Facets of creative potential in selected occupational fields

Abstract

Today, creativity is considered a success factor in many occupational fields and a core competence of the 21st century. In vocational education and training (VET), creativity is defined as problem-solving ability and ascribed to the transversal competences. Creativity is always context-dependent in terms of the work environment and specific demands of an occupation. To implement creativity didactically in the classroom and in the workplace, it is important to understand what creativity entails in the context of different occupations. Accordingly, the aim of this interview study was to conduct an initial investigation into the facets of creative potential in different occupations. Since a suitable instrument for measuring creativity does not exist in VET at time of writing, this study was based on theories and instruments used in psychology. The findings of this study show that in the four occupations studied (commercial clerk, specialist in care, IT specialist, and design engineer), different facets of creativity were relevant to successfully coping with creative situations. Overall, divergent and convergent thinking were identified as the most important facets of creativity in the professional creative situations examined.

Full text

CHAPTER 10. CHAPTER 10.
Understanding creativity as an
occupation-specific competence
(49) Professor, Head of research axe 'Teaching and learning in VET', Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training
(SFIVET), Switzerland (Antje.Barabasch@ehb.swiss).
(50) Senior researcher in research field 'Learning cultures and didactics', Swiss Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training
(SFIVET), Switzerland (Silke.Fischer@ehb.swiss).
(51) https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii-2019-report [accessed 21.11.19].
© Antje Barabasch (49) and Silke Fischer (50)
10.1. Introduction
Particularly relevant within vocational educa-
tion and training (VET) in Switzerland is the ac-
quisition of skills that support workers in seek-
ing new solutions to workplace challenges: this
means skills to think and act creatively. This new
requirement is reinforced by the development
and introduction of new technologies, which will
replace workers in some fields and will require
new jobs in others. Switzerland is considered an
innovation leader in the world, with about 90%
of innovation taking place within industry (51).
Its research infrastructure and strong appren-
ticeship system are guarantors for this success:
more than 70% of each cohort complete avoca-
tional education and training (VET) programme at
secondary II level (SERI, 2019). Taking into con-
sideration that many innovative ideas come from
workers at the lower hierarchical levels within an
enterprise, it signals that this level of education is
highly valued in the country and supports innova-
tion. Accordingly, VET is particularly challenged
to support the development of creative thinking
skills and action competence, abilities that can
be expected to support individuals in managing
their careers successfully and advancing profes-
sionally through their creative contributions at
the workplace.
Creativity is a complex phenomenon, only
vaguely defined. There is disagreement on the
scientific definition of creativity and there are
dierent approaches to description and expla-
nation. In vocational and business education,
creativity is seen as an interdisciplinary com-
petence as components of it belong to the area
of self and social competence. Several authors
claim that creativity (or at least parts of it) can be
learned and be unleashed in apprentices.
Although, apprentices need to build up skills
and competences, they are also asource of ideas
that enterprises can build on when further devel-
oping their products or even working on radical
innovations. Enterprises are increasingly discov-
ering the creative potential of their sta and sup-
port new forms of work collaboration that help to
unleash this potential and lead to innovation. Cur-
riculum frameworks for vocational training pro-
grammes start to address creativity development
as one competence development goal. There is
avariety of skills, that are relevant to producing
original work, such as suspending judgment,
self-discipline, perseverance and nonconformity.
Also, eagerness to work diligently is considered
to be an essential component of high levels of
creativity. While productivity and eectiveness
are driving forces at the workplace, it helps ap-
prentices to be provided with room to explore
and play, either at school or, to some extent, in
aprotected space at the workplace. Particularly
supportive is participation in teams that work cre-
atively and develop innovations as much as the
possibility to create individual projects with the
provision of sucient time and arealistic frame-
work of expectations to realise them.
Conclusions from various studies on profes-
sion-specific creativity development suggest the
need to understand creativity and creative po-
tential in a domain-specific perspective as dif-
ferences emerge across professional fields. Not
much is known yet about creativity development
within professions for which an apprenticeship
CONTENTS

107
CHAPTER 10.
Understanding creativity as an occupation-specific competence
would be the entry point. Similar to the notion of
competence, the ways in which individuals actu-
ate their potential depends on various contextual
factors, including the required abilities related to
each specific task. It is well known that dierent
abilities are required in dierent job domains de-
pending on particular work tasks that are typical
of each domain.
This chapter summarises findings from stud-
ies concerned with creativity development among
VET students. It first addresses the question of
how creativity could be measured within profes-
sions. It follows with the question of how creativ-
ity is playing out in dierent professions and how
it can be supported during workplace training.
10.2. Defining creativity
Creativity is a complex phenomenon and only
vaguely defined (Schuler and Görlich, 2007;
Palmer 2015). In scientific literature, there is disa-
greement on the definition of creativity and there
are dierent approaches towards describing and
explaining it. One of the most commonly used
definitions is that of Amabile (1996). According
to her, creativity is ‘the generation of novel and
useful ideas in any domain’ (Amabile, 1996, p. 2).
Creativity is attributed to acertain output orienta-
tion, since it is understood through the creation of
results in the sense of new products. Oldham and
Cummings (1996) broaden the understanding of
Amabile (1983; 1996) by considering processes
as well as new and useful ideas: ‘Creativity refers
to the development of novel, potentially useful
ideas. Employee creativity refers to individuals’
generation of novel and useful products, ideas
and procedures’ (ibid., p. 608). According to Old-
ham and Cummings (1996), an idea, a product
or aprocess is new if either a recombination of
existing materials or the use of acompletely new
material takes place. Another frequently used
definition of creativity comes from Lubart (1994)
and refers to creative potential as alatent abili-
ty to act creatively and to produce new, primal
work that considers task bounds. Later, Lubart
et al. (2013) and Caro and Lubart (2012) make
a further dierentiation. Accordingly, creativity
consists of cognitive facets, such as divergent
thinking, analytic thinking, mental flexibility, as-
sociative thinking and selective combination, as
well as conative facets, such as tolerance of am-
biguity, risk taking, openness, intuitive thinking
and motivation to create.
10.3. Studying creativity in VET
10.3.1. Can creativity in VET be measured?
In order to understand what role the transversal
competence creativity plays in the professions, it
would need to be measurable. Would it be pos-
sible to assess to what extent it may either exist
or has been developed among professionals?
Asystematic overview was taken between July
and August 2018 of the current status of existing
studies (see Cooper, 1988) on measuring cre-
ativity in the occupational context. The review
searched for publications in the following da-
tabases and journal hierarchies: EBSCO, ERIC,
International journal for talent development and
creativity, PsycINFO, Nebis, Swissbib and Goog-
le Scholar. Only studies that collected primary
data were considered. Publications based on
secondary data, such as other literature reviews,
were not considered, as they already refer to
studies with primary data. Among most existing
studies there were methods to measure creative
competences among workers.
In recent years, methods for measuring cre-
ativity in the professional context have large-
ly been of a quantitative nature or based on
a mixed-method approach. Questionnaires and
test items were mostly used as survey instru-
ments. In the publications examined, data col-
lection was predominantly carried out through
a combination of self-assessment and external
assessment using prominent scales. Measuring
tools have often been developed for avery spe-
cific professional context, such as design and
language. The most frequently used is the 13-
item scale of George and Zhou (2001) followed
by the 30-item scale of Gough (1979) and the
scale of Scott and Bruce (1994) to measure em-
ployee creativity. Applied test procedures are the
EoPC (Evaluation of potential creativity) of Lubart
et al. (2011) and the job-related creativity tests
CONTENTS

108 The next steps for apprenticeship
TBK-GS (design and language related activities)
(Schuler et al., 2013; Winzen, 2011), DBK-PG
(planning and design) (Schuler et al., 2013) and
DKB-TE (technology and development) (Palmer,
2015). The EoPC measures the creative potential
of children and young people whereas the TBK–
GS, DBK-PG, DKB-TE refer to the measurement
of creativity in the previously mentioned occupa-
tional contexts.
The measurability of creativity is complicat-
ed by the many, and partly blurred, definitions.
A large proportion of the studies that were ex-
amined view creativity as a multidimensional
construct with dierent components, such as
divergent thinking, problem solving, willingness
to take risks, and openness. In contrast, only
afew authors understand creativity as aone-di-
mensional construct and therefore do not explain
what ‘acting creatively’ exactly means; it is di-
cult to make the inaccurate construct of creativi-
ty empirically ascertainable. It seems questiona-
ble whether those studies that interpret creativity
as aone-dimensional construct really do justice
to this very complex concept.
The idea of researching creativity in VET, in-
cluding apprenticeships is relatively new and, so
far, no measuring instrument has been devel-
oped for this area. Since creativity is contextual,
measuring creativity in VET would first require an
activity analysis of creative situations in individ-
ual occupations in order to identify the relevant
occupational facets. These facets of creativity
would then have to be made operational through
suitable test tasks. Since creativity in VET is re-
garded as an interdisciplinary competence, the
basic principles of competence measurement
must be taken into account, such as prob-
lem-oriented learning. The test items would have
to consist of real vocational problem situations
that reflect as many facets of vocational compe-
tence as possible.
10.3.2. Creativity in the professions
In order to understand what role creativity as
a transversal skill (SBFI, 2018) or 21st century
skill (Chalkiadaki, 2018) plays within particu-
lar professions, the following assumptions are
(52) OdA are providers of Swiss VET. They define educational content, initiate the development of new occupations and organise inter-
company courses.
made: anyone can be creative and VET can con-
tribute to supporting creativity in the context of
work. These assumptions have led to an inter-
view study, conducted in winter/spring 2019.
The researchers investigated conative and cog-
nitive facets of creativity in selected occupation-
al fields. For this, practitioners were interviewed
from the professions hotel communication spe-
cialist, retail trade specialist and commercial
specialist (with the direction of trade). Since
creativity research mostly features creative per-
sons, these occupations were chosen because
one would not necessarily assume creative po-
tential in them. Further, commercial clerk is the
most frequently chosen basic vocational training
in Switzerland in terms of numbers (SERI, 2019).
First, education plans and VET ordinanc-
es for the relevant occupations were analysed.
Then atotal of 12 semi-structured expert inter-
views were conducted with vocational trainers
from companies in the hotel and trade sectors.
The interview partners were selected by experts
from the relevant professional organisation (OdA)
(52). The interview method used was the critical
incident technique (CIT) according to Flana-
gan (1954). This method was chosen to collect
precise creative descriptions of workplace situ-
ations in which the workers can or have to act
creatively. The results were deductively evaluat-
ed according to the conative and cognitive crea-
tivity facets defined by Lubart et al. (2013). Such
factors are joined-up thinking, creative commu-
nication, flexibility, openness and generating
acreative product.
The results show that creativity as a 21st
century skill is already represented either ex-
plicitly or implicitly in the framework curricula
of the respected apprenticeships. While there
are only indirect references to creativity in the
education plan and VET ordinances for hotel
communication specialist, creativity is shown in
the education plan and VET ordinance for retail
trade specialist as a technique and methodo-
logical competence. For commercial specialist,
creativity is mentioned in the educational plan
as alearning ability but is not addressed in the
VET ordinance.
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109
CHAPTER 10.
Understanding creativity as an occupation-specific competence
The results show that dierent cognitive and
conative facets of creativity are significant for the
occupations studied. For the hotel communica-
tion specialist, the creative facets divergent think-
ing, creative communication, mental flexibility
and openness have been identified. The following
factors were determined for the occupations of
retail trade specialist and commercial specialist
on the basis of the occupational situations de-
scribed by the experts: divergent thinking, an-
alytic thinking, associative thinking, selective
combination and intuitive thinking. These results
suggest that creativity in apprenticeships should
be promoted dierently in dierent occupations,
according to the facets identified by experts.
10.4. Supporting creativity within
workplace learning
The understanding of creativity within profes-
sional practice is an important precondition for
embedding it in curricula and training ordinanc-
es as well as developing teaching and learning
methods to build up this competence. Both are
relevant for teaching and learning at VET schools
(Barabasch, 2019). However, training at the work-
place plays a particularly relevant role in sup-
porting the development of creativity. Based on
various case studies in which industry-specific
learning cultures in apprenticeships were exam-
ined (Barabasch, 2020), several situations have
been identified in which creativity is supported in
workplaces (Barabasch et al., forthcoming).
The dual training approach in Switzerland
makes the enterprise the primary training place
where the apprentice spends about three or four
days aweek and one or two days at VET school.
Therefore, workplace learning in the enterprise
is the major socialisation context for the world
of work and vital to individual learning pathways
(Barabasch and Keller, 2019). Examining alearn-
ing culture of an enterprise means studying at-
titudes, values and beliefs of the members of
a community of practice: in this case, the sta
involved in VET in the enterprises Swisscom and
Login in Switzerland. The case studies involved
interviews with 46 apprentices, 13 coaches, four
employees closely working with apprentices and
24 managers at dierent levels. In addition, four
focus groups were held with about six appren-
tices each. Observations were conducted at 14
working sites. Among these sites were venues
where creative work was in the foreground (Bara-
basch and Keller, 2019). One of the interests in
the data analysis was to find out how creativity
is supported within dierent work environments
throughout the apprenticeship training; several
examples were identified.
Overall, there are large dierences between
the apprenticeships. While apprenticeships in
occupations related to ICT provide alot of scope
for creative work, sales professions have this to
a lesser extent and professions such as track
builder at railway companies have almost none.
The opportunities for working creatively seem to
be connected to the dierent forms of work or-
ganisation, with those being able to work in agile
work settings (Barabasch et al., 2020) being more
inclined and supported to work creatively. Here,
working in changing teams and projects contrib-
utes to opening one’smind, practising divergent
and convergent thinking, and learning from being
exposed to new experiences. This includes infor-
mal communication at eye level as much as new
work structures. Forms of agile work have been
introduced within occupations in informatics and
media design, such as the scrumming method
with its two-week long sprints, human-centred
design (HCD) workshops that can lead to big-
ger projects or other projects for which the de-
sign-thinking method was used.
The project-based apprenticeship system in-
troduced at Swisscom also oers apprentices
the possibility to bring their own team together
in an individual project. This supports identifica-
tion with, and commitment to, work. Enthusiasm
about working in real projects and taking over
alot of responsibility often creates high motiva-
tion and an experience of ‘flow’. The working at-
mosphere is inspired by the interior design of the
dierent working and learning locations. Appren-
tices in the IT field may especially have opportu-
nities to work in hubs and meet employees from
other departments or enterprises. Shared work-
ing spaces enable exchange, which can be es-
pecially valuable for the generation of new ideas.
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110 The next steps for apprenticeship
Anumber of tools support creative work, such
as the kick box, atool for the generation of ide-
as. The enterprise is supportive of creative and
entrepreneurial projects and provides funding for
the further development of ideas. If they are ap-
proved as marketable products, at dierent stag-
es, there is also further funding provided to take
the project to asuccessful end. Within this cul-
ture, there is the spirit, that one should and can
realise one’sown ideas. Rooms are often flexibly
furnished, so that they can be easily redecorat-
ed, which should encourage employees to ex-
periment and play with ideas, which may help in
finding new solutions. There is, for example, the
Pirates Hub, ashared working space mostly for
developers; the decoration is familial and friend-
ly, and the rooms resemble acosy coee shop
atmosphere. Several seating arrangements are
designed for informal exchanges.
Alongside the methods agile work, creative
workspace environments, design thinking ap-
proaches or the work with the kick box, the on-
line market place, where projects are announced,
is supporting and creating the preconditions for
creative work. Cultural aspects manifest them-
selves further in the egalitarian form of commu-
nication, the coaching culture, the freedom and
autonomy that apprentices have in their work-
time and workplace decisions as much as in
choosing among a number of projects accord-
ing to their competence requirements or creating
a project themselves. A positive culture of en-
couraging and communicating about mistakes,
trustful relationships and plenty of opportuni-
ties to network all support creative work among
apprentices.
While the telecommunication industry is by
character widely innovation-oriented, the public
transport industry also introduces various inno-
vations, often connected to new digital technol-
ogies. Apprentices work within this innovation
dynamic and understand how important it is to
contribute to it. Innovation needs creativity and
creativity is enhanced by leaving one’scomfort
zone and being exposed to new challenges and
experiences. Enabling creative work has be-
come an incremental aspect of the learning cul-
ture wherever possible.
The enterprise Login is the main provider for
VET programmes in the public transportation
sector in Switzerland. It operates as atraining
company for various occupations. In many cas-
es, to cover all the requested competences set in
the framework curricula of each apprenticeship
programme, apprentices learn at dierent sites
in dierent companies. Due to this rotation (often
apprentices change training places at enterpris-
es several times over the course of their appren-
ticeship), they can familiarise themselves with
dierent workplaces of the public transportation
sector and gain amore holistic insight than they
would acquire remaining in one specific field of
work at the same enterprise. An apprentice may
work for one year at the Swiss Federal Railways
(SBB), the main train operator in the country,
then at a logistic enterprise, a bus operator or
ferry company on one of the lakes or rivers, alo-
cal historic train company and eventually return
to the host company where the journey started.
The enterprise employs apprentices for VET
programmes that require high levels of gener-
al subject knowledge and good school grades
in maths and languages, such as the VET pro-
grammes to become an IT specialist or media-
matician. There are also apprenticeships that
require less general subject knowledge and stu-
dents with lower grades can enter their compul-
sory school exams, such as specialist for cus-
tomer dialogue or specialist for maintenance
management. The diversity of VET students in
the enterprise is high and the enterprise uses
this plurality as an advantage to benefit from the
diversity of ideas and approaches. Social con-
nectedness is acentral aspect in its learning cul-
ture. Since workers as much as apprentices are
widely oriented towards their team, afunction-
ing culture of trust is acentral pillar for working
creatively. This must be reinforced by workplace
trainers, who tend to trust apprentices in making
informed decisions, finding solutions and man-
aging challenging situations successfully.
Acting creatively is particularly relevant in
communicating both with customers and col-
leagues, in developing marketing tools or shap-
ing workplaces and in sales more generally. In
situations where apprentices assume a lot of
responsibility (such as managing an entire train
CONTENTS

111
CHAPTER 10.
Understanding creativity as an occupation-specific competence
station with mostly apprentices), finding creative
solutions to problems arising is particularly im-
portant. Initiative-taking and planned action are
demanded in this respect. A certain tolerance
towards making mistakes helps apprentices
to learn from challenging situations, especially
when timely and constructive feedback is pro-
vided by workplace trainers.
Login uses so called innovation expeditions,
a tool in which apprentices from dierent part-
ner firms work on topical questions on the world
of transportation. Including the views of the ap-
prentices is considered especially valuable in
early project phases. For example, the topic can
be the establishment of new teaching and learn-
ing conditions or finding a recruitment strategy
for acareer for which it is dicult to recruit the
requested number of apprentices. The innova-
tion expeditions provide an easy way for (further)
development through actively including the main
target group in idea generation. The dierent
topics (that can be introduced by Login or one
of the partner firms), are sometimes worked on
in mixed teams of apprentices and experienced
workers and sometimes by ateam of apprentic-
es only.
Apprentices can also contribute to improve-
ment through the apprentice-committee, which
represents all Login apprentices. Its members
gather requests and ideas for improvement from
apprentices, elaborate possible steps for im-
provement and bring them to the management
board. After evaluations by the apprentice pop-
ulation, the apprentices of the committee help to
make sense of the results and respond to further
questions. The committee has an internal plat-
form through which they can be contacted. In
being active in the committee, apprentices learn
how to communicate with dierent target groups
(peers, management, fellow workers), develop
ideas and turn them into action or products, but
also learn about participatory methods of deci-
sion-making and inclusive participation.
Some occupations in the transport world re-
quire high creative competences, as with appren-
tices working in the rail-service-management
(Zugverkehrsleitung). Events such as delays or
accidents cause unforeseen situations and con-
sequential eects that require finding and imple-
menting adequate solutions as soon as possible.
In many other occupations of the sector, routine
skills, reliability and teamwork competences
are required while the development of creative
solutions may be constraint due to safety regula-
tions. Nevertheless, there is acommon attitude
that apprentices can and should contribute to
improvements in their daily work and speak up if
they have good ideas.
The relevance of apprentice (creative) con-
tributions is introduced in the introductory week
(Einführungswochen). Workplace trainers (that
work in the partner firms but are trained by Login)
are sensitised to the fact that apprentices need
space to ‘play’ and try out dierent ways of do-
ing something to find their own strategies. The
provision of junior stations and junior business
teams enables apprentices learn within holistic
work situations and learn in dierent challeng-
ing situations. They can learn how to lead an of-
fice, work with clients, plan work and personal
resources and how to do accounting. Workplace
trainers are generally in the background and in-
tervene, if needed, as acoach. Examples of how
apprentices contribute with their creative ideas
are also found in many other workplaces, such
as trainers trusting apprentices to work on chal-
lenging tasks. For example, the apprentice or
a small group of apprentices may have to find
an adequate solution to a problem, supported
by the workplace trainer when needed. Other
apprentices plan activities for junior days when
pupils come to the Swiss Federal Railways to
be informed about the dierent apprenticeships.
Many partner firms have tools to gather ideas
from their employees, such as an idea-black-
board for announcing new ideas.
The public transportation sector is a more
traditional sector where change is largely relat-
ed to digitalisation. This carries the expectation
that workplaces will disappear or be modified in
the future and young adults need to be prepared
to adjust to these challenges. Job rotation, work
in apprentice teams, increasingly taking over
responsibilities, acting within diverse teams of
colleagues or finding and realising solutions in
aparticular setting of time and place contribute
to the development of creativity and creative
work. Apprentices can already be initiators of
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112 The next steps for apprenticeship
innovative approaches and develop early lead-
ership skills, solving challenging situations in the
team creatively.
10.5. Conclusion
Creativity as arecognised 21st century skill and
indispensable requirement for numerous pro-
fessional tasks and positions has, so far, been
insuciently researched in VET. Yet current chal-
lenges such as digitalisation and industry 4.0 are
making creativity increasingly important in VET
and it is already regarded today as an ‘indis-
pensable prerequisite’ for innovation (Schubert,
2009, pp. 10-13). The Danish creativity research-
er Tanggaard (2017) concludes that ‘the creative
potential of trainees must be encouraged’ if Eu-
rope is to maintain its innovative performance po-
tential. Consequently, the promotion of creativity
should take place in VET at all sites of learning,
e.g. school, company and inter-company class-
es. Initial research results suggest that creativity
in VET, including apprenticeships should be sup-
ported dierently in dierent occupations, since
dierent facets of creativity are relevant within
them. It will be important to recognise the rele-
vance of transversal skills, including creativity, in
training ordinances and curricula. Based on the
belief that they need to be trained, teaching and
learning practices may respond to it, including
the development of new didactic approaches.
Initial findings from the learning culture project
in Switzerland point to a variety of innovative
measures undertaken by companies to support
the development of creativity within workplace
learning. These might inspire other enterprises to
follow. More research is needed to understand
how the dierent 21st century skills can be sup-
ported collectively, what kind of training teachers
and trainers will need, and how new approaches
to workplace learning can be implemented in dif-
ferent apprenticeship training.
10.6. References
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113
CHAPTER 10.
Understanding creativity as an occupation-specific competence
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CONTENTS

114 The next steps for apprenticeship
Further reading
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