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Int J Cosmet Sci. 2022;44:1–9.
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1
wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ics
Received: 21 October 2021
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Accepted: 16 December 2021
DOI: 10.1111/ics.12758
REVIEW ARTICLE
An updated review on efficacy and benefits of sweet
almond, evening primrose and jojoba oils in skin care
applications
JürgenBlaak
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PeterStaib
© 2022 Society of Cosmetic Scientists and Societe Francaise de Cosmetologie.
Research & Development and
Regulatory Affairs, Kneipp GmbH,
Würzburg, Germany
Correspondence
Jürgen Blaak and Peter Staib, Research
& Development and Regulatory Affairs,
Kneipp GmbH, Winterhäuser Str. 85,
Würzburg 97084, Germany.
Emails: juergen.blaak@kneipp.de;
peter.staib@kneipp.de
Abstract
Background: Renewed consumer and industry interest in natural ingredients
has led to a large growth of natural cosmetics. This has put pressure on formula-
tion skills and product claims when it comes to using natural compounds. Taking
a strategic and comprehensive approach in viewing natural ingredients, includ-
ing natural oils, as ‘active’ ingredients rather than just providing for so- called ‘nat-
ural’ claims, aids both innovation and development. Given the ever- increasing
consumer demand for natural ingredients, and more importantly the demand for
effective natural ingredients including plant oils, it is important for the cosmetic
industry to re- evaluate them in this context.
Method: The objectives of this review are to provide an update of three popular
cosmetic plant oils – Sweet Almond, Evening Primrose and Jojoba – in terms
of their cosmetic applications as ‘active’ ingredients. This review highlights the
activity of these oils, in the management of dry skin, ageing skin, juvenile skin,
atopic dermatitis, scalp conditions and their wider potential. Attention is given
to formulation considerations where the content of these oils impacts product
oxidation, skin penetration and stratum corneum homeostasis.
Results: Benefits of these oils have been well documented both pre- clinically and
clinically. Historically, they have been used for hundreds if not thousands of years
for their management and treatment of various skin and other ailments. Given
the discrepancies in some clinical data presented for a variety of dermatoses, the
importance of the choice of oil and how to formulate with them within the con-
text of the epidermal barrier function, skin penetration and toxicity cannot be un-
derestimated. Care should be taken in terms of the quality and stability of theses
oils, as well as ensuring best formulation type, if the reported activities of these
oils are to be achieved with consistency. Despite discrepancies in the literature
and questionable study designs, it is clear that Sweet Almond, Evening Primrose
and Jojoba oils do have skin care benefits for both adult and juvenile applications.
Conclusion: They are effective ingredients for skin care preparations to
strengthen stratum corneum integrity, recovery and lipid ratio. Nevertheless, fur-
ther experimental data are required concerning the impact on stratum corneum
physiology and structure.
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NATURAL OILS IN SKIN CARE APPLICATIONS
KEYWORDS
evening primrose oil, jojoba oil, plant oils, skin care, sweet almond oil
Résumé
Contexte: Un regain d’intérêt des consommateurs et du secteur pour les ingrédi-
ents naturels a conduit à une forte croissance des cosmétiques d’origine naturelle.
Cet engouement a exercé une pression sur les compétences en matière de formu-
lation et les allégations liées aux produits lorsqu’il s’agit d’utiliser des composés
naturels. L’adoption d’une approche stratégique et exhaustive axée sur les ingré-
dients naturels, notamment les huiles naturelles, considérés comme des ingrédi-
ents «actifs» plutôt que de fournir des allégations liées à des produits dits naturels
contribue à l‘innovation et au développement. Compte tenu de la demande crois-
sante des consommateurs en ingrédients naturels et qui plus est, de la demande
en ingrédients naturels efficaces, dont les huiles végétales, il est important pour
le secteur des cosmétiques de les réévaluer dans ce contexte.
Méthode: Cette revue vise à actualiser les connaissances ayant trait à trois hu-
iles végétales souvent utilisées comme cosmétiques, à savoir les huiles d’amande
douce, d’onagre et de jojoba, dans le cadre des applications cosmétiques où elles
jouent un rôle de substances actives. Elle souligne le caractère actif de ces huiles
dans la prise en charge de la peau sèche, du vieillissement de la peau, de la peau
jeune, de la dermatite atopique, des affections du cuir chevelu et de leur poten-
tiel d’utilisation plus large. Une attention particulière est accordée aux questions
relatives à la formulation lorsque la teneur en ces huiles affecte l’oxydation du
produit, la pénétration dans la peau et l’homéostasie de la couche cornée.
Résultats: Les bénéfices des huiles examinées apparaissent bien documentés,
tant au niveau clinique que préclinique. Historiquement, ces huiles sont utili-
sées depuis des centaines, voire des milliers d’années, pour la prise en charge
et le traitement de diverses affections cutanées et extra- cutanées. Compte tenu
des divergences parmi certaines des données cliniques présentées pour de mul-
tiples dermatoses, il est important de ne pas sous- estimer l’importance du choix
de l’huile et de sa formulation eu égard à la fonction barrière de l’épiderme, à la
pénétration cutanée et à la toxicité. Des précautions doivent être prises en termes
de qualité et de stabilité de ces huiles, ainsi que pour garantir une formulation
choisie au mieux, si les activités signalées de ces huiles soient obtenues avec cohé-
rence. Malgré les divergences d’une étude à l’autre et les conceptions critiqua-
bles de certaines études, il apparaît clairement que les huiles d’amande douce,
d’onagre et de jojoba apportent des bénéfices tant dans leurs applications pour
adultes que pour enfants.
Conclusion: Ces huiles constituent des ingrédients efficaces pour les prépara-
tions de soins de la peau en termes de renforcement de l’intégrité de la couche
cornée, ainsi que de l’amélioration de sa récupération et de son rapport lipidique.
Toutefois, d’autres données expérimentales demeurent nécessaires en ce qui con-
cerne leur impact sur la physiologie et la structure de la couche cornée.
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BLAAK and STAIB
BACKGROUND
Historically, a wide variety of plant oils have been utilized
for several beneficial purposes especially foods, cosmetics
and medicinal products. Today, they are increasingly recog-
nized for their effects in the management of a wide variety
of skin disorders and other ailments, as well as contributing
to the protection and restoration of skin barrier homeostasis.
In more recent times, renewed interest in natural ingredi-
ents has led to a large growth of natural cosmetic products.
Furthermore, this has put pressure on formulation skills and
evidential product claims when it comes to using ‘naturals’
in cosmetics. Therefore, the requirement for comprehensive
considered approaches in viewing natural ingredients, in-
cluding natural oils, as ‘active’ ingredients rather than just
providing for so- called ‘natural’ claims, makes good sense.
Sweet Almond (SAO), Evening Primrose (EPO) and
Jojoba (JJO) are three popular and commonly utilized
natural seed oils, with wide applications in the cosmetic,
dermatological and ‘health’ markets. Global business data
indicate that these oils were collectively valued in 2020, at
approximately 2080Million USD. In 2020, the global EPO
market was valued at 170Million USD [1], SAO was worth
1756million USD in 2019 [2], and the JJO market size was
valued at USD 133.2million in 2019 [3]. In addition, all
three oils are expected to grow between 4 and 10% by 2027.
In parallel to increased business development, the
scientific literature has seen a marked growth in inves-
tigations into how the varied composition of a plethora
of natural oils including SAO, EPO and JJO behave, es-
pecially, in terms of (bio- )chemistry, toxicity and health
benefits [4– 8]. Moreover, the importance of extraction
methods is also being highlighted [9– 14], as well as the
effects of climate, genetics and farming methods [14– 18].
Many natural oils possess species specific compounds ex-
hibiting a wide variety of biochemical activity such as an-
tioxidant, anti- inflammatory and anti- pruritic properties
[18, 19], thus making them an attractive and complemen-
tary treatment for xerotic and inflammatory dermatoses,
particularly associated with epidermal barrier disruption
and dysfunction [20– 24].
SAO, that means Prunus amygdalus dulcis oil, should
not be confused with its bitter counterpart Prunus amygda-
lus amara oil, since both these oils possess quite different
properties [25, 26]. It is the ‘sweet’ version, that is commonly
used in cosmetic applications, and is valued by the industry
as an excellent carrier oil in many skin preparations. One of
the most acclaimed oils used in cosmetic and other derma-
tological and health applications is Oenothera biennis (EPO)
FIGURE Images of seeds, oils and
flowers of (a) Prunus amygdalus dulcis
or Sweet Almond (SAO); (b) Oenothera
biennisor Evening Primrose (EPO); and
(c)Simmondsia chinesis or Jojoba (JJO)
TABLE (A) Key fatty acid composition of sweet almond oil,
evening primrose oil and jojoba oil. (B) Key phytosterol content of
sweet almond oil, evening primrose oil and jojoba oil
Sweet
almond
Evening
primrose Jojoba
(A) Fatty acid type
Saturated FA
C16:0 (palmitic) 3.0– 9.0 6.31 ± 0.14 0.3
C18:0 (stearic) 1.0– 3.0 1.88 ± 0.02 0.2
C20:0 0.0– 0.2 – –
C22:0 (behenic) 0.0– 0.2 0.10 ±0.01 –
Mono- unsaturated FA
C16:1n−7 0.0– 0.6 – 0.3
C18:1n9 (oleic) 62.0– 86.0 6.93 ±0.02 9.3
C20:1 0.0– 0.2 – 76.7
Poly- unsaturated FA
C18:2 (n−6linoleic) 20.0– 30.0 73.88
±0.09
–
C18:3 (γ- linolenic) 0.0– 0.4 9.24 ±0.05 –
C22:1 0.0– 0.1 – 12.1
(B) Phytosterol
Campesterol 1.39– 6.10 7.20 16.90
Stigmasterol 0.04– 2.90 – –
B- sitosterol 14.89– 87.00 64.00 69.90
5- avenasterol 1.85– 28.20 4.00 –
7- avenasterol 0.10– 9.21 23.00 –
7- stigmasterol 0.10– 4.82 – 6.70
Clerosterol 0.40– 2.80 1.00 –
Isofucosterol – – 4.10
Stigmasta- 5,25- diene-
3b- ol
– – 0.60
Note: Literature data (mg/kg oil) expressed as percentage [%]. Source
references: [5, 10, 16].
Abbreviations: ‘– ’, data not known, reported or detected; FA, fatty acid;
literature data expressed as percentage [%].
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NATURAL OILS IN SKIN CARE APPLICATIONS
oil. Finally, Simmondsia chinesis (JJO) oil is used widely in
a variety of skin applications which exploit its sebum- like
characteristics (see next section). Figure 1shows the seeds,
oils and flowers of SAO, EPO and JJO to illustrate the rele-
vant parts of these plants by common images.
The purpose of this update is to provide a recent review
of SAO, EPO and JJO in terms of their cosmetic and der-
matological application as ‘active’ ingredients. Given the
ever- increasing consumer demand for natural ingredients,
and more importantly, the demand for ‘effective’ natural
ingredients including plant oils, it is important for the cos-
metic industry to re- evaluate them in this context. This re-
view describes the effectiveness of SAO, EPO and JJO, in
the treatment of xerosis, atopic dermatitis, ageing skin, ju-
venile skin, scalp conditions and their wider potential. The
focus is set to formulation considerations where the con-
tent of these oils impacts product oxidation, skin penetra-
tion and stratum corneum (SC) homeostasis. This review
does not address medical or food supplement applications.
Individual in- depth recent reviews of each of these plant
oils in terms of oil extraction, toxicity and preservation are
available to the reader and are reported elsewhere [4– 8].
LIPID PROFILES
For the cosmetic industry especially, knowledge of the
chemical profiles of SAO, EPO and JJO, especially their
lipid profiles, has been exploited widely by investigators
leading to several skin benefits and other pharmacologi-
cal outcomes. Variations in the amounts of key fatty acids
within these oils will be dependent on seasonal changes,
farming locations, extraction methods and genetic varia-
tions [9– 16]. SAO is rich in both mono- and polyunsat-
urated fatty acids, (Table 1A,B) especially oleic acid (up
to 86%), with lower amounts of linoleic (up to 30%) and
palmitic acids (up to 9%) respectively. The predominant
sterol in SAO is β- sitosterol (up to 87%). EPO is a well-
known and valued natural oil used widely in both skin-
care and non- cosmetic applications such as female health
[7, 27– 29, ]. It is predominantly composed (Table 1A) of
the essential fatty acid C18:2 n- 6linoleic acid (74%) and
containing C18:3 γ- linolenic acid (9%). EPO also contains
high amounts of β- sitosterol (64%). JJO is often termed
an ‘oil’ due to its pale yellow, transparent and liquid na-
ture. However, it is actually a liquid wax ester (98%), re-
sembling that of human sebum [30]. JJO is a mixture of
straight chain esters of monounsaturated long- chain fatty
acids and long- chain primary fatty alcohols. Of the fatty
acids, oleic acid (30%– 45%) and 11- eicosenoic (20%– 40%)
acid are predominant. The wax esters produced by JJO
are very similar to human skin sebum [31]. Jojoba is the
only plant species currently known for synthesizing a ‘liq-
uid wax’, which accounts for approximately 40%– 60% of
the dry weight of mature jojoba seeds [8, 30]. In general,
plant- derived oils are rich in triglycerides; therefore, JJO
differs from other seed oils due to the fact that it contains
primarily liquid wax, rather than triglycerides [32, 33].
ANTIOXIDANT PROFILES
Plant oils, such as SAO, EPO and JJO, are the major
source of vitamin E, which include eight lipo- soluble iso-
forms, namely the tocopherols and tocotrienols. There are
four tocopherols (α- , β- , γ- and δ- tocopherol) and four to-
cotrienols (α- , β- , γ- and δ- tocotrienols). They each func-
tion as free- radical scavengers in cell membranes and
lipoproteins [34]. Tocopherols play an important role as
a quality parameter in the oil by protecting it against lipid
oxidation. Furthermore, tocopherols play an important
role in the skin as protection against lipid cell membrane
oxidation which can lead to inflammation and apoptosis
[35, 36]. Table 2 highlights the content of tocopherols
in SAO, EPO and JJO, whereas for tocotrienols a lack of
data was observed. The predominant tocopherol in SAO is
Barrier repair
- Xerosis Atopy
Inflammatory
response
Skin
ageing
Sweet almond √* * √
Evening primrose √ √ √ √
Jojoba √ √ √ √
Note: √, clear findings; *, inconsistent data or lack of evidential clarity (see text for details).
TABLE Outline of physiological
effects of Sweet Almond oil, Evening
Primrose oil and Jojoba oil
TABLE Tocopherol content of Sweet Almond oil, Evening
Primrose oil and Jojoba oil
Tocopherol
Sweet
almond
Evening
primrose Jojoba
α92.00 27.00 20.00
β7.00 0.00 0.45
γ– 67.00 79.20
δ1.00 5.00 0.05
Note: Literature data expressed as percentage [%]; ‘– ’, data not known,
reported or detected. Source references: [5, 8, 10, 30].
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BLAAK and STAIB
α- tocopherol (92%), whereas the predominant tocopherol
in EPO and JJO is γ- tocopherol – 67% and 79% respectively.
DERMATO- COSMETIC EFFECTS
Benefits of SAO, EPO and JJO have been well documented
both pre- clinically and clinically [5, 7, 8]. Historically, they
have been used for hundreds if not thousands of years for
their management and treatment of various cosmetic-
relevant skin conditions and skin disorders.
Dry and xerotic skin
SAO, EPO and JJO have all shown beneficial effects in the
treatment of skin dryness and abnormal transepidermal
water loss (Table 3). Dry or xerotic skin is a common oc-
currence, often worse during the winter months, and is a
consequence of environmental exposure and issues relat-
ing to certain skin conditions with prevalence for dryness.
The moisturization capabilities of a cosmetic product can
provide relief for those with the problems of flaky, itching
or irritated and dry skin, and it is this moisturization sec-
tor of the industry that is both relevant and enormously
successful. Emollient products containing various oils
are essential to any moisturizing formulation and may
vary depending on the formulators approach. Oils rich in
fatty acids from which the main barrier lipids (ceramides,
CERs) are formed are sought after, especially when com-
bined with attractive sensorial properties.
Evening primrose is widely known for its linoleic acid
content. Linoleic acid belongs to the group of essential fatty
acids, also called exogenous fatty acids, because the human
body does not synthesize them and it is necessary to ob-
tain them from food [37]. Since they are precursors of com-
pounds that lead to the generation of anti- inflammatory
eicosanoids, linoleic acid contributes to the proper func-
tioning of many tissues of the human body. It also [38] plays
an important role in the proper functioning of the skin, no-
tably the SC, in which it is one of the key components of
the CERs building barrier function. It has been shown that
the presence of linoleic acid prevents skin from peeling and
the loss of epidermal water, while at the same time improv-
ing skin softness and elasticity and regulating the process
of epidermal keratinization. High levels of linoleic acid
strengthen the epidermal barrier, normalize excessive loss
of water through the epidermis and improve smoothness,
after both topical and oral applications [10]. A deficiency
of linoleic acid, which is essential in CER EOS (ceramide
1), leads to its replacement by oleic acid. This results in a
deterioration in the protective properties of the epidermis
[39] and barrier functioning. A poor diet rich in saturated
fatty acids and under conditions of physiological ageing of
the body exacerbates this [38, 40].
In other studies [28], EPO has been shown to improve
skin dryness when taken orally; however, the effects were
not significant until at least 12weeks postadministration.
Effects prior to 12weeks were no different to the controls.
The high content of oleic acid in SAO renders it an ex-
cellent carrier oil in terms of enabling skin penetration
of its active components, as well as a carrier for a wide
variety of lipo- soluble actives, and in soap formulations.
JJO being a liquid wax ester is high in C20:1 and C22:0
fatty acid and can decrease transepidermal water loss and
enhance SC moisturization [19]. Both SAO and JJO have
FIGURE Transmission electron microscopic images of
the intercellular lipid lamellae in the intercellular space of the
stratum corneum examined by Lipbarvis® at different time points
and different treatment areas. The baseline is shown in A (day 0,
untreated/treated), while treatment areas are represented in B (day
22, untreated) and C (day 22, treated). Comparing the treatment
effects on differences from baseline (white arrows), a significantly
higher number of intercellular lipid lamellae in the intercellular
space were detectable in the area treated with the test product
(black arrows) compared to the untreated area (white arrows). CC,
Corneocyte; ICS, Intercellular space. Source references: [63, 64]
(
a
)
(
c
)
(
b
)
CC
CC
ICS
CC
CC
CC
ICS
CC
ICS
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NATURAL OILS IN SKIN CARE APPLICATIONS
been shown to be as effective as white petrolatum in com-
parison skin xerosis clinical studies [41].
Atopic dermatitis
Atopic dermatitis (eczema) is a multifactorial skin condi-
tion which exhibits disturbed epidermal barrier function-
ing manifesting itself as dry and pruritic [42]. Restoration
of normal skin barrier functioning is crucial in the man-
agement of the condition and cosmetic emollient products
are one of the first- line methods of enabling this. Natural
oils such as EPO, SAO and JJO have all been shown to have
beneficial effects as part of eczema management [6, 19, 43–
47, ]. It has also been shown that levels of γ- linolenic acid
correlate with the efficacy of EPO in atopic patients [43].
Other dermatoses
Studies have suggested that JJO helps during the wound
healing process [8, 31, 48] and has some anti- microbial ben-
efit [49], lending itself to acne product formulations [50].
Other studies have shown beneficial effect in the manage-
ment of scalp psoriatic plaques [51]. More recently [52, 53],
it has been reported that SAO has benefits in the treatment
of striae itch. These findings correlate with other pruritic
conditions involving leg oedema [5, 54] and haemodialysis
patients [55, 56]. EPO has been reported to be successful
in the prevention of xerotic cheilitis in acne patients being
treated with isotretinoin [57]. In addition, a study on xerotic
and atopic- prone skin has shown that the application of an
EPO, SAO and urea containing slightly acidic body lotion in-
creases SC lipid lamellae density and SC lipid amount [58].
Newborn and juvenile skin
Given the nature of EPO, SAO and JJO, each lend them-
selves to applications addressing sensitive skin, especially
baby and juvenile skin types [31, 59, 60]. Diaper dermatitis
studies have demonstrated that an SAO- based emollient
was able to protect against recurrent dermatitis in 90%
of cases [61]. Furthermore, in pre- term infants, SAO has
been shown to be beneficial in SC hydration [62].
Aged and very old skin
In a study on elderly skin, it was shown by electron mi-
croscopy and SC lipid analysis that after treatment with
a slightly acidic product containing both EPO and SAO,
a significant increase in lipid lamellae density in the
intercellular space of the SC was observed (Figure 2), and
furthermore, the ceramide level was found to be increased
and the lipid ratio was optimized [63]. This method to
analyse SC lipid lamellae by using SC samples from a car-
rier followed by a transmission electron microscopic in-
vestigation has been previously introduced as Lipbarvis®
[64]. In other studies, SAO has been reported to prevent
UV- induced photo- damage in the skins of mice [65, 66].
FORMULATION CONSIDERATIONS
Given the discrepancies in some of the clinical data pre-
sented for a variety of dermatoses, the importance of the
choice of oil and how to formulate with them within the
context of the SC barrier function, skin penetration and
toxicity cannot be underestimated [6, 67, 68].
Studies with EPO have shown [45] that it has a sta-
bilizing effect on the SC barrier, but only in water- in- oil
emulsions. In amphiphilic emulsion, this effect was not
achieved. Thus, the choice of vehicle is a very important
factor in the efficacy of topically applied EPO.
In another study utilizing confocal Raman spectros-
copy [69], it was found that SAO in both adult and infant
skin was able to induce modest SC swelling compared to
petrolatum. In addition, it was demonstrated that there
was no statistical difference between paraffin oil and SAO
in terms of skin penetration and skin occlusion. These
findings were further correlated in other studies using
laser scanning microscopy [70, 71].
CONCLUSIONS
This present review summarizes the key up to aspects and
characteristics of three popular cosmetic oils, EPO, SAO
and JJO. Care should be taken in terms of the quality and
stability of theses oils, as well as ensuring best formula-
tion type, if the reported activities of these oils are to be
achieved with consistency. Despite discrepancies in the
scientific literature and questionable study designs, it is
commonly accepted that EPO, SAO and JJO do have vari-
ous skin care benefits for both adult and juvenile applica-
tions. EPO, SAO and JJO are effective ingredients for skin
care preparations to strengthen SC integrity, recovery and
lipid ratio. Nevertheless, further experimental data are re-
quired concerning the impact on SC physiology and struc-
ture as well on absorption, integration and processing of
topically applied natural oils.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Dr. Theresa Callaghan
(Callaghan Consulting International, Hamburg,
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7
BLAAK and STAIB
Germany) for supporting preparation of this manuscript
and for helpful scientific discussions. J.B. and P.S. are em-
ployees of Kneipp.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors state no conflict of interests.
ORCID
Jürgen Blaak https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0149-3180
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How to cite this article: Blaak J, Staib P. An
updated review on efficacy and benefits of
sweet almond, evening primrose and jojoba oils in
skin care applications. Int J Cosmet Sci. 2022;44:
1– 9. doi:10.1111/ics.12758
