Available via license: CC BY 4.0
Content may be subject to copyright.
Article
Application of a program to promote personal development
and self-awareness in future Physical Education teachers of the
degree in Education and its relationship with wisdom
Milagros Arteaga-Checa1, María Victoria Palop-Montoro2 and David Manzano-Sánchez3
1 University of Jaén, Faculty of Humanities and Education Sciences. marteaga@ujaen.es
2 Catholic University of Murcia, Department of Health Sciences. mvpalop@ucam.es
3 University of Murcia, Faculty of Sports Sciences. david.manzano@um.es
* Correspondence: david.manzano@um.es
Abstract: The objective of the present study was to apply an intervention program based on emo-
tional education and self-knowledge, in students of the degree in Education to verify changes in
wisdom. For this, the 3S-WS questionnaire was administered before and after 8 weeks of interven-
tion, analyzing aspects related to affective, cognitive and reflective wisdom. The sample consisted
of 100 students (40 men and 60 women, aged between 20 and 29 years). After the intervention pro-
gram, students improved reflective wisdom without difference between sexes. On the other hand,
men had higher values in all variables than women. In conclusion, the program to improve personal
development and self-awareness could be useful to improve wisdom (especially reflective wisdom)
in 3rd and 4th year students of the degree in Education, specializing in Physical Education. At the
same time, it is intended that these students understand the foundations of the intervention so that
in the future it can be replicated in their classrooms and contribute to the sustainable development
of the 2030 Agenda.
Keywords: university; emotional education; social ambit; cognitive domain; physical education de-
gree
1. Introduction
Education must train in identity and values to obtain adequate adaptation and social
integration. For this purpose we highlight in this article, the importance of training and
progressing in "personal development and awareness" considering it a pillar on which to
support the personality maturation process, to promote a positive attitude and gain in
confidence and responsibility within academic and personal [1,2].
Personal development acquires importance as a formula to develop emotional as-
pects in the educational field, since as Fernández-Berrocal [3] explains, reality has
changed, and it no longer has as a priority to develop intellectual and academic aspects,
if not that it is necessary to face emotional and social aspects at the educational level. Here,
various investigations have shown that students lack psychological resources that allow
them to successfully cope with problems associated with negative behaviors and emo-
tional difficulties at school [4-7].
On the other hand, a highly relevant construct is wisdom, understood as the degree
of learning associated with personal and level development, associated with an excep-
tional amount of knowledge, judgment and advice applied to important, complex and
uncertain issues related to the life and its meaning [2] taking into account the own limits
and uncertainties in which all knowledge moves [8]. Other authors link wisdom to aspects
related to personality and affections, to the achievement of psychological maturity and
attributes such as transcendence, compassion, prudence and commitment to other peo-
ple[9,10].
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
© 2021 by the author(s). Distributed under a Creative Commons CC BY license.
Several authors have described the dimensions of wisdom. Webster [11] differenti-
ates five dimensions in wisdom: experience, emotional regulation, reminiscence, open-
ness to experience, and humor. Although it is not without debate about results, they are
the essential components of wisdom, both necessary and sufficient, and what constitute
the predictors and consequences. A basic definition is that wisdom is composed of a cog-
nitive aspect (general), a reflective aspect (related to oneself) and an affective aspect (re-
lated to others) [12]. Montávez's research [13] is also noteworthy, adding that the process
of discovery and development of individual expressiveness is made up of three phases
necessary for its integration into the reality of each person. The phases established by the
author are: "Awareness of the body (physical bases), emotional experience (expressive ba-
ses) and the consolidation of expressive abilities".
Another highly important variable refers to the concept of socialization. Merino in
turn [14] considers socialization as an active process through which the individual has to
achieve his personal identity, social identity and social insertion. In the achievement of
the first objective (personal identity) the individual intellectual and psychic processes pre-
dominate, and they are fundamentally introspective. In the second (social identity) all
those communicative processes and the acquisition of skills, competences and social roles
stand out. In the third (social insertion) not only the socio-labor incorporation is sought
but also its realization and personal projection to through different personal, cultural and
work contributions that as an active and responsible member he contributes to society.
These three factors are part of the trajectory of every individual, and this comprehensive
model of socialization constitutes and enhances a social learning process in which har-
mony between the possibilities and limitations of the individual, and the conditioning and
requirements of the environment is sought and intended social [15].
On the other hand, emotional well-being is shaped by personality traits, without
knowing with certainty which processes exactly influence it. Apparently, cognitive regu-
lation serves to improve well-being, proposing that interventions that help reduce un-
pleasant emotional experiences associated with anxiety and depression, as well as pro-
mote greater happiness and emotional well-being. Emotional well-being work can help
avoid negative effects such as depression [16], as well as more flexible thinking and the
ability to find positive aspects in stressful situations [17]. Although the most important
thing is that there are authors who consider emotions as high-intensity affective responses
that can be managed through training [18]. Thus, the review by Sánchez-Álvarez [19]
shows how research on emotional well-being has increased significantly in recent decades
given its great interest in improving the well-being of the person, being the sample of
university students one of the most used in most investigations.
Focusing on the development of the person, Goleman [20] conceived knowledge and
personal development with the name of "self-knowledge" or "emotional self-awareness".
For this author, emotional self-awareness is the first component of emotional intelligence,
of which he states that “knowing how one feels implies becoming aware of internal states,
resources and intuitions, making an objective assessment of oneself and being able to rec-
ognize their own strengths and weaknesses”.
For the work of these skills, the spontaneous and natural expression of the body as a
means of development takes on a special relevance, allowing a greater development in
society of the person and achieving personal fulfillment [21,22]. In this way, one of the
most important needs of the human being is to express himself, and frustration in this
area can contribute to behavioral disturbances, mainly in early ages, since what happens
in the first years of life it will mark the evolutionary development of the child [23]. Thus,
awareness and sensitization when learning to observe and analyze our behaviors and
those of others through body expression, can help develop the wisdom that will help us
understand life [2,15].
It is from childhood, when we are filled with beliefs that initially are patterns that
have been reinforced by adults and will configure a belief system to adapt to the world.
Part of these beliefs are based on messages of ignorance that cause us limitation, and it is
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
the ego that is responsible for making us believe that we are safer within that imprison-
ment than outside of it [2]. To be able to dismantle ingrained patterns that are the result
of having seen life in one way for a long time, it requires at least training and it takes a
period to dissolve them. In addition, there is a high interest in the work of these aspects
due to their relationship also with physical and mental health, highlighting the fact that
emotions can influence them [24-28].
Although, as has been indicated, these states that are rooted in the person are con-
ceived from childhood and therefore, it is of great interest to see if once established, it can
be modified over the years, through intervention proposals. In this sense, there are several
studies that have carried out intervention programs with university students looking for-
ward an improvement in aspects such as motivation, reduction of anxiety levels, stress or
well-being [29-37].
For all the reasons explained above, the main objective of this study is, in the first
place, to develop a methodological proposal based on the teaching of the recognition of
the purposes of life and self-knowledge with students of the specialist teaching degree in
Physical Education. On the other hand, the second objective focuses on evaluating how
this intervention can influence the three areas of wisdom, known as the cognitive, affective
and reflective areas and, in turn, check if there are differences after the intervention based
on the gender of participants.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study design and participants
It is a quasi-experimental study with pre-post-test measurements. These measure-
ments were made to third and fourth year students of the degree of specialist teacher in
physical education who are taking the subject of "Body expression and communication"
at the University of Jaén. A total of 100 students completed the pre-test and the post-test
and participated in the present study, being 60 women and 40 men.
2.2. Instruments
A multiple response questionnaire was used where the first question was asked
about the course they were in, the date of birth and the gender of the participants. Next,
the “Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale” was used, which main purpose was to measure
the Wisdom of the participants.
Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS) [38]: Scale that seeks to measure 3 dimen-
sions in relation to wisdom, based on the Ardelt scale in 2003 and validated and translated
into Spanish by García-Campayo [38]. The scale is made up of three subdimensions with
a total of 39 items. 14 items for the cognitive dimension (eg, “I am hesitant about making
important decisions after thinking about them”), 12 items for the reflective dimension (eg,
“When I look back on what has happened to me, I can't help feeling resentful”), and 13
items for the affective dimension (eg, “I don't like to get involved in listening to another
person's troubles”). The items are self-rated using five options, and they are scaled from
1 (strongly agree or definitely true of myself) to 5 (strongly disagree or not true of myself).
The reliability values for this study was α = .816 and α = .846 for the pre-test and post-test.
At the time of passing the questionnaires, they were administered electronically to-
gether with the instructions to a total of 106 students (finally remaining 100 who took the
pre-test and the post-test), in a quiet environment and were answered in 15 minutes ap-
proximately. In any case, they were urged to be honest as they would be anonymized
afterwards and would not influence their academic grades.
2.3. Procedure and intervention
In the first place, the intervention proposal was prepared seeking an improvement
in personal development and awareness, with a total of 13 weeks of intervention with 8
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
sessions of an hour and a half in duration, in the subject expression and body communi-
cation. The test was administered both initially and after the intervention to verify the
results. More specifically, the development was as follows:
The first week, the participants were informed about the procedure to follow to com-
plete the questionnaires in the initial evaluation and this procedure was carried out in the
same way at the end of the process in week 12. They were offered the instructions to access
the he by telematic means and an operational delivery time was established with a maxi-
mum of 15 minutes.
In the eight intermediate weeks, the methodological proposal was developed where
they held sessions oriented to the points of improvement that had been marked as the
objective of the study. The student had previously had a document that provided infor-
mation of interest associated with the activities to be carried out in said practice, studied
it and then responded with concentration and individually. Next, he joined a working
group where the information of all the members of the group was put in common and
they established common guidelines and patterns by making a brief report that had a
scheduled delivery.
Following guidelines from various authors [39-43], the methodological process fol-
lows a sequence or structure that seeks to reduce until eliminating what influences harm-
ing the person, and for this, trains the mind to stop living in the past or in the future, stop
judging ourselves and others, let go of control of what is not controllable and allow life to
rule, learn to relativize what happens under the norms and human justice, seek the elim-
ination of dependencies towards people and means with sensationalist speeches that are
not accompanied by positive final intention and do not convey solutions, and seeks to
prevent emotional moments and thoughts that may affect what is of great value in your
life.
Once aware of the procedures for the elimination of these patterns, we seek to do
daily what helps or improve us and make proposals that help us accept what happens
using universal laws to guide us [2], seeking solutions to the situations we experience in
our destiny and with a life purpose, and on it a scale of priorities is established that allows
us to discern about events, forgiving and forgiving ourselves, accepting failures and
weaknesses and trusting in life. To improve functionality and consolidation, protocols of
mental silence or contemplation are shown that help focus attention [44,45]. Verbalizing
the positive despite feeling artificial at the beginning, using gratitude in everything is part
of the development of this stage.
Finally, in a personalized way and to favor the discovery of an objective reality, per-
sonalized and individual supports are proposed, providing tools for self-knowledge. The
tools are focused on improving mental silence, reknowing the purpose, recognizing uni-
versal laws, reducing what hurts us, creating improvement habits and developing empa-
thy in social relationships.
As an example, following the book by Arteaga [46], some of the proposals that were
carried out are specified:
Table 1. Exercises examples and description
Exercise Description and purpose
"Enneagram" It is a system to classify the personality and includes 9 types or ways of
seeing the world called enneatypes. It offers a roadmap for analyzing
personality patterns and helps to identify them. Two groups are
divided and in each group, they must choose the paragraph that best
choose their attitudes and behavior. Finally, they are classified into an
enneatype (enthusiastic, challenger, peacemaker, etc.)
"A happy
world"
This activity consists of devising a world around where everything that
happens is good and perfect. Visualize yourself in it and discover an
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
image of how you would be. Finally, they must describe the image they
have seen.
"The crude
reality"
Students are instructed to do the following: visualize real life and list
the factors that prevent you from being the image you saw in the “brave
new world” exercise. Are they external factors to you?
"The system" The following is indicated: Consider your body as a working system or
machine, or as if it were a company working together on a global
project. They must visualize aspects such as What would be the best
and most appropriate to be effective when there are people who do not
perform their function? Imagine parts of your body that do not do their
function.
"The wheel of
life"
Draw a circle and divide it into six equal segments, leaving a circle with
six sections that represent the six main areas of life. There could be
more, but those six vital areas are universal. These areas can be
evaluated and become six goals for an ideal life (self-knowledge,
health-well-being, emotions, relationships, transcendence and
professional). Each area is scored from 1 to 10.
“Reality on my
Screen”
Students are asked the following: Write about yourself, the things you
give yourself and give yourself permission aimed at creating an image
of yourself that is real and in harmony with what you want to be. What
do you want to experience more, what gives you confidence and
energy, who would you like to be.
The sequence proposed to be followed to promote development and personal iden-
tity would consist, first of all, in creating and reflecting on everyday situations in which
suffering, discomfort appears and is felt and produce mistakes and errors in the actions
that we carry out. Then learn to recognize the existence of natural laws and their operation
to realize our own actions and have a reference pattern. At that point, become aware of
the individual unconscious defense patterns, since it is useful to recognize the motivations
that arise from the mechanisms of the ego, to provide different perspectives of reality and
how to face it, and lastly, to provide guiding references.
2.4. Data analysis
First, we check the internal consistency of both the pre-test and the post-test of each
of the scales, using the Cronbach's alpha test to calculate the reliability. Then, we checked
the normality of the variables using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and chi-square test.
After that, a T-student test for related measures was conducted. Additionally, we checked
the differences between gender using a MANOVA (Multivariante Analysis of Variance).
An analysis of the residuals revealed the non-fulfillment of the hypothesis of normality
and homoscedasticity of some variables, so it was decided to carry out the analyzes also
using non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon test and U de Mann Whitney test). The results ob-
tained with both procedures were very similar, therefore, the results of nonparametric
tests were not included for brevity. The statistical package IBM SPSS 24.0 (New York:
USA) was used for the analysis.
3. Results
In the first place, taking into account the total sample analyzed, we find the results
reflected in Table 2.
Table 2. Analysis of pre- and post-test for the sample
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
3D-Wise Schale
M SD p
Ambit_Affective_Pre 3.53 .49 .414
Ambit _Affective_Post 3.49 .48
Ambit _Reflective_Pre 3.47 .50 .038*
Ambit _Reflective_Post 3.58 .51
Ambit _Cognitive_Pre 3.43 .48 .754
Ambit _Cognitive_Post 3.44 .55
Ambit _Global_Pre 3.47 .38 .489
Ambit _Global_Post 3.50 .41
Note: * p < 0.05; M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation
Considering them, we found no changes after the intervention weeks in the affective
or cognitive variables, where the values remained practically unchanged. On the other
hand, in the reflective field, we do find statistically significant differences (p = .038) for the
total sample.
On the other hand, the multivariate analysis carried out to differentiate according to
gender, reflected the results indicated in Table 3. This analysis was carried out on the one
hand, for the three variables of the questionnaire in total and on the other hand, for the
scale of the questionnaire as a whole, taking into account the results of the Univariate
Anova.
Table 3. Multivariate analysis of the variables according to gender
Men Women
M SD p M SD p F p
Ambit_Affective_Pre 3.68 .43 .670 3.43 .51 .584 5.915 .017*
Ambit _Affective_Post 3.63 .51 3.4 .44 5.670 .019*
Ambit _Reflective_Pre 3.54 .35 .127 3.43 .58 .237 1.134 .290
Ambit _Reflective_Post 3.66 .47 3.52 .52 1.310 .255
Ambit _Cognitive_Pre 3.48 .51 .140 3.4 .46 .549 .736 .393
Ambit _Cognitive_Post 3.57 .54 3.36 .54 3.467 .066
Ambit _Global_Pre 3.56 .35 3.42 .40 3.385 .034*
Ambit _Global_Post 3.62 .43 .328 3.43 .40 .853 4.861 .048*
Note: ** p < 0.01; M = Mean; SD = Standard Deviation.
Regarding gender, we found statistically significant differences both in the pre-test
and in the post-test for the affective domain variable, where men had statistically signifi-
cant values higher than women (p = .017 and .019). In addition, in the post-test cognitive
field they had an approximation to significance (p = .066). On the other hand, the scale as
a whole showed statistically significant differences in favor of men at p = .034 and .048
(pre-test and post-test). Finally, to check if the intervention had a different influence on
boys and girls, we proceeded to segment the file and make the comparison between the
pre-test and post-test separately according to gender. In this way, it was possible to see
how no statistically significant differences were found, which could be due to the small
sample (40 and 60 subjects), if observing how the men had a similar value to that of the
reflective field (which, if statistically gave differences when joining the sample) in the cog-
nitive field.
4. Discussion
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
The objective of this study was firstly, to apply a methodological proposal based on
the teaching of the recognition of the purposes of life in university students of the degree
in Physical Education. Second, assess how this intervention could affect aspects related to
wisdom and its three areas and verify the differences based on gender.
Attending to the first of the objectives, the intervention strategy used by the study
has been aimed at creating a transformation or change in the areas of "Self-knowledge",
"Emotions", "Relationships" and "Transcendence of life" avoiding the “learned helpless-
ness" that consists of looking for something where we cannot really find it or, what is the
same, looking for it outside when the answer is within us. This appreciation or concept
conveys the need to change the paradigm we have to understand life that is usually asso-
ciated with seeking solutions, answers and changes outside of ourselves.
Montávez [13] establishes that this awareness is the first phase in the personal devel-
opment process and consists of “perceiving and feeling the body and becoming aware of
its reality” and adds that awareness is carried out through their own personal experiences
and experiences, that is, through “experimentation”. This phase is developed in our inter-
vention constantly since each experience lived is taken into account and would end when
the individual becomes capable of adapting the work carried out to their personal charac-
teristics, which in this research would be when arriving at the last session.
On the other hand, the students' perception of the intervention in general was quite
positive, after carrying out surveys during the classes about the usefulness they saw in
the exercises and in the way of carrying out the sessions, compared to the rest of the course
academic in relation to the subject. Therefore, it is thought that it may be an appropriate
protocol for students, which must be deepened so that they can also apply it safely with
their students in the future. Secondly, when describing the results obtained after the in-
tervention, we must emphasize that statistically significant changes were observed in the
reflective field, taking into account the total sample.
Considering that our intervention greatly promoted the participants' self-knowledge
and reflection on the events and experiences they had experienced, it seems logical that
this was the greatest change experienced by them. Although, the measurement of wisdom
through questionnaires, although it may be simplistic because it is thought that it is af-
fected by biases such as social desirability [47], has advantages by offering a simple and
fast means to approach the base empirically and that it allows to know antecedents, start-
ing situation and consequences. It should be noted that there are different investigations
that have translated the 3D-WS scale into different languages, but they are very recent
studies [38,48,49].
No studies have been found that have analyzed this area in university students with
this questionnaire, but correlations have been found between the global score of this ques-
tionnaire with happiness [50], life satisfaction [51] or emotional competence and self-effi-
cacy [52]. This is very interesting to consider given that the observation of low levels of
these scales could be detrimental to these aspects. When observing in our case that men
had higher values than women both in the pre-test and in the post-test, although there
were no differences in the change (both improved, but they were not statistically signifi-
cant data), it could be of great interest to investigate why these values are higher in men
and to make intervention proposals especially focused on the female gender. Further-
more, this differs from Andreia's study [53] with this scale where he indicates the non-
existence of differences based on gender or educational level, generally finding that young
people score higher in the three dimensions than older people [54]. However, it should be
noted the study by Fernandez [55] where differences according to age are appreciated in
the affective and reflective dimensions, but not in the cognitive one; results with similar
results to our study.
In university students, it should be noted that this is the first study using this scale,
but if interventions have been found in order to improve certain related variables with
quite disparate results that make us reflect on the importance of carrying out an adequate
protocol to intervene. So, we find investigations that did not achieve improvements in
satisfaction and learning [56] and other studies, on the other hand, did find improvements
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
in academic satisfaction [30,57] or with life satisfaction [36] with similar intervention du-
rations. This aspect was not assessed in the present study but it is a very interesting aspect
to taking into account.
Entering psychological variables, interventions in university students have given
good results in aspects such as reducing levels of anxiety, stress and depression [32]. It
would be very interesting to consider the hybridization of methodologies that is provid-
ing optimal result due to its multiple possibilities [54], for example, combining the current
intervention with biofeedback, which has given very good results in university students
in variables related to emotional well-being in interventions from as little as 4 weeks
[32,33,58] and with other aspects as important to life as resilience or the ability to over-
come adversity [37]. Another aspect linked to prosocial behaviors is motivation, and it is
essential to work on it from an early age. However, the present proposal could have con-
templated the analysis of this variable, teaching motivational resources in addition to the
variables contemplated, such as the study by Gonzalez Cabanach [34] which also allowed
students to have greater self-control and self-efficacy.
Describing students of the degree in Education linked to Physical Education, the pro-
motion of healthy habits related to physical activity is essential. In this regard, in recent
years, an increase has been observed due to the study of those factors associated with a
healthy lifestyle of the young population and especially university students [59]. There-
fore, interventions where this stimulation is sought, such as that of Carranza [35] with
more than 800 students, may be appropriate to promote these aspects and teach university
students who aspire to be future teachers.
We must point out that there is an urgent need to accelerate actions to achieve the
sustainable development goals that are within the 2030 Agenda and, without the involve-
ment of universities, these cannot be met [60]. Among them, guaranteeing a healthy life
and promoting well-being at all ages, as well as guaranteeing an inclusive, equitable and
quality education. Future teachers can provide solutions, knowledge and innovative ideas
to the sustainable development goals, training those who will be in charge and responsible
for implementing these goals [61]. They need to innovate by mobilizing, involving and
motivating the youngest; that, as in the university, give a quality education with relevant
skills that promote and research on sustainable development. This will lead to better per-
sonal, national and international development results. Key competencies for sustainabil-
ity are systems thinking, anticipation, strategy, collaboration, critical thinking, self-aware-
ness, and problem-solving skills [62].
Finally, it should be noted a series of limitations following the Engberg recommen-
dations [63], such as the need to randomize the participants, carry out mixed-method
studies including a qualitative analysis, or increase the duration of the intervention. Fi-
nally, the sample size was low and it could influence the significance of results.
5. Conclusions
There are difficulties in finding research or studies that relate the influence that the
teaching of personal development and self-awareness exerts on wisdom in its cognitive,
reflective and affective spheres, with very few authors who have carried out studies on it
and there are no at the university level.
The intervention presented in this study can lead to an improvement in the process
of personal development and awareness of the participants, thanks to the program of self-
awareness, search for mental silence and recognition of the patterns of action that nega-
tively influence behavior. person, creating habits of improvement towards ourselves and
in relation to our social relationships.
On the other hand, from the information compiled in the bibliographic review, the
conclusion is reached of the importance of addressing personal and conscientious devel-
opment in the educational field as a channel to externalize one's own feelings and emo-
tions. Likewise, personal knowledge acquires great relevance for this process, becoming
a primary phase. The object of another study would be to verify the different educational
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
systems established in Spain and see the relationship it has with the new trends based on
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences, where developing emotional competence has become a
significant aspect.
The intervention that was carried out could serve to improve emotional well-being,
wisdom and socialization processes in university students. Although, there was a positive
but not significant trend in most of the studied aspects of wisdom, improving the reflec-
tive field, being necessary more studies in this field. In addition, women had lower results
than men, which makes reflection on this aspect also important.
It is necessary to reflect on the importance of continuing to carry out studies and
research on related aspects, since there are benefits for people that can be produced with
their progress. Also, it is recommended to carry out more studies, especially intervention
studies, to test improvements in the general wisdom in the university environment, being
advisable to carry out longitudinal studies of larger and more diverse samples to explore
the mediating effects of these constructs on well-being, respect and learning
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.AC, MV.PM; methodology, M.AC, formal analysis
D.MS, investigation M.AC and D.MS, data curation D.MS, writing-original draft preparation M.AC
and D.MS, writing – review and editing, M.AC, MV.PM and D.MS.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
References
1. López Rosetti, D. They. Brain, heart and psychology of women; Planeta publishing group: Argentina, 2016.
2. Rodríguez-Fraile, G. A new paradigm of reality?; Foundation for the development of consciousness: Madrid, 2015.
3. Fernández-Berrocal, P.; Ruiz, D.Emotional intelligence in education. Educ Psychol 2008, 6(15), 421-436.
4. Extremera Pacheco, N.N.; Fernández-Berrocal, P.Emotional intelligence in adolescents. J Par Teach 2013, 352, 34-39.
https://revistas.comillas.edu/index.php/padresymaestros/article/view/1170
5. PenaGarrido, M.; Extremera Pacheco, N.; Rey Peña, L. The role of perceived emotional intelligence in solving social problems
in a sample of adolescent´s students. Rev Orientac Psicopedag 2011, 22(1), 69-79. https://doi.org/10.5944/reop.vol.22.num.1.2011.78
6. Olmedo, M.; del Barrio, V.; Santed, M.Á. Efficacy of a preventive program for emotional problems in adolescents: The modulator
role of academic achievement. Acción Psicol 2012, 2(3), 213-222. https://doi.org/10.5944/ap.2.3.532
7. Olmedo, M. Application and evaluation of a program for coping with emotional problems in adolescents. Doctoral Thesis,
National Distance University (UNED), Spain, 1997.
8. Sternberg, R.J. A balance theory of wisdom. Rev Gen Psychol 1998, 2, 347–365. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.4.347
9. Erikson, E.H. The lyfe cicle completed; Paidós: Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1985.
10. Urrutia, A.; Moisset de Espanés, G.; Ferrari, C.; Borgna, G.; Alderete, A.M.; Villar, F. Development and validation of the Brief
Scale of Self-assessed Wisdom (EBAS) in Argentinian older adults. Univ Psychol 2016, 15(2), 205-216. http://dx.doi.
org/10.11144/Javeriana.upsy15-2.dveba
11. Webster, J.D. An exploratory analysis of a self-assessed wisdom scale. J Adult Dev 2003, 10(1), 13-22.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020782619051
12. Ardelt, M. The measurement of wisdom: a commentary on Taylor, Bates, and Webster’s comparison of the SAWS and 3D-WS.
Exp Aging Res 2011, 37(2), 241–255. doi: 10.1080/0361073X.2011.554509
13. Montávez Martín, M. Corporal expression in educational reality. Description and analysis of its teaching as a point of reference
for the improvement of teaching quality in public primary education centers in the city of Córdoba. Doctoral Thesis, University
fo Cordoba, Spain, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10396/6310
14. Merino Fernández, J.V. Pedagogical-social action with minors who have difficulties in socialization. Educative Context. Rev de
Educ 1998, 1, 177-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.18172/con.377
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
15. Corbera, E. The art of unlearning: The essence of bioneuroemotion; El Grano de Mostaza editions: Barcelona, Spain, 2017.
16. Gullone, E.; Taffe, J. The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA): a psychometric evaluation.
Psychol Assess 2012, 24(2), 409-417. doi: 10.1037/a0025777
17. Isen, A.M. Adaptation: Sociobiology, evolutionary psychology, and the variety of lessons to be learned. Motiv Emot 1990, 14(4),
295-302. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00996187
18. Mcleod, D. Beliefs, attitudes and emotions: new view of affect in mathematics education. In Mcleod, D.; Adams, V. (Eds). Affect
and Mathematical Problem Solving: A New Perspective. Springer-Verlan: New York, 1989; pp. 245-289.
19. Sánchez-Álvarez, N.; Extremera, N.; Fernández-Berrocal, P. The relation between emotional intelligence and subjective well-
being: A meta-analytic investigation. J Posit Psychol 2016, 11(3), 276-285. doi: 10.1080/17439760.2015.1058968
20. Goleman, D. Leadership that gets results. Harvard Business Review: USA, 2005.
21. Merayo Pérez, A.; Sánchez Cobarro, P. Emotional intelligence in communication professionals: the value of intrapersonal
skills.T&VM 2010, 3, 131-150.
22. Castañer, M. Significant motor skills thanks to body language and expression; Askesis, Spain, 1998.
23. Arteaga, M. Fundamentals of corporal expression: Pedagogical scope; University publishing group: Spain, 2003.
24. Dethlefsen, T.; Dahlke, R. Illness as a path: A method for the deep discovery of illnessess; Debolsillo: Spain, 2014.
25. Zammatteo, N. L'impact des émotions su l'ADN; Quintessence editions: United Kingdom, 2015.
26. Lipton, B.H. The biology of faith: Unleashing the power of consciousness, matter, and miracles; Palmyra editions: Madrid, Spain, 2016.
27. Lipton, B.H.The biology of belief: Unleashing the power of consciousness, matter & miracles; Ariane editions: Madrid, Spain, 2018.
28. Pert, C.B. Molecules of emotion. The science behind mind body medicine: Why you feel the way you feel; Simon and Schuster: New York,
1999.
29. Barrable, A.; Papadatou-Pastou, M.; Tzotzoli, P. Supporting mental health, wellbeing and study skills in Higher Education: an
online intervention system. Int J Ment Health Syst 2018, 12(1), 1-9. doi: 10.1186/s13033-018-0233-z
30. Stover, S.; Holland, C. Student resistance to collaborative learning. Int J Schol Teaching Learning 2018, 12(2), 1-11.
doi: 10.20429/ijsotl.2018.120208
31. Järvelä, S.; Kirschner, P.; Hadwin, A.F.; Järvenoja, H.; Malmberg, J.; Miller, M.; Laru, J. Socially shared regulation of learning in
CSCL: understanding and prompting individual- and group-level shared regulatory activities. Intern J Comput Support Collab
Learn 2016, 11(3), 263-280. doi: 10.1007/s11412-016-9238-2
32. Ratanasiripong, P.; Kaewboonchoo, O.; Ratanasiripong, N.; Hanklang, S.; Chumchai, P. Biofeedback intervention for stress,
anxiety, and depression among graduate students in public health nursing. Nurs Res Pract 2015, 160746. doi: 10.1155/2015/160746
33. Henriques, G.; Keffer, S.; Abrahamson, C.; Horst, S. Exploring the effectiveness of a computer-based heart rate variability
biofeedback program in reducing anxiety in college students. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2011, 36(2), 101-112.
doi: 10.1007/s10484-011-9151-4
34. Gonzalez Cabanach, R..; Valle, A.; Rodríguez, S.; Garcia Gerpe. M; Mendiri-Ruiz-de-Alda, P. Intervention program to improve
academia goals management for university students. Rev Espanola de Pedagog 2007, 65(237), 237-255.
35. Carranza Esteban, R.; Caycho-Rodríguez, T.; Salina Arias, S.A.; Ramírez Guerra, M.; Campos Vilchez, C.; Chuquista Orci, K.;
Pérez Rivera, J. Effectiveness of an intervention based on the Nola Pender model in promoting healthy lifestyles in Peruvian
universities. Rev Cuba Enferm 2019, 35(4): e2859.
36. Smeets, E.; Neff, K.; Alberts, H.; Peters, M. Meeting suffering with kindness: Effects of a brief self-compassion intervention for
female college students. J Clin Psychol 2014, 70(9), 794-807. doi: 10.1002/jclp.22076
37. Bartos, L.J.; Funes, M.J.; Ouellet, M.; Posadas, M.P.; Krägeloh, C. Developing resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic: Yoga
and mindfulness for the well-being of student musicians in Spain. Front Psychol 2021, 12, 642992. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.642992
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
38. García-Campayo, J.; Del Hoyo, Y.L.; Barceló-Soler, A.; Navarro-Gil, M.;Borao, L.; Giarin, V.; Tovar-García, R.R.; Montero-Marin,
J. Exploring the wisdom structure: Validation of the Spanish new short Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3D-WS) and its
explanatory power on psychological health-related variables. Front Psychol 2018, 9, 692. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00692
39. Rogers, C.R. Personality change in psychotherapy. Int J Soc Psychiatry 1955, 1(1), 31-41. doi:10.1177/002076405500100106
40. Hayes, S.C.; Strosahl, K.; Wilson, K. Acceptance and commitment therapy: The process and practice of mindful change. 2nd ed., The
Guilford Press: New York, USA, 2012.
41. McHugh, L. A new approach in psychoterapy: ACT (acceptance and commitment therapy). World J Biol Psychiatry 2011, 12, 76-
79. doi: 10.3109/15622975.2011.603225
42. Molina Secall, J. Live your legend; Josep Molina Secall edition: Spain, 2020.
43. Saeidi, M.; Komasi, S.; Amiri, M.M.; Azizi, M.; Alikhani, M. Is the enneagram personality system an affective approach to
explaining drug addiction? Middle East J Rehabil Health Stud2020 (in press), e98710. doi: 10.5812/mejrh.98710
44. Blázquez Tejada, M.T. Without thinking I exist: Meditation according to the research of a doctor in physics; Ruiz de Aloza editors:
Spain, 2021.
45. Hayes, S.C.; Wilson, K.G. Mindfulness: method and process. Clin Psichol 2003, 10(2), 161-165.
https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg018
46. Arteaga, M.; Moreno, R.; Fradua, L. Love provide health: aging is a privilege; Amazon International: Spain, 2021.
47. Staudinger, U.; Dörner, J.; Micker, C. Wisdom and personality. In R.J. Ternberg; J. Jordan (Eds.). A Handbook of Wisdom.
Psychological perspectives; Cambridge University Press: New York, 2005, pp. 191-219.
48. Gonçalves, R. Tradução e adaptação cultural de uma medida de avaliação da sabedoria: a 3D-WS-19. Rev Kairós Geront 2017,
20(1), 203. doi: 10.23925/2176-901X.2017v20i1p203-220
49. Bansal, M.; Nayyar, R.; Vij, A. Empirical analysis of 3D-WS in Indian context. Int J Manag 2018, 14, 7-13.
50. Etezadi, S.; Pushkar, D. Why are wise people happier? An explanatory model of wisdom and emotional well-being in older
adults. J Happiness Stud 2013, 14, 929-950. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10902-012-9362-2
51. Ardelt, M.; Jacobs, J. Wisdom, integrity, and life satisfaction in very old age. In M.C. Smith (Ed.), Handbook of Research on adult
learning and development; New York: Routledge, 2009, pp. 732-760.
52. Glück, J.; Bluck, S. The MORE life experience model: A theory of the development of wisdom. In M. Ferrari; N. Weststrate (Eds.),
The scientific study of personal wisdom. Springer: New York, 2013, pp. 75-97.
53. Andreia, J. Wisdom in older adults who attend high-level universities: a correlational study with openness to experience, quality
of life and spiritual well-being. Doctoral Thesis, University of Coimbra, Portugal, 2015.
54. Fernándes, A. Aging and wisdom in adulthood: A study of personal wisdom. Doctoral Thesis, Polytechnic Institute of Viana
do Castelo, Portugal. 2015.
55. Fernandez, H. Sabedoria na adolescência. Doctoral Thesis, University of Lisboa, Portugal, 2019.
56. Männistö, M.; Mikkonen, K.; Vuopala, E.; Kuivila, H.M.; Vitanen, M.; Kyngäs, H.; Kääriäinen, M. Effects of a digital educational
intervention on collaborative learning in nursing education: A quasi-experimental study. Nord J Nurs Res 2019, 39(4), 191-200.
doi: 10.1177/2057158519861041
57. Jiménez-Parra, J.F.; Manzano-Sánchez, D.; Valero-Valenzuela, A. Gamification and cooperative learning. Rev Int Med Cienc Act
Fís Deporte. In press.
58. Ratanasiripong, P.; Ratanasiripong, N.; Kathalae, D. Biofeedback intervention for stress and anxiety among nursing students: a
randomized controlled trial. ISRN Nurs 2012, 27972. doi: 10.5402/2012/827972
59. Al-khawaldeh, O.A. Health promoting lifestyles of Jordanian university students. Int J Adv Nurs 2013, 3(1), 27-31.
doi:10.14419/ijans.v3i1.1931
60. Fernández Pérez, A. Education for sustainability: A new challenge for the current university model. Res Soc Dev 2018, 7(4), 1-
19. doi:https://doi.org/10.17648/rsd-v7i4.219
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
61. Kestin, T.; van den Belt, M.; Denby, L.; Ross, K.; Thwaites, J.; Hawkes, M. SDSN Australia/Pacific. Getting started with the SDGs
in universities: A guide for universities, higher education institutions, and the academic sector. New Zealand and Pacific edition:
Melbourne, Australia, 2017.
62. Rieckmann, M.; Mindt, L.; Gardiner, S. Education for sustainable development goals - Learning objectives. United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization: Paris, France, 2017.
https://www.academia.edu/36783925/Educaci%C3%B3n_para_los_Objetivos_de_Desarrollo_Sostenible_Objetivos_de_aprendi
zaje
63. Engberg, M.E. Improving intergroup relations in higher education: A critical examination of the influence of educational
interventions on racial bias. Rev Educ Res 2004, 74(4), 473-524. doi: 10.3102/00346543074004473
Preprints (www.preprints.org) | NOT PEER-REVIEWED | Posted: 21 December 2021
