoltaics (PV). However, it is unknown whether SLBs will be better than new batteries and whether SLBs will provide similar cost and carbon emission reduction for the different stationary applications in all locations. This work compared the levelized cost of electricity and life-cycle carbon emissions associated with using SLBs and new LIBs in the US for three energy storage applications: (1) residential energy storage with rooftop PV, (2) utility-level PV firming, and (3) utility-level peak-shaving, leading to a total of 41 scenarios. SLBs reduced the levelized cost of electricity by 12–57% and carbon emissions by 7–31% compared to new LIBs in the considered applications, with higher reductions for utility-level applications. SLBs still provided benefits at the residential level when compared to rooftop PV alone by reducing the levelized cost by 15–25% and carbon emissions by 22–51%, making SLBs attractive to residential consumers as well. SLBs offer an opportunity to utilize an end-of-life product for energy storage applications, provided the uncertainty in SLB quality and availability is addressed.
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs), as a green alternative technology, exhibited a great potential to recycle valuable elements from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, due to its weak reduction power of DESs, raising temperature and extending processing duration were not efficient for screening suitable DESs for recycle of LIBs. Here, we proposed a novel, simple and robust experimental method to identify suitable DESs for recycling of spent LIBs. Based on the electrochemical principle, the method proposed in this study could quickly determine the reduction power of DESs. As an example, a choline chloride (ChCl) and urea mixture as a DES possessed a strong reducibility with a Li and Co extraction efficiency of 95% from spent LIBs being obtained at the reduced reaction temperature of 180°C and reaction time of 12 h. The results are in good agreement with the results from Fukui functions calculations. The kinetic experiments revealed that the Li and Co extraction was controlled by the solution diffusion and electron diffusion through the DES. Furthermore, a cubic cobalt oxide spinel (Co3O4) was obtained from the loaded DES by H2C2O4 and NaOH in the dilution-precipitation-calcining process. The current strategy demonstrates great potential for rapid and reliable screening suitable DESs for effective recycle of spent LIBs.
Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have been widely applied in portable electronic devices and electric vehicles. With the booming of the respective markets, a huge quantity of spent LIBs that typically use either LiFePO4 or LiNixCoyMnzO2 cathode materials will be produced in the very near future, imposing significant pressure for the development of suitable disposal/recycling technologies, in terms of both environmental protection and resource reclaiming. In this review, we firstly do a comprehensive summary of the-state-of-art technologies to recycle LiNixCoyMnzO2 and LiFePO4-based LIBs, in the aspects of pretreatment, hydrometallurgical recycling, and direct regeneration of the cathode materials. This closed-loop strategy for cycling cathode materials has been regarded as an ideal approach considering its economic benefit and environmental friendliness. Afterward, as for the exhausted anode materials, we focus on the utilization of exhausted anode materials to obtain other functional materials, such as graphene. Finally, the existing challenges in recycling the LiFePO4 and LiNixCoyMnzO2 cathodes and graphite anodes for industrial-scale application are discussed in detail; and the possible strategies for these issues are proposed. We expect this review can provide a roadmap towards better technologies for recycling LIBs, shed light on the future development of novel battery recycling technologies to promote the environmental benignity and economic viability of the battery industry and pave way for the large-scale application of LIBs in industrial fields in the near future.