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Evaluation of Some Physico-chemical and Antioxidant Characteristics of Commercial Honey Samples Originated from Different Regions of Turkey
Abstract
Recently encountered pandemic SARS-CoV-2 infection is a serious concern in the worldwide. In order to prevent this disease and to avoid the side effects of the drugs used during the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, humans turned to the consumption of natural foods including bee products. Honey is an important bee product rich in antioxidants, but should be suitable for consumption in terms of food control and safety. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to determine the physico-chemical and the antioxidant characteristics of commercial honey samples originated from 7 different regions of Turkey as well as, to interpret the results with the Turkish Food Codex and European Commission Regulation. Total antioxidant capacity including polyphenols was highest in 100g honey from Agean Region (100 mmol Ascorbic acid Eq and mg Gallic acid Eq, respectively) whereas flavonoid content was the highest in honey from Mediterranean Region. It was found that 19 honey samples (63.3%) were suitable for the Codex Honey Communiqué in terms of sucrose, invert sugar (glucose and fructose), moisture content, number of diastases, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), commercial glucose and pollen analyzes. The honey samples originated from seven different regions of Turkey showed more than half good quality. Their quality depends on various factors such as floral source, geographical origin, harvest seasons, packaging, processing conditions, and storage conditions. Therefore, the consumer’s awareness and the education of beekeepers can improve the production and sales for good quality honey.
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Honeys have specific organoleptic characteristics, with nutritional and health benefits, being highly appreciated by consumers, not only in food but also in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Honey composition varies between regions according to the surrounding flora, enabling its characterization by source or type. Monofloral honeys may reach higher market values than multifloral ones. Honey’s aroma is very specific, resulting from the combination of volatile compounds present in low concentrations. The authentication of honey’s complex matrix, according to its botanical and/or geographical origin, represents a challenge nowadays, due to the different sorts of adulteration that may occur, leading to the search for reliable marker compounds for the different monofloral honeys. The existing information on the volatiles of monofloral honeys is scarce and disperse. In this review, twenty monofloral honeys and honeydews, from acacia, buckwheat, chestnut, clover, cotton, dandelion, eucalyptus, fir tree, heather, lavender, lime tree, orange, pine, rape, raspberry, rhododendron, rosemary, strawberry tree, sunflower and thyme, were selected for volatile comparison purposes. Taking into consideration the country of origin, the technique of isolation and analysis, the five main volatiles from each of the honeys are compared. Whereas some compounds were found in several types of monofloral honey, and thus not considered good volatile markers, some monofloral honeys revealed characteristic volatile compounds independently of their provenance.
The objective of this study is to determine the consumption behaviour and factors affecting the consumption of bee products of consumers in Kahramanmaras. The main material of the study is the data obtained from surveys conducted with 270 consumers living in Kahramanmaras city centre in 2018. Descriptive statistics, One-way ANOVA and t-test were used to analyse the data.
According to the results, while 84.4% of the consumers consume honey, the percentage of the consumers consuming pollen and royal jelly are 7.8% and 1.5% respectively. Moreover, 28.5% of the consumers stated that they consume honey every day, whereas the share of the consumers consuming comb honey every day is 25.6%. In addition, most of the consumers prefer to buy honey from producers and markets. According to the results, factors affecting the amount of honey consumption are gender, income, the number of individuals in the family and the condition of having diabetes. On the other hand, marital status, age, and education level of consumers were not found to be important factors on the amount of
honey consumption.
Researchers have reported that issues of dietary habits have important roles in cancer prevention and development, and during cancer treatments. Use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) may improve the quality of life in cancer patients. However, use of some CAM types can increase or reduce the effect of treatments. This study aims to perform the nutritional assessment and usage of CAM in patients with cancer who received radiotherapy or chemotherapy (CT). Outpatients cancer patients (n = 273) receiving CT or radiotherapy in a hospital of private university were asked to complete the questionnaire including 24-hour dietary recall and usage of CAM. Obtained data were analyzed using BeBIS and SPSS software. Patients with different cancer types participated in this study. The difference for obesity rate was significantly between the patients receiving chemotherapy (44%) and radiotherapy (38%) (P = .001). Total energy and calories obtained from carbohydrates and lipids were also statistically significant between 2 groups (P = .001). Usage of CAM was significantly found in both groups (P = .001). Preference rate for the herbal CAM usage was 59% in radiotherapy and 22% in CT groups. Our results suggest that cancer patients may require professional support and practice for nutrition and use of CAM before they start their therapies.
The quality of 27 Moroccan spurge (Euphorbia) honey samples was assessed. Eight physicochemical parameters and mineral composition were analysed and the CIELAB colour parameters (L∗, a∗, b∗, C∗ab and hab) were determined. Results shown no significant differences between the two Euphorbia honey types (E. officinarum subsp. echinus and E. regis-jubae honeys) regarding the physicochemical parameters. Sodium and magnesium shown average values that can help to differentiate between E. officinarum subsp. echinus and E. regis-jubae honeys. Potassium was quantitatively the most important mineral (66% of the total minerals quantified), while sodium and calcium were present in moderate amounts (20% and 11% of the minerals, respectively). The colour parameters also have shown significant differences between E. officinarum subsp. echinus and E. regis-jubae honeys.
The lipids of honey and wax were extracted and separated by successive TLC with a variety of solvent systems. Every isolated fraction was tested for its ability to aggregate washed rabbit platelets or to inhibit PAF or thrombin induced aggregation. The biologically active compounds were subjected to FTIR, MS and 1H-NMR analysis. None of the honey lipids caused platelet aggregation, but six of them inhibited PAF and thrombin induced aggregation, although at remarkably higher concentrations than PAF. Their activity varies according to the origin of honey; The proposed structures for these compounds are: a) an 1-0-alkenyl-2-acetyl-3-acyl glycerol or an 1-O-alkenyl-2-acetyl-3-keto-acyl glycerol (for the most active) ; b) a polyhydroxysterol; c) and d) neutral lipids with ether and esters bonds and one of them ester with acetic acid. The results explain the pharmaceutical application of honey in cases of inflammation, as the above mentioned compounds are antagonists of the well know inflammatory mediator, PAF.
The aim of this paper was to investigate the physicochemical characteristics and rheological behavior of some floral honeys from species of wild plants found in the Caatinga biome, as well as, correlate honey viscosities with its chemical composition. Thus, five honeys with floral predominance of typical plants foraged by honeybees in Caatinga were analyzed. Results showed that moisture content of honeys ranged from 17.45 to 21.50 g/100g. The samples exhibited higher fructose content (37.58 -43.95 g/100g) and lower glucose content (27.41-33.80 g/100g). The glucose-water ratio ranged from 1.55 to 1.80. Sucrose contents, excluding Croton campestris honey sample, exhibited values above the highest sucrose content (6.0 g/100g) allowed by Brazilian norm. The ash content ranged from 0.02 to 0.19 %. The insoluble solids content were above 0.1 g/100 g (w/w). The electrical conductivity ranged between 144.90 and 412.55 μS.cm -1 . All the honey samples behaved as Newtonian fluids. The viscosity values, measured at 293 K, varied from 1.90 to 8.55 Pa.s. An empirical mathematical model adapted from the Arrhenius model provides a good description of honey viscosity as a function of combined effects of temperature and moisture content.
The present study was undertaken to determine the physico-chemical parameters of honey samples obtained from retailers in Marmara Region (Site 1) and East Anatolia (Site 2) of Turkey. The 70 samples were analysed for parameters including moisture, total acidity, diastase activity, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), invert sugar, sucrose, ash, commercial glucose and starch. 10 of 70 (14.3%) honey samples were of unacceptable quality based on recommended criteria of moisture (3 of 70, 4.29%), diastase activity (3 of 70, 4.29%), HMF (2 of 70, 2.86%), invert sugar (4 of 70, 5.71%) and sucrose (2 of 70, 2.86%) by Turkish Food Codex and European Commission Regulation. The results of study indicated that 85.7% of honey samples were at good quality. It is important that the essential precautions should be taken to ensure standardisation and rationalisation of beekeeping techniques, manufacturing procedures and storing processes to improve honey quality.
Indeed, medicinal importance of honey has been documented in the world's oldest medical literatures, and since the ancient times, it has been known to possess antimicrobial property as well as wound-healing activity. The healing property of honey is due to the fact that it offers antibacterial activity, maintains a moist wound condition, and its high viscosity helps to provide a protective barrier to prevent infection. Its immunomodulatory property is relevant to wound repair too. The antimicrobial activity in most honeys is due to the enzymatic production of hydrogen peroxide. However, another kind of honey, called non-peroxide honey (viz., manuka honey), displays significant antibacterial effects even when the hydrogen peroxide activity is blocked. Its mechanism may be related to the low pH level of honey and its high sugar content (high osmolarity) that is enough to hinder the growth of microbes. The medical grade honeys have potent in vitro bactericidal activity against antibiotic-resistant bacteria causing several life-threatening infections to humans. But, there is a large variation in the antimicrobial activity of some natural honeys, which is due to spatial and temporal variation in sources of nectar. Thus, identification and characterization of the active principle(s) may provide valuable information on the quality and possible therapeutic potential of honeys (against several health disorders of humans), and hence we discussed the medicinal property of honeys with emphasis on their antibacterial activities.
The qualities of 25 thyme honey samples from Spain were evaluated. Eight common physicochemical parameters were analysed, namely water content, pH, acidity (free, lactonic and total), sugar content, ash, electrical conductivity and mineral composition, including potassium (K), sodium (Na), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), phosphorus (P) and sulphur (S). Most samples showed proper maturity, considering the low water content. The total acidity (below 50 meq/kg) indicated the absence of undesirable fermentation; also the mean pH, around 4.2, is usual in this kind of honey. The values for ash and electrical conductivity were medium (0.32% and 395 μS cm−1, respectively), typical of dark amber honeys. Within the mineral content, potassium was quantitatively the most important mineral, having an average content of 679 ppm; sodium and calcium were present in moderate amounts in the honeys and accounted for 27% and 13% of the minerals, respectively.
To evaluate the quality of honey produced in Zulia State (Venezuela), moisture content, ash, acidity, pH, diastase activity, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde, nitrogen and carbohydrate composition were analysed. Sampling was carried out during dry and rainy seasons in three regions, directly from the honey comb. These samples were found to meet all major national and international honey specifications.
The levels of water, HMF, free proline, total acidity, diastase activity, fructose and glucose in 74 different floral type honeys from four Brazilian regions are reported. The majority of the samples showed adequate water and HMF contents indicating the use of good practices by beekeepers in Brazil. Large variation in the contents of proline (389–520 mg/kg) was found in the honeys from the four regions studied. These findings are presumably due to the more intensive labor of the bees on the collected nectar by adding gland secretions. The high amount of diastase (40–120°G) found in some honeys from the northeast region could be due to the visit of the bees to Manhiot sp. (cassava) flour factories to collect starch-rich food, consequently increasing the diastase activity in the honey. Xerotolerant yeasts may be responsible for higher total acidity and ratios below 1 for fructose/glucose found in some samples. The majority of the analysed honeys (82%) were within the limits of the European Codex Honey Standards and Brazilian legal regulations.
The emergence of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in 2019 in China marked the third outbreak of a highly pathogenic coronavirus infecting humans. The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) spread worldwide, becoming an emergency of major international concern. However, even after a decade of coronavirus research, there are still no licensed vaccines or therapeutic agents to treat the coronavirus infection. In this context, apitherapy presents as a promising source of pharmacological and nutraceutical agents for the treatment and/or prophylaxis of COVID-19. For instance, several honeybee products, such as honey, pollen, propolis, royal jelly, beeswax, and bee venom, have shown potent antiviral activity against pathogens that cause severe respiratory syndromes, including those caused by human coronaviruses. In addition, the benefits of these natural products to the immune system are remarkable, and many of them are involved in the induction of antibody production, maturation of immune cells, and stimulation of the innate and adaptive immune responses. Thus, in the absence of specific antivirals against SARS-CoV-2, apitherapy could offer one hope toward mitigating some of the risks associated with COVID-19.
The effect of heating at various temperatures (30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 °C) on dynamic viscosity, colour, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) concentration and diastase activity of raw rape honey were assessed. In fresh honey, moisture, ash, free acidity, pH and electrical conductivity averaged 185.3 g kg−1, 1.2 g kg−1, 18.71 mEq kg−1, 4.2 and 0.25 mS cm−1, respectively. Heating significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased lightness (L*), yellowness (b*), chroma (C*), hue (h°) values, but decreased redness (a*). The viscosity at 20 °C (33.6 Pa s) differed significantly (p ≤ 0.01) with those at 30, 40 and 50 °C (8.2, 2.5, and 1.6 Pa s, respectively). Diastase activity decreased concomitant with heating at higher temperatures. Honey heated at 80 °C for 15 min showed the maximum increase of 5-HMF content, with an average of 1.9 mg kg−1 (62 %), compared to unheated samples. Heating for 15 min between 50 °C and 80 °C did not significantly degrade the quality of the honey, but, slightly enhanced formation of 5-HMF and reduced the diastase activity.
Forty-six specimens of propolis which were collected by Apis mellifera were obtained from various regions of Brazil and extracted with 80% aqueous ethanol (ethanolic extract of propolis, EEP). The extracts were analysed by using determination of total flavonoid concentrations using the aluminum nitrate method, UV-spectrophotometry, reversed phase-high performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC), and reversed phase-HPLC. Six samples of EEP, which contained high total flavonoid concentrations, were selected for further investigation. HPTLC indicated that the quality of flavonoid aglycones of EEP from the States of Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo (Southeastern Brazil), Goias and Mate Grosso do Sul (closely to Southeastern) were similar, but were different compared to those of EEP's from Parana and Rio Grande do Sul, which are located in Southern Brazil. Reversed Phase-HPLC analysis of EEP's from Southern Brazil identified 7 flavonoid aglycones, whereas there were 9 from Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais and 7 from Goias and Mate Grosso do Sul. These results indicate that the plant ecology of Southeastern and Southern Brazil are different. It was also observed that all samples of EEP's demonstrated inhibition of growth of Staphylococcus aureus coagulase positive, whereas Escherichia coli was not inhibited.
The aim of this review is to describe the chemical characteristics of compounds present in honey, their stability when heated or stored for long periods of time and the parameters of identity and quality. Therefore, the chemical characteristics of these compounds were examined, such as sugars, proteins, amino acids, enzymes, organic acids, vitamins, minerals, phenolic and volatile compounds present in honey. The stability of these compounds in relation to the chemical reactions that occur by heating or prolonged storage were also discussed, with increased understanding of the behavior regarding the common processing of honey that may compromise its quality. In addition, the identity and quality standards were described, such as sugars, moisture, acidity, ash and electrical conductivity, color, 5-HMF and dias-tase activity, along with the minimum and maximum limits established by the Codex Alimentarius.
In this study, physico-chemical properties of honeys samples obtained from different locations of Turkey were investigated. Moisture, diastase activity, Hydroxy Methyl Furfural (HMF), viscosity, acidity, total glucose + fructose, protein and ash contents of honey samples ranged from 17.1% to 20.0%, 10.9 to 17.9, 1.34 to 31.28 mg/kg, 2.48 to 8.42 Pa s, 18.2 to 47.5 meq/kg, 51.31% to 68.30%, 0.60% to 0.99% and 0.01% to 0.12%, respectively. The colour parameters, namely L∗, a∗, b∗ changed between 24.56 and 34.16, 0.08 and 0.67, 0.60 and 5.09, respectively. The magnesium was found at high level in all samples. Cornflower honey sample had the highest phenolic content (645.85 mg/100 g). While antioxidant activity of cedar honey sample is found at the highest level, thorn honey sample showed the least antioxidant activity. In general, dark coloured honey samples had higher phenolic content levels and antioxidant activity than the light coloured honey samples.
HMF (5-hydroxymethylfurfural) is considered an important quality parameter for honey and maximum values are fixed by the European Directive no.110 (2001). In this paper, the HMF levels during the heating process of four unifloral Sicilian honeys (Orange, Eucalyptus, Sulla, Chestnut) were determined; the kinetics of HMF formation were also investigated. The HMF formation was correlated with chemical characteristics (pH, free acids, total acidity and lactones) of the different honeys. The data obtained were statistically elaborated. The results indicate non-equivalence among different honey types with regard to the heating treatment and the importance of reviewing the directive. Thus, the present standards for honey HMF content seem too large in some cases (Chestnut honey) and too restrictive in others (Citrus honey).
Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Analyses of the Folin-Ciocalteu (FC) type are convenient, simple, and require only common equipment and have produced a large body of comparable data. Under proper conditions, the assay is inclusive of monophenols and gives predictable reactions with the types of phenols found in nature. Because different phenols react to different degrees, expression of the results as a single number—such as milligrams per liter gallic acid equivalence—is necessarily arbitrary. Because the reaction is independent, quantitative, and predictable, analysis of a mixture of phenols can be recalculated in terms of any other standard. The assay measures all compounds readily oxidizable under the reaction conditions and its very inclusiveness allows certain substances to also react that are either not phenols or seldom thought of as phenols (e.g., proteins). Judicious use of the assay—with consideration of potential interferences in particular samples and prior study if necessary—can lead to very informative results. Aggregate analysis of this type is an important supplement to and often more informative than reems of data difficult to summarize from various techniques, such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) that separate a large number of individual compounds .The predictable reaction of components in a mixture makes it possible to determine a single reactant by other means and to calculate its contribution to the total FC phenol content. Relative insensitivity of the FC analysis to many adsorbents and precipitants makes differential assay—before and after several different treatments—informative.
In this study, we investigated and compared some chemical properties and in vitro biological activities of three different types of Turkish honey. The first two honey samples were monofloral from chestnut and rhododendron flowers, collected from the east Black Sea region, and the third sample was the heterofloral form of astragalus (Astragalus microcephalus Willd.), thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and other several mountain flowers, collected from Erzincan in Eastern Anatolia. The chemical properties of the honey samples, such as total moisture, ash, total protein, sucrose, invert sugar, diastase activity, hydroxymethylfurfural content and acidity, were determined. Total phenolics, superoxide radical- and peroxynitrite-scavenging activities, and ferric reducing/antioxidant power measurements were used as antioxidant capacity determinants with ±-catechin, butylated hydroxytoluene, ascorbic acid, and trolox® used as reference. The antimicrobial activity was studied by the agar diffusion method, using eight bacteria and two yeasts. The mineral contents were also determined by an AAS method. The chestnut flower honey had the highest phenolic content, superoxide radical-scavenging activity and reducing power, while the heterofloral honey sample exhibited the highest peroxynitrite-scavenging activity. The antioxidant activities were also found to be related to the sample concentrations. The mineral content of the chestnut honey was much higher than the others. The samples showed moderate antimicrobial activity against some microorganisms, especially Helicobacter pylori ATCC 49503, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, Bacillus subtilis ATCC 6633, Candida tropicalis ATCC 13803 and Candida albicans ATCC 10231. The honey samples studied proved to be a good source of antioxidants and antimicrobial agents that might serve to protect health and fight against several diseases.
The characterization of some honey samples from southern Córdoba (Argentina) was carried out on the basis of their microbiological (Clostridium, fungi and yeasts), physical (colour) and chemical (carbohydrates, HMF, water and free acidity) analysis. The results showed that honeys produced in this region are of good quality. HMF content and free acidity values were mostly low, indicating honey freshness. Most of the samples contained less than 20% water. Glucose and fructose accounted for more than 60% of the weight. The amount of yeast and fungi found in the honey samples was less than 1 × 102 CFU/g. Low quantities of vegetative cells and spores of Clostridia were found in some honey samples. A standardization and a rationalization of beekeeping techniques throughout southern Córdoba may further improve honey quality, and ensure it over the years.
5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content is an indicator of the purity of honey. High concentrations of HMF in honey indicate overheating, poor storage conditions and old honey. This study investigated the HMF content of nine Malaysian honey samples, as well as the correlation of HMF formation with physicochemical properties of honey. Based on the recommendation by the International Honey Commission, three methods for the determination of HMF were used: (1) high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), (2) White spectrophotometry and (3) Winkler spectrophotometry methods. HPLC and White spectrophotometric results yielded almost similar values, whereas the Winkler method showed higher readings. The physicochemical properties of honey (pH, free acids, lactones and total acids) showed significant correlation with HMF content and may provide parameters that could be used to make quick assessments of honey quality. The HMF content of fresh Malaysian honey samples stored for 3-6 months (at 2.80-24.87 mg/kg) was within the internationally recommended value (80 mg/kg for tropical honeys), while honey samples stored for longer periods (12-24 months) contained much higher HMF concentrations (128.19-1131.76 mg/kg). Therefore, it is recommended that honey should generally be consumed within one year, regardless of the type.
Several monofloral Cuban honeys were analyzed to determine their total phenolic, flavonoid, ascorbic acid, amino acid, protein and carotenoid contents as well as their radical-scavenging activity and antimicrobial capacities. The total phenolic, flavonoid and carotenoid contents varied considerably, and the highest values were obtained for Linen vine (Govania polygama (Jack) Urb) honey, which is classified as an amber honey. The highest amino acid content was found in Morning glory (Ipomoea triloba L.) while Liven vine had the highest protein content. Similarly Linen vine honey had the highest antioxidant activity while the lowest was found in Christmas vine (Turbina corymbosa (L.) Raf). Ascorbic acid was absent. Hydroxyl radical formation was studied by EPR and spin trapping, and it was found in all honeys tested. The antimicrobial activity was screened using two Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. S. aureus was the most sensitive microorganism while Pseudomonas aeruginosa presented higher minimum active dilution values. Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli were both moderately sensitive to honey antimicrobial activity. A correlation between radical-scavenging activity and total phenolic content was found. Correlation existed also between color vs phenolics content, vs flavonoid content or between phenolic vs flavonoid.
To develop a novel colorimetric and automated direct measurement method for total antioxidant capacity (TAC).
A new generation, more stable, colored 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical cation (ABTS(*+)) was employed. The ABTS(*+) is decolorized by antioxidants according to their concentrations and antioxidant capacities. This change in color is measured as a change in absorbance at 660 nm. This process is applied to an automated analyzer and the assay is calibrated with Trolox.
The novel assay is linear up to 6 mmol Trolox equivalent/l, its precision values are lower than 3%, and there is no interference from hemoglobin, bilirubin, EDTA, or citrate. The method developed is significantly correlated with the Randox- total antioxidant status (TAS) assay (r = 0.897, P < 0.0001; n = 91) and with the ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) assay (r = 0.863, P < 0.0001; n = 110). Serum TAC level was lower in patients with major depression (1.69 +/- 0.11 mmol Trolox equivalent/l) than in healthy subjects (1.75 +/- 0.08 mmol Trolox equivalent/l, P = 0.041).
This easy, stable, reliable, sensitive, inexpensive, and fully automated method described can be used to measure total antioxidant capacity.
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