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Broadening international mentoring: contexts and dynamics of expatriate and HCN intercultural mentoring
Abstract
Purpose
To enlarge the focus on international mentoring beyond traditional company-assigned expatriates, this conceptual paper examines important contexts and dynamics of intercultural mentoring involving traditional expatriates and host country nationals (HCNs), with both as mentors and mentees.
Design/methodology/approach
This conceptual paper explores how intercultural mentoring in different contexts can guide the individual professional development of expatriates and HCNs, and in doing so, contributes to MNC knowledge management and organization development.
Findings
Major contributions of this paper include increased attention to the role of culture in mentoring, and an illumination of important intercultural mentoring opportunities and imperatives involving traditional company-assigned expatriates and HCNs, who are key global talent players in MNC knowledge management and overall operations performance. This paper also provides practical recommendations on how organizations can facilitate mentoring within a global context, as well as suggestions for viable avenues for future research, including further extending the global talent reach of international mentoring.
Originality/value
This paper emphasizes the importance of taking the intercultural context into account when planning and managing mentoring in MNCs and outlines how culture can affect mentoring relationships involving traditional company-assigned expatriates and HCNs. This contextual aspect has often been neglected in the extant literature, yet can be crucial for the success of mentoring relationships that cross cultural borders. With its inclusion of HCNs, this paper also expands the picture of international mentoring beyond the traditional focus on company-assigned expatriates.
... This continued mentoring from those in the home country may be particularly useful in helping the expatriate maintain an awareness of, and connection with, back-home dynamics and changes, supporting eventual effective repatriation and retention (Chiang, van Esch, Birtch, & Shaffer, 2018;Knocke & Schuster, 2017). During this predeparture stage, beneficial mentoring connections also may be established for valuable preparatory information with current expatriates in the targeted host country (both within and outside the company, including through connections made through expatriate social networks), as well as with middle and upper-level host country nationals (HCNs) at the intended foreign operation of the expatriate assignment (van Bakel, Vaiman, Vance, & Haslberger, 2022). During the foreign assignment, these mentoring relationships provided by fellow expatriates and HCN professionals may be strengthened to enhance international adjustment, for both the working and non-working experience, and ongoing international assignment success (van Bakel, 2019). ...
... Mentoring benefits have been outlined for assigned expatriates at various stages of their international assignment (e.g. Crocitto, Sullivan, & Carraher, 2005;Mezias & Scandura, 2005;Schuster, Ambrosius, & Bader, 2017;van Bakel et al., 2022). While host-country mentors may be able to assist expatriates in gaining relevant country information already during pre-departure preparation and training (Vance & Ensher, 2002), they likely will be more helpful when expatriates arrive, simply by making sure that they will avoid pitfalls and 'hit the ground running'. ...
... An additional weakness of past expatriate mentoring literature, in particular, such as the otherwise seminal work by Mezias and Scandura (2005), is the predominant focus on the mentoring of MNCs' home country assigned expatriates. Much of the past research on expatriate mentoring has focused on these traditional company-assigned expatriates at the neglect of other types of business expatriates (McNulty & Brewster, 2017;Vance, McNulty, Paik, & D'Mello, 2016) as well as the neglect of peer mentoring provided to expatriates by members of the local HCN workforce (van Bakel et al., 2022). It is important to redress these areas of neglect by highlighting how other professional mentoring relationships, also involving local HCN colleagues and peers as mentors, and across a variety of expatriate talent categories within an international context, can benefit the individuals involved and, ultimately, improve knowledge management and multinational organisation development within MNCs (Ansoff, et al., 2019;Rosser, et al., 2020;Caligiuri, 2014). ...
This chapter investigates the role of mentoring in fostering expatriate professional development, focusing on overcoming unique challenges such as cultural differences, language barriers, and geographical distance. Despite mentoring's recognized benefits in career advancement and learning, as well as overall organizational development and improvement for enhancing organizational productivity and performance success, its application in the global arena remains under-explored. Through a comprehensive review of existing literature, this chapter examines the limited but growing attention on expatriate mentoring in various important expatriate career categories, providing a nuanced understanding of intercultural mentoring relationships and mentoring dynamics within MNCs. This review underscores the importance of peer mentoring and developmental networks in facilitating successful international assignments. The chapter concludes with practical recommendations for organizations and policymakers and outlines future research directions to enrich the understanding of expatriate mentoring's impact on global talent management.
... Secondly, different cultures have different views and importance to time. Some cultures emphasise punctuality and efficiency, while others may be more flexible and interpersonaloriented [9]. Conflicts with work progress and efficiency could result from this. ...
... Fourth, different cultures have different degrees of acceptance of leadership style. For example, some cultures may favour authoritative leadership, while others may value participatory or democratic leadership more [9]. Fifth, there are different views on work attitudes and values in different cultures. ...
Wal-Mart has a large number of subsidiaries around the world and is relatively well staffed, but due to various factors, its revenue contribution to overseas business is relatively low. This illustrates Wal-Mart's prospects and obstacles in the international market. The enterprise's foreign workers encounter new demands and obstacles as the degree of internationalization is continuously improved. Dispatched employees are the core of connecting the headquarters and subsidiaries of multinational companies and play an important bridge role. Therefore, the cross-cultural practice discussion of expatriated employees has become a focus of international human resources management at present. This article will explore the cultural differences faced by Wal-Mart in the process of communication between expatriate employees sent by the headquarters to each subsidiary and the host country in 2015-2024 through the retrieval and qualitative analysis of literature, and explore these cross-cultural problems. The study investigate a number of real-world solutions to examine a range of cross-cultural issues that Wal-Mart employees face in the host country.
... Studies have suggested that culture is a key element of mentoring Kinos et al., 2023;van Bakel et al., 2022), but culture appears to have received inadequate attention among scholars interested in mentoring migrants to support their work integration. Despite its importance, for the most part, culture is neither systematically addressed empirically nor sufficiently conceptualised. ...
... In these studies, culture is treated as an asset. While past work has recognised these linkages (van Bakel et al., 2022), we see substantial for further development, more generally in analysing mentoring relationships, but specifically in the context of mentoring programmes where contributions are currently limited. Mentoring-to-work research may benefit from interpretative cross-cultural management perspectives by examining how cultural capital, and inter-cultural capital especially, may be effectively generated in cross-cultural interactions and relationships. ...
This critical, integrative literature review examines how culture has been conceptualised and utilised in studies of mentoring schemes supporting migrants' labour market integration. Our review revealed limited engagement with cultural concepts in past work. However, we consider how a small number of studies on migrant mentoring-to-work have approached culture-as an asset offering enrichment, as a potential barrier, and as part of power structures. Drawing on insights from the field of Cross-Cultural Management, we reappraise these approaches through three influential research traditions (cultural comparison, interpretive and critical intercultural management) to identify new ways to enrich studies on migrant mentoring-to-work programmes.
... MCS enhances expatriates' CQ and job performance by helping them navigate host country complexities [70]. Pairing expatriates with local and international mentors accelerates cultural adaptation and professional development [71,72]. Effective MCS programs reduce turnover, increase satisfaction, and improve assignment success rates [73]. ...
... Robust connections with local colleagues may provide significant insights and guidance throughout the assignment. The efficacy of these relationships is shaped by perceived cultural affinity and humility, which strengthens the expatriates' sense of belonging and their ability to adapt successfully [71,88,89]. ...
This study explores the strategic implementation of social support enablers to address expatriate turnover and the shortage of skilled labour in Thailand’s hospitality industry, particularly in the post-COVID-19 context. By integrating Social Support Theory, Cultural Intelligence Theory, and Social Capital Theory, this research identifies and prioritises key enablers essential for expatriate success. We employed a novel three-phase methodology, which included a literature review, a hybrid Best–Worst Method (BWM), Grey Relational Analysis (GRA), and semi-structured interviews with experts. The findings reveal a hierarchical framework of social support enablers, with health and psychological adjustment support, work–life balance initiatives, career development opportunities, and national support for the host country emerging as top priorities. Implementing these enablers effectively addresses expatriates’ adaptation challenges and significantly enhances their performance, well-being, and retention. This study contributes to the literature by providing the first empirically derived, prioritised approach to social support enablers implementation and practical guidance for developing holistic support systems in multicultural hospitality environments. Focusing on Thailand, the methodology and framework offer a robust foundation for future cross-cultural comparisons in expatriate management research.
... With particular regard to KM, there is growing recognition that companies that consider and involve all employees as worthy talent in KM practices, rather than only a few select players (i.e., headquarters senior executives and MNC-assigned expatriates leading host country operations) possess a potential advantage over competing firms (Cucino, 2021;Bello-Pintado & Bianchi, 2021;Chen, Lam & Zhu, 2021;Hannola, 2018;Takeuchi & Nonaka, 2004;van Bakel et al 2022). HCN managers and other local administrative staff and support professionals and support staff who work with an expatriate typically are engaged in the sharing of information and knowledge with both the expatriate and other lower-level local employees. ...
... Although training for new expatriates will likely be much less formal than for the newly hired Mentor. In addition to knowledge sharing and skill development related to the trainer/coach function focusing on immediate performance, the HCNL may serve as a mentor with an ongoing working relationship of credibility and trust to assist both individual employees and expatriates in promoting their professional growth and future career development opportunities (Van Bakel et al., 2022). In this mentoring capacity, the HCNL can provide helpful advice and a strong role model to less-experienced peer and lower-level HCNs who are interested in future career advancement within the local workplace and beyond within other MNC operations. ...
... Furthermore, being on an international assignment (Distance to HQ) can make one feel "a bit forgotten", which negatively influences work engagement. HR should work with the onsite direct managers to ensure that AEs feel included locally and that they remain in close contact with HQ, for example, through a home country mentor (Van Bakel et al., 2022). Finally, HR also has a duty of care to ensure that AEs do not become workaholics. ...
Purpose
The expatriation literature (a substantial domain of the International HRM literature) has not paid sufficient attention to the phenomenon of work engagement, which is essential for expatriate success. Equally, research on work engagement in Organizational Behavior, although extensive and mature, has neglected the context of expatriation. Our study bridges the two literature streams to examine the antecedents of expatriates’ work engagement within the distinct context of international assignments.
Design/methodology/approach
Through e-interviews with 27 Nordic assigned expatriates in 16 host countries, we delineate and organize antecedents of assigned expatriates’ work engagement in a framework.
Findings
We identify two clusters of antecedents – general and specific – characteristic of expatriate settings (e.g. distance to headquarters, pride in being chosen, culture, fewer distractions, success in a foreign context, adjustment, location, and language). We decompose each cluster into contextual and job-related antecedents leading to absorption, dedication, and vigor as three components of work engagement. We depict and organize the relationships in a framework.
Originality/value
Our qualitative study connects two bodies of literature that have remained largely independent of each other. In doing this, we contribute to the expatriate literature by presenting a comprehensive picture of antecedents to work engagement and the engagement literature by exploring engagement in a new occupational work setting, namely international assignments.
... Multinational companies (MNCs), or multinational corporations, are expansive organizations that conduct business activities in numerous countries, extending beyond the limits of their native country [29]. These firms participate in many economic endeavors, such as manufacturing, advertising, distribution, and exploration, across multiple nations to access worldwide markets, resources, and skilled individuals. ...
In the complex global economic environment, multinational companies (MNCs) hold tremendous power, not only in driving economic growth but also in changing host nations’ skill formation systems and TVET landscapes. However, there is a gap in understanding the complex approaches MNCs use to practice the transfer of skill formation to these locations. This study investigates the strategies used by MNCs to transfer skills in TVET in their host countries, focusing on the impact of skill formation transfer on TVET program efficiency. Also identify the factors influencing the practice in their host countries. Three research questions guided the review. The study used a systematic literature review strategy following PRISMA guidelines. This study reveals a range of approaches used by MNCs, ranging from strategic collaborations, school-based collaboration, localization and integration of training programs, in-company training, apprenticeship empowerment, and transnational transfer of skill formation. The study also highlights the impact of local knowledge and skill formation, strategic industry-relevant skills workforce development, internal training provision, promoting apprenticeships, and encouraging multinational corporations to train in host countries. Factors influencing MNCs’ transfer of skill formation include inconsistencies between their skills development practices and national goals, subsidiary discretion in training policies, uneven institutional resources, stakeholder collaboration, political conditions, legislative frameworks, etc. This review enhances academic knowledge and provides practical insights for policymakers, educators, and business leaders, enabling them to develop updated approaches to skill development and workforce improvement worldwide.
... Thus, HCNs often play critical roles, such as socializing agents, cultural interpreters, and information resource brokers when working with expatriates (Heizmann et al., 2018;Vance et al., 2023). It is apparent that without the support and sharing of such valuable knowledge from HCNs, the effectiveness of expatriates and competitiveness of MNCs can be severely hampered (Li et al., 2022;van Bakel et al., 2022). A growing body of research has discussed different personal characteristics that could influence HCNs' knowledge sharing or supportive behavior, such as HCNs' identity-related perceptions (e.g., Fan and Harzing, 2017;Leonardelli and Toh, 2011;Yamao et al., 2015), social categorization of expatriates (e.g., Peltokorpi, 2020;Sonesh and DeNisi, 2016;Varma et al., 2011), and personality attributes (e.g., Arman and Aycan, 2013;Wang and Fang, 2014). ...
Host country nationals (HCNs) possess unique and valuable knowledge which is critical to expatriate and multinational company (MNC) success. Drawing on conservation of resources (COR) theory, we explore the negative effect of role overload on HCNs' knowledge sharing toward expatriates. Using two waves of data collected from 512 HCNs, we find HCNs' role overload inhibits their knowledge sharing behavior via perspective taking. The results also show that HCNs' personality agreeableness buffers the negative relationship between role overload and perspective taking. Our study provides significant theoretical and practical implications to expatriate literature.
... Research suggests that the development of expertise is dependent upon several factors including access to expert mentors or coaches and opportunities to practice and receive feedback (Klinge 2015). International mentoring creates barriers related to language and communication, limited face-to-face interactions, and cultural differences (van Bakel et al., 2021). To develop true experts in a field of study in a country where it does not currently exist, such as the case of developing experts in inclusion and special needs education in Sierra Leone, these factors must be purposefully put in place and barriers must be addressed in order to bridge the gap between content, the up-to-date knowledge of the field, and context, the location and culture where the content will be applied. ...
Inclusion and special needs education has gained attention in recent years in the West African country of Sierra Leone. Policies addressing access to education are in place and various international partners have been supporting the growth of knowledge through short term in-person professional development, but policies have not translated into practice; systems and methods for identifying and teaching learners with disabilities are lacking and an in-country expertise is not fully developed. An innovative approach to international partnership was used where content expertise and context expertise were equally elevated so that practices fit Sierra Leone’s needs and in-country experts in the field of inclusion and special needs education developed.
... However, past research on mentoring in international and cross-cultural management has tended to focus on mentoring relationships and their associated challenges, for example concerning culture or personality traits, rather than the management of mentoring programs (e.g. van Bakel et al., 2021;Schuster et al., 2017). Work on mentoring programs, though instructive, is often prescriptive in discussing their design and management rather than analyzing the subtleties of 1 The term "refugee" refers to individuals who have left their home country because of persecution or violence to seek safety in another country. ...
This paper examines the design and operational challenges of managing a mentoring program supporting the labor market integration of humanitarian migrants. Data were collected using extended participant observation of organizational activities and processes, analysis of internal and external-oriented documents and communications, and interviews with a range of program stakeholders in a French organization working with recently arrived humanitarian migrants. Utilizing theoretical insights from value creation approaches, the paper identifies how the organization attempted to construct value propositions, including how these were embedded in the program’s design and actors’ engagement. Moreover, it examines critically how these were interpreted, enacted and occasionally subverted through the perceptions and actions of the various actors involved in the program delivery. In doing so, the study evaluates how the scope, goals and impacts envisioned by the organization translated into participants’ experiences, which potentially shaped program outcomes. The findings stress the implications of program specialization and distributed governance on the effective management of mentoring schemes aimed at facilitating migrants’ transition into work.
... In this context of multiculturalism, companies are beginning to see an opportunity to develop cultural intelligence by, for example, peer mentoring (van Bakel et al., 2022) and also by training (which, unfortunately is more time-consuming and costlier than mentoring). It is very important especially where the skill to move about in the cultural diversity is a challenge for many employees (Desai et al., 2018). ...
Purpose: The primary objective of this paper is to identify similarities and differences between Slovak and Polish companies for selected elements of HRM. Design: Literature review and questionnaire research were conducted among 811 Polish and Slovak companies. The possibility of comparing these countries resulted mainly from the fact that both countries underwent transformation at the beginning of the 1990s and were struggling with similar problems resulting from political, economic, social and cultural changes. Findings: The paper presents the results of research on job descriptions, evaluation of employees, financing employee development and employing talented and intercultural people. The analysis and assessment of data obtained in the course of research has proved the existence of statisticall significant differences in selected elements of the system of HRM in Slovak and Polish companies. Practical Implications: For employees of HR departments, the results of the conducted research may indicate the directions of changes to clarify expectations for employees, ways to use the employee evaluation, financing employee development and employment of talents and people with intercultural skills. For business owners and management staff, the results of conducted research may be helpful in determining the consistency of the general strategy of the company with the adopted HRM strategy in the company and to indicate the directions of future changes in the HRM system in order to achieve compliance of these strategies. Originality Value: The findings allowed to suggest relevant recommendations for Slovak and Polish companies. A comparison of activities related to the functioning of selected aspects of the HRM system provided an opportunity to exchange good practices and experiences. This paper also indicates the need to constantly monitor the entire HRM process and its individual elements in the company.
Plain language summary
Leadership Skills Help Expatriates Adapt During Economic Uncertainty
This study examines how leaders’ ability to understand and explain complex situations (called ‘sensemaking’) helps expatriate employees adjust during challenging economic times. It was found that when leaders are good at sensemaking, expatriates feel more confident about their own abilities and are more supported by their organisation. This confidence and support helps expatriates to be more flexible and adaptable in their work. This study surveyed 283 expatriates from Thailand. The results show that leaders’ sense-making skills had a positive impact on expatriates’ adaptability. This relationship was partially explained by expatriates’ increased confidence in and feelings of organizational support. The findings highlight the importance of organisations in developing leaders who can navigate uncertainty and help expatriates feel capable and supported during economic challenges. This can lead to a more resilient expatriate workforce that can adapt and perform well, even in difficult global business environments.
Introduction. The problem of training and development of demanded, highly qualified professionals is explored. The purpose of this article is to identify the characteristic features of mentoring university students aimed at enhancing their professional development. Materials and Methods. The study was conducted using theoretical, empirical and auxiliary methods of psychological and educational research. General logical methods of scientific knowledge included analysis, synthesis and generalization of information. The analysis was based on questionnaires, as well as the method of collecting social information. Mathematical and statistical methods for interpreting the results were used as auxiliary methods. When assessing the reliability of differences between the data obtained from students of different years of study, a nonparametric statistical method was used (the Pearson chi-square test). Results. The authors identified features of mentoring university students. Four types of mentors have been identified: 1) mentors for learning; 2) mentors as psychologists; 3) research mentors; 4) field-based mentors. The functions of each type of mentors have been described and clarified. Furthermore, the authors proposed a system of interaction between mentors. Conclusions. The article concludes about the characteristic features of mentoring university students in order to facilitate their professional development as future professionals. The authors proposed a system of mentoring focusing on training, support and guidance of students which includes four types of mentors. A system of interaction between mentor and student is described.
Introduction. The article presents the results of a research investigation on the problem of modern individuals’ cognitive development, the mechanisms of formation of their reflexivity in modern conditions of societal information development. The aim of this study is to assess and identify the features of the impact of changing information and educational environment on cognitive processes of modern individuals, which determine transformations in the development of the mechanisms of their reflexivity based on a critical review of current research investigations. Materials and Methods. The research is based on the systematic approach, the theory of philosophy of education, and the cognitive theory of personality. The research methodology involves analysis and generalization of international and Russian scholarly works that consider the problems of information development of society, the specifics of the formation of cognitive processes in the development of education. Results. The article presents the results of the theoretical study, assessment and systematization of the impact of changing information and educational environment on cognitive-reflexive mechanisms of modern personality development. The critical review of current studies has shown that the issues of assessing and identifying the features of the impact of the changing information and educational environment on the cognitive processes of a modern personality, which determine the transformation in the development of the mechanisms of its reflexivity, are significantly updated at the present time in connection with changes in the cognitive and educational fields. It is shown that nowadays the problem of changing development orientation within the education system is significantly relevant with the focus on global transformations of social development, which entailed transformations in the higher education system, which determined the transformations not only of the university, but also the entire education system. Special attention is paid to the changes in the ontological and methodological foundations of changes taking place in modern conditions. Currently, the problems of forming critical thinking and determining personal mechanisms of reflexive cognition require a revision of theoretical foundations. As a result, the basic understanding of modern changes has been revealed: the problems of changes in the modern educational environment; the capabilities of the changing digital environment for the adequate functioning of the education system in modern conditions; the potential of the new educational environment for the formation of cognition of educational stakeholders. Conclusions. In conclusion, the authors summarise the results of the analysis of modern individuals’ cognitive development, the mechanisms of developing their reflexivity in modern conditions of changing information and educational environment.
Purpose
The international mentoring literature predominantly features traditional company-assigned expatriates as protégés overlooking other types of global talent, such as immigrants, refugees, and international graduates, who may help organizations gain long-term IHRM competitive advantages. We integrate multidisciplinary research to better understand the role of mentoring as a global talent management tool, identify research gaps, and propose future research directions.
Design/methodology/approach
We draw on an integrative review of 71 academic journal articles published between 1999 and 2024 to explore the role of mentoring in managing global talent (i.e. expatriates, immigrants, refugees, and international students and graduates).
Findings
We found that research has identified and examined relationships between various antecedents and outcomes of mentoring but mainly treating mentoring as a talent development tool. Less is known about the role of mentoring as a recruitment and selection tool in the pre-employment context. Mentoring is an important HRM tool that contributes to managing a global talent pool and developing existing employees.
Originality/value
The review contributes to a better understanding of the characteristics and processes involved in mentoring in a global context by proposing a framework that incorporates antecedents of mentoring, characteristics of the mentoring process, and mentoring outcomes. It highlights the value of mentoring as a recruitment and selection tool supporting global talent management and identifies avenues for future research.
Utilizing the social identity theory, this conceptual article has proposed how digitally mediated communication between expatriates and host country nationals (HCNs) in a remote work arrangement is linked with individualized change experiences of virtual expatriates. The conceptualized model proposes that the lack of in-depth conversations via virtual communication platforms leads to the development of weak emotional interactions between virtual expatriates and HCNs. However, weakened emotional interactions might result in positive or negative impact on expatriates’ identity based on personality-based differences. In this regard, expatriates with collective self-esteem are likely to experience social identity threats because of weakened social ties with HCNs. Contrary to the above group, expatriates having personal self-esteem would view weak socialization as an opportunity and experience an improvement in their leader identity, thus experience a positive social identity change over time. This research has conceptually explored outcomes of digitally mediated communication between expatriates and HCNs on the identity change experiences of expatriates, and holistically covers the role of positive as well as negative change experiences. Unlike the focus of the majority of literature on traditional expatriation, the proposed model has focused on experiences of virtual expatriates, and how working in remote work settings lead to long-term socio-psychological changes in these individuals.
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to develop a conceptual model explicating the development of expatriate social capital and its influence on expatriate effectiveness in terms of knowledge transfer and adjustment. Drawing upon social capital theory and weak tie theory, we elucidate the process through which expatriate social capital facilitates expatriate knowledge transfer and adjustment via greater access of role information and social support.
Design/methodology/approach
This study reviews and distills research on expatriate social capital development and proposes a conceptual model of expatriate effectiveness and suggests potential research avenues for global mobility scholars.
Findings
This study contributes to the understanding of the development of expatriate social capital in the host country and its impacts on expatriate effectiveness as a process. With regard to expatriates’ social capital accumulation, this study also highlights the important but less-known role of accompanying spouse/family members as expatriates’ weak tie enablers. We articulate a framework that outlines the sources of social capital for expatriates and the processes through which social capital transmits (via expatriates’ access to role information and social support) and then enhances expatriate effectiveness. This conceptual model aims to establish a basic “roadmap” for use by practitioners and researchers.
Research limitations/implications
Before the proposed conceptual model can be theoretically refined or extended by future research, its veracity needs to be tested empirically. Although we do not incorporate “time,” “personal characteristics” and “context” in our model, we recognize their potential importance and urge future researchers to incorporate them in studying the role of social capital on expatriate effectiveness.
Practical implications
A conceptual model is presented that enables multinational corporations (MNCs) to map their current (and future) strategies to enhance expatriate effectiveness by further strengthening the expatriate social capital.
Originality/value
Drawing upon social capital theory and weak tie theory, this paper links various sources of expatriate social capital to expatriates’ access to role information and social support in supporting expatriate effectiveness. From this, several avenues of future research are drawn.
In this comprehensive summary, we take a critical look at the state of performance management systems in multinational enterprises, summarizing what we have learned to this point, and speculating on where the field should go. We specifically address four challenges (i) can performance really be managed? (ii) if so, how do we go about doing this? (iii) the need to balance consistency across locations with the need to accommodate unique realities of individual locations, and (iv) addressing the different employee profiles ‐ i.e., expatriates vs. host country nationals. In terms of what we have learned to this point, we believe that global organizations need to pay more attention to (i) performance context, (ii) ratee reactions, and (iii) rater motivation, as these are integral to successful performance management. On the other hand, they might re‐consider and re‐visit the amount of time and energy spent on factors such as (i) appraisal forms and (ii) rater training, as these may not be serving any useful purpose. We next discuss the unique challenges faced by multinational enterprises, including (i) the type of strategy a corporation might employ (Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1998), (ii) the different cultures of the nations where the organization operates (Hofstede et al., 2010), and (iii) managing the performance of expatriates (Toh & DeNisi, 2007). Looking ahead, we would like to remind multinational corporations (and all other corporations) that culture and context matter, but these must be addressed in concert with the need to treat all employees fairly and consistently. We conclude by proposing several research ideas, including the need to explore the potential role of host country nationals in the performance management process for multinational enterprises.
In this conceptual paper, we argue that host‐country nationals (HCNs), without crossing geographical and organizational boundaries, experience distinct and complex interaction adjustment processes in response to their social exchange relationships with expatriates. We develop a theoretical model that suggests that the perceived value of the relationships between HCNs and expatriates, the structure of these relationships, and the HCNs' alternative sources of exchange resources predict HCNs' learning‐rich interactions with expatriates and HCNs' extraneous stress, which, in turn, influence HCNs' interaction adjustment. Along with research implications, our theorizing points to features that can improve HCN and expatriate selection, preparation, and management.
Purpose:
The paper tries to understand the needs of the international assignees across the different stages of expatriation and how different developers in the professional and non-professional sphere render support and advice through these stages.
Design/methodology/approach:
In this paper, the authors have interviewed 20 expatriates of various nationalities and tried to understand the various needs of the expatriates across the three initial stages of an assignment.
Findings:
The paper finds that four important mentors in an expatriation assignment play multiple need-based mentoring functions at various assignment stages: host country nationals (HCNs), parent country nationals, fellow expatriates and family.
Research limitations/implications:
This paper contributes to the literature on the need-based support rendered to expatriates during an international assignment. The paper, however, does not incorporate the perceptions of other vital stakeholders in the network and their intentions to contribute to the developmental network.
Practical implications:
This paper lays down important practical implications for expatriates and the human resource management (HRM) professionals. This paper urges the practitioners to take a nuanced approach for developing expatriates than a generalized mentoring programme.
Originality/value:
This study highlights the changing needs of the international assignees across the stages of an international assignment and demonstrates the important intra-organizational and extra-organizational developers such as family members in the fulfilment of these needs.
Aim
The purpose of this paper is to report on the evaluation of the online Global Leadership Mentoring Community, a programme designed to build relationships across seven global regions and promote leadership development for emerging nurse leaders.
Background
There is a pressing need and opportunity for sustainable global leadership mentoring programmes. This programme of Sigma Theta Tau International (Sigma) brought mentors and mentees together from across the world to build leadership capacity, understand global leadership issues and build networks. Community coordinators purposively selected mentors from each of Sigma’s seven Global Regions, and mentees were chosen through a process of snowball sampling. Mentors and mentees met monthly with quarterly group calls.
Methods
The study followed a programme evaluation, outcomes‐focused approach. All eleven pairs of mentors‐mentees were invited to complete online surveys at the outset and end of programme capturing both quantitative and qualitative data. Quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics and for qualitative data, a thematic analysis.
Findings
Quantitative data confirmed that all 22 participants gained from the experience. From qualitative analysis, themes emerged illustrating the scope of achievements: 1. facilitation of successful outcomes for both mentors and mentees, 2. challenges of global mentoring and 3. strategies for successful global mentoring.
Discussion/Conclusion
Participants reported that creating global leadership is a longitudinal process that needs sustained attention to effect change. This evaluation identified many strengths of the programme and recommended its continuation to help further development of global leaders, particularly through focusing more purposefully on policy issues.
Implications for Nursing Policy
Empowerment of nurses globally through a Global Leadership Mentoring Community can improve leadership at all levels, thus emboldening their voices to influence nursing and health policy and ultimately improve patient care.
This study advances our understanding of the contextualization of the effects of cultural intelligence (CQ). Drawing from trait activation theory and institutional theory, we develop a multi-level model showing how host countries’ informal and formal openness towards foreigners facilitate or constrain the importance of expatriates’ CQ in becoming embedded in the host organization. Furthermore, this study positions organizational embeddedness as a mediator in the association between expatriates’ CQ and a central element of expatriates’ jobs – knowledge sharing in the foreign workplace. Results from a cross-lagged survey of 1327 expatriates from 100 different nations residing in 30 host countries combined with secondary data indicate expatriate CQ relates positively to organizational embeddedness. Cross-level interaction analyses further suggest that in-group collectivism, the proxy for host countries’ informal openness towards foreigners, facilitates the importance of CQ as a predictor of expatriates’ organizational embeddedness. In contrast, CQ was not found to interact with the proxy for host countries’ formal openness towards foreigners, i.e. national immigration policies. Consistent with predictions, we identified that CQ relates positively to knowledge sharing and that organizational embeddedness carries an indirect effect. We discuss the implications for theory and practice.
In this study, we examine the roles of the host country nationals (HCNs)' identification with the MNE and perceptions of subsidiary's career development support as key factors in explaining the HCNs' decisions to provide help to expatriates. Using data collected in four countries (Australia, China, India, and Singapore), we show that HCNs' identification with the MNE and subsidiary's career development support are positively related to their extra-role helping behavior toward the expatriates. Further, the positive relationship between MNE identification and extra-role helping behavior becomes stronger when HCNs perceive that their career development is well supported by the subsidiary. We also provide post-hoc analyses to explore the potential differences of the four host countries in these relations.
Multinational companies (MNCs) often invite foreign subsidiary employees or inpatriates to their headquarters (HQ) to internalize the MNCs’ corporate values and transfer those values to their subsidiaries after repatriation. However, there is a lack of understanding about how and why inpatriates internalize these corporate values during their HQ experiences. By integrating the perspectives of international adjustment and organizational socialization with that of on-the-job learning, we develop a model wherein the job-related and psychosocial factors that inpatriates encounter at HQ promote their internalization of corporate values. Using a sample of 110 foreign subsidiary employee–supervisor dyads from the HQ of a Japanese MNC to which the employees were assigned as inpatriates, we found that developmental job assignments and psychosocial mentoring during inpatriation influenced the internalization of corporate values, which was partially and sequentially mediated by proactive socialization behavior and organizational identification. This study’s findings have significant implications for the theory and practice of inpatriation management, particularly with regard to how MNCs promote the internalization of corporate values among inpatriates.
Boundary spanners play an important role in multinational corporations (MNC), yet it is unclear who these valuable individuals are and why certain individuals, and not others, perform this role. We advance a ‘recognition’ perspective based on whether and how relevant others on both sides on the boundary experience positive impact. A dynamic integrated mixed method analysis of 118 individuals involved in headquarters-subsidiary interactions in four MNCs, shows that only a minority are ‘recognized boundary spanners’, experienced by others to positively impact intergroup relations. We identify different categories and mechanisms of recognition, and make a methodological contribution by integrating qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Expatriate literature acknowledge the importance of a host country's support in expatriate adjustment and assignment success, but only a few studies have addressed how the support receive from host country nationals may influence expatriate adjustment and overall success, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Using a survey data of expatriates on assignments, this study examines expatriates' perceptions of support from local employees and their impact on their adjustment and overall success. The results reveal that a host country's support has a significantly positive effect, not only on expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment, but also on their overall success. Expatriates perceive host country nationals' support as vital to enhancing their adjustment to host subsidiaries and successful assignment in general. The study recommends that multinational companies doing business in Africa must learn to incorporate host country practices and cultural value systems in the management of host subsidiaries rather than strictly adhering to the management style of their home countries.
Purpose
This paper aims to focus on how reciprocal mentoring can be used to make employees culturally intelligent.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conceptualize and present this framework based on their own experience in the industry and research experience in cross-cultural competence.
Findings
Workplaces today are characterized by high levels of multiculturalism. In such environments, being able to navigate this cultural diversity can be a challenge to many employees. Investing in cross-cultural training can be costly and time consuming. In such a situation, what better way to learn and appreciate cultural diversity than by bringing together two individuals from different cultural backgrounds. Reciprocal mentoring for developing cultural intelligence can be an effective practice that organizations can follow to develop intercultural competence amongst its employees.
Practical implications
The concept presented in the paper can help organizations use their own existing resources to develop cultural intelligence company-wide, rather than choosing third-party interventions/training.
Originality/value
This paper provides executives with a quick glimpse into the concept of cultural intelligence and its development through reciprocal mentoring.
The growth and proliferation of global systems and transnational cultures have generated larger and more diverse types of cosmopolitans, all of whom span conventional social boundaries. Understanding this diversity is increasingly important because cosmopolitans often bridge across a wide range of transnational and global networks within and across global organizations. Drawing on multiple disciplines, we conceptualize cosmopolitanism as an embodied disposition characterized by high levels of cultural transcendence and openness that are manifested in and enacted along varied trajectories of cultural embeddedness in one's own culture and cultural engagement with the cultural Other. We then propose an analytical framework for the influence of cosmopolitan disposition on transcultural brokerage processes, specifically on bridging structural and cultural holes. Finally, we present a typology of cosmopolitan brokers and their corresponding practices and activities as they engage in transcultural brokerage. By recognizing the diversity and complexity of cosmopolitans and their respective dispositions, we significantly expand the pool of "global talent" beyond the traditional focus on expatriates, and we challenge the conventional wisdom on who counts as talent in an interconnected world.
Purpose
This study analyzes the impact of personality and mentorship on expatriates’ psychological well-being. We argue that certain personality traits (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, and Openness to Experience) have positive effects on expatriates’ psychological well-being and that these personali-ty traits enable them to derive a greater benefit from mentorship. By doing so, this study identifies for which personality traits which type of mentoring (home or host country mentor) is most beneficial.
Design/methodology/approach
Based on socioanalytic theory, we develop theory-driven hypotheses and test them against data of 334 expatriates.
Findings
The study shows that several personality traits as well as home country mentorship have a significant positive im-pact on psychological well-being, whereas host country mentorship shows no significant positive effects. Moreover, the study indicates that home and host country mentorship partially moderates the relationship between personality traits and psychological well-being.
Originality/value
Since we derive important implications for the selection process of expatriates as well as for the implementation of mentoring in MNCs, this study is of value for researchers and practitioners in the areas of human resource man-agement and organizational studies.
The assistance of host-country nationals (HCNs) both within the workplace and in the external environment plays a significant role in expatriate adjustment and work performance on international assignments. Extant research exploring antecedents of HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates focuses on personal and intrapersonal factors but overlooks organizational contextual effects. In this study, we propose and test a model that HCNs' willingness to help expatriates is influenced by HRM practices in international subsidiaries of multinational enterprises (MNEs). Results of analyzing data collected from Chinese subsidiaries of South Korean MNEs showed that high-commitment HRM practices directly and indirectly influence HCNs' willingness to help expatriates through the mediation of perceived organizational support (POS). Socially responsible HRM indirectly influences the criterion variable through the mediation of organizational identification. Moreover, POS and organizational identification sequentially mediate the effect of high-commitment HRM on HCNs' willingness to help expatriates. These findings shed some light on organizational antecedents that go beyond personal and intrapersonal factors of HCN attitudes and behavior toward expatriates.
Wilhelm Griga explores benefits of inpatriation, issues, remediation strategies, and factors influencing inpatriate assignment effectiveness to better fulfill individual and organizational demands. The author covers inpatriation theory and presents empirical research results on inpatriates from China and USA in Germany. Antecedents to inpatriate’s competence build-up, goal achievement, and career development are explored and established. Significant insights and recommendations on the transfer of employees from foreign subsidiaries of multinational corporations to the headquarters of the parent company are provided.
Contents
• Inpatriation Assignments as a Research Domain
• Major Inpatriation Objectives, Challenges, and Success Strategies
• Dimensions and Antecedents of Inpatriation Assignment Effectiveness
• Results of Empirical Study on Competence Build-Up, Goal Achievement, and Career Development
• Conclusions and Recommendations for Effective Inpatriation
Target Groups
• Researchers and students in the fields of international personnel management, international management, and economics
• Human resource management, management, and potential international assignees
The Author
Dr. Wilhelm Griga received his PhD from University of Bayreuth, Germany. He is a senior manager at a multinational company and has gained broad experience in international management and business administration covering Europe, Asia, and USA. He has served as a guest speaker at several universities.
Given increasing globalization and the foreign-born workforce characterizing many organizations around the world, managers are increasingly called on to effectively manage a culturally diverse workforce. One way to increase the cultural intelligence and empathy of managers was proposed by Ragins, who indicated that mentors in diversified mentoring relationships (DMRs) may become more culturally intelligent and empathic as a result of exposure to the situations and challenges faced by their lower power protégés. To test this proposition regarding the efficacy of DMRs, a quasi-experimental design was employed using an experiential training intervention involving DMRs between primarily White, affluent student mentors and newly resettled refugees to the United States. Grounded in the theoretical foundations of contact theory and DMRs, our findings suggest that DMRs of even limited duration may be influential in increasing cultural intelligence and empathy.
Purpose
Most studies of expatriates have explored global careers as unfolding within assigned or self-initiated expatriation contexts in a predominantly linear fashion. The purpose of this paper is to conceptualize that expatriates’ career progression is facilitated by frequent moves between domains, with an increasing overlap among assigned-expatriate (AE) and self-initiated expatriate (SIE) contexts.
Design/methodology/approach
Underpinned by findings from extant literature, the authors review and integrate studies of expatriation and careers to conceptualize an AE-SIE career continuum.
Findings
The authors debunk the idea that AEs and SIEs are a type of expatriate per se , but instead is indicative only of their career orientation in terms of where they choose to sit on the AE-SIE career continuum at any point in time. Specifically, individuals pursuing global careers in international labor markets include up to eight types of expatriate who retain varying degrees of AE vs SIE characteristics dependent on the point they choose along the continuum.
Practical implications
The tension that dynamic global careers cause for multinational enterprises (MNEs) is not necessarily “bad”, and that by accepting and accommodating changes in career orientation MNEs will be able to make clearer and more consistent global staffing decisions.
Originality/value
The authors provide a new, improved conceptualization of linear and non-linear global careers and of the challenges global career actors face throughout their career development both at home and abroad. They further show that while career orientation explains why expatriates engage in various types of international work experiences, their typology adds explication of the various types of expatriate who pursue global careers.
This paper examines the concept of expatriates, arguing that sloppy use of the term in the past has led to problems of inconsistent research, incompatible findings and a lack of clarity in the field. The increasing interest over the last dozen years or so in other forms of international experience, often equally poorly conceptualised, has compounded the problem. We argue for the need for greater construct clarity in studies of expatriates and, by extension, of other forms of international experience. Specifically, we attempt to clarify to whom does the term ‘expatriate’, and specifically ‘business expatriate’, apply and the boundary conditions under which expatriate employment is enacted.
Advances in technology have reshaped mentoring as a human resource development (HRD) intervention and heralded e-mentoring, using online solutions, as an alternative to traditional mentoring. In this article, we report on a unique learning opportunity as a part of the HRD curriculum in a higher education institution (HEI) in which mentoring was offered to pairs separated by not only geographical distance but also by time zone, culture and organisation (global mentoring relationships [GMRs]). We used an action research approach to aid the programme team’s understanding of their own practice and to evaluate 23 GMRs within an e-mentoring scheme in a UK-based university. We offer empirical evidence of the application of media richness theory as well as traditional models of mentoring to develop and evaluate e-mentoring relationships, particularly GMRs. Key findings highlight how the mode of communication and its media richness affect GMRs and demonstrate the effect of the type and style of mentoring on the success of GMRs. Based on our results, we recommend a combination of e-mentoring methods using various forms of technology and the sharing of models to create a common language to enhance the practice of e-mentoring in and across organisations.
Much of social life involves interactions between individuals or corporate actors in dyads, groups, organizations or networks that can be viewed as social exchanges. This chapter presents an overview of the main theories of social exchange focusing on the key contributors in sociology, including George Homans, Peter Blau, Richard M. Emerson and those whose work subsequently built on their original formulations. The theories that have been developed in recent decades have focused on the social structures created by repeated exchanges and the ways in which these structures both constrain and enable actors to exercise power and influence. Other related social processes addressed within the exchange tradition include interpersonal commitment, trust, fairness, procedural and distributive justice, coalition formation and collective action. Recent work also focuses on emotions and their role in social exchange. The methodological challenges of studying social exchange in the laboratory and in the world outside the lab are addressed as well as links between exchange theory and topics under study by economic sociologists and network scholars more broadly, including Internet-mediated exchanges and their growing significance.
Previous literature on foreign assignments shows a high relevance of mentors for expatriates’ success. In this study we analyse the impact of different mentor-related factors on skill and career development. Drawing on social exchange theory, we develop five research hypotheses and test them using a sample of 59 US expatriates on assignments in Germany. Linear regression modelling reveals that organizational distance between the mentee and the mentor as well as the mentor’s involvement in career planning are positively related to skill development. Furthermore, there is a positive relationship between skill development and career development. We derive important implications for the implementation of mentoring in multinational corporations. The study is of value for researchers and practitioners in the areas of human resource management and organization.
Distinct to expatriate managers at the subsidiary-level, inpatriate managers' influence at the headquarter (HQ)-level is controlled by the extent to which an inpatriate manager is able to ‘win’ status from HQ personnel. The primary goal of the paper is to conceptualize how organizational support, in the form of global talent management (GTM) practices, can alleviate inpatriates' difficulties in building social capital at HQ. Building social capital at HQ is vital for inpatriates to attain status in order to build the inter-unit social capital that enables them to pursue their boundary-spanning role across HQs and subsidiaries. Status inconsistency theory is put forward to recognize the personal, professional and structural incongruence of events and activities at HQ carried out with respect to inpatriates. We argue that inpatriate managers become empowered at HQ only when social capital is accumulated whereby social capital is driven by an acknowledgment of inpatriates as a legitimate staffing option. The relationship between GTM practices and social capital building needs to be managed properly by inpatriates themselves as well as by the organization. A future research agenda helping to build social capital of inpatriates through GTM infrastructure is discussed and propositions are offered throughout.
The purpose of this study is to explore the role of tacit knowledge transfer in a particular type of global manager - the inpatriate manager who is typically relocated from the MNC’s subsidiary to headquarter. To do so, we draw on social embeddedness theory. Our paper suggests that if an inpatriate manager becomes embedded within the MNCs headquarter, tacit knowledge transfer will occur resulting in innovative practices and a global mindset within the MNCs headquarters. This study takes the unique approach of studying the barriers that inpatriate managers face in the transfer of tacit knowledge and highlights the role of human resources in facilitating the transfer of knowledge across the MNC. The paper articulates the implications for policy and practice and a future research agenda.
Purpose
This study aims to explore how a change in the staffing configuration of foreign subsidiaries affects subsidiary performance by focusing on staffing localization.
Design/methodology/approach
The relationship between localization and subsidiary performance is analyzed from the perspective of human capital. Hypotheses are tested using a panel data set of foreign direct investment by Japanese multinational enterprises.
Findings
The analysis demonstrates that localization has a positive effect on subsidiary performance when subsidiaries can access a pool of competent local managers in the host country. It also shows that when competent local managers are highly available, localization has a positive effect on subsidiary performance under high cultural distance. In comparison, when the availability of competent local managers is limited and cultural distance is high, localization has a negative effect on subsidiary performance.
Originality/value
Using human capital theory, this study theorizes how localization, which is a change in the configuration of human capital toward a reliance on local-specific human capital, enhances subsidiary-specific advantages. It introduces the effects of changes in the configuration of human capital over time, into studies on subsidiary staffing. In addition, from a different viewpoint than previous studies, this study proposes one possible path where human capital leads to organizational performance. Specifically, it shows that a change in the configuration of human capital affects subsidiary-specific advantages, which eventually impacts subsidiary performance.
To study the effect of protean careers on talent retention, operationalized as the intention to quit, this study explores two pathways between protean career orientation and intention to quit: a direct pathway, and an indirect pathway via organizational commitment and job satisfaction. The study draws upon a sample of 306 talented workers selected from 17 Spanish and Mexican multinational organizations. Protean orientation should be expected to be widespread among talented individuals which might represent a threat to those that seek to develop and retain highly valued employees. We found that highly protean talented individuals show higher organizational commitment and higher job satisfaction, but contrary to expectations do not show a higher intention to quit. The total effect of protean career orientation on intention to quit is shown to not be significant because the positive direct effects are neutralized by negative indirect effects. The results help complement current knowledge of protean careers and a better understanding of organizational attitudes in the protean career context will help practitioners to show the importance of avoiding stereotyping talented employees based on a protean orientation as they do not comprise an extra risk for the organization in terms of commitment and turnover intention.
Purpose
This paper aims to investigate the central roles, functions and competences of third-country nationals (TCNs) in intercultural boundary spanning in multinational corporations (MNCs): Why are TCNs particularly important for reducing complexity at the overlapping functional, geographic and external boundaries of MNCs with their related interferences and which role do they play as boundary spanners in cross-boundary collaboration?
Design/methodology/approach
After introducing the theoretical background on boundary spanning and TCNs, the methodology applied in this paper is a theory-driven, qualitative approach based on 13 in-depth semi-structured interviews with TNCs conducted in 10 MNCs.
Findings
The authors aggregate TCNs’ activities into four roles: disembedded cosmopolitan, intermediary, third party and team-related boundary spanner. They show that TCNs tend to understand the complex intercultural context between headquarters and subsidiaries, balance power asymmetries, use their in-between neutrality to create trust, and act in an interculturally highly competent way by using a great variety of intercultural and linguistic skills. The TCNs’ meta-competence permits a higher level, intellectual and abstract perspective, enabling TCNs to consider structures, objects and interactions from an affective distance.
Research limitations/implications
The differences between TCNs and “regular” expatriates or other interface managers are examined and methodological limitations as well as research implications are critically discussed. MNCs can intentionally assign TCNs with their related competence profiles when expecting boundary-spanning tasks.
Originality/value
This paper is one of the few published that undergirds the TCN concept with empirical data and illustrates the suitability of specific role-takers such as TCNs for some complex challenges in international and intercultural management settings.
As previously discussed, the original approach to strategic planning, a new strategy was chosen to match the historical strengths of the firm. In a discontinuous environment, historical strength by definition becomes future weaknesses. It is necessary therefore to replace the strengths/weakness concept by a more general concept of organizational capability.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to develop and present a conceptual model of expatriate–host country national (HCN) interaction that explains how organizations can help increase cooperation between expatriates and HCNs by facilitating interaction between expatriates and HCNs.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors draw upon intergroup contact theory to develop a process model which describes the processes critical to “the effectiveness of the expatriate–HCN relationship,” from both the expatriate and HCN perspectives.
Findings
HCN–expatriate interactions are critical to the success of both expatriates and HCNs, but such interactions should not be left to chance – instead, organizations should intervene and facilitate conditions that foster such interactions, which can lead to better understanding and appreciation of each other. This would ensure that both expatriates and HCNs have a better understanding of the critical role played by the other party, and thus be willing to offer relevant and necessary support at the right time.
Practical implications
Prior research reveals that most expatriate–HCN interactions are left to the individuals themselves and are thus subject to stereotypes, misperceptions and even unfulfilled expectations. By intervening in this process, and providing relevant information about each other to both parties, organizations can facilitate higher quality interactions, help reduce or remove stereotypes and increase the chances that both parties receive required and relevant information on a timely basis from each other.
Originality/value
The authors specifically discuss how interpersonal expatriate–HCN interactions allow the two parties to become acquainted with each other, when the effects of such interactions can be strengthened, and what the resultant effects are in terms of expatriate–HCN relationships.
Using multisource data from 37 countries encompassing a sample of 9,039 managers and their subordinates, we find that managers who provide more career mentoring receive higher performance ratings. This relationship holds true in all cultures but is more salient in more assertive than less assertive cultures. Conversely, managers who provide psychosocial mentoring receive higher performance ratings only in more assertive cultures. By understanding how the two types of mentoring behaviors affect managers’ performance across cultures with different levels of assertiveness, this study provides insight into how managers (especially expatriates and managers of cross-cultural teams) can adapt their mentoring behaviors across cultures.
There has been a growing interest in the potentially positive impact of expatriate interactions with host country nationals (HCNs) in International Human Resource Management (IHRM). This paper provides a comprehensive overview of this relatively new body of literature, and organises the empirical research with regard to antecedents and outcomes of expatriate-local (E-L) interactions at four different levels of analysis: individual, dyadic, group, and societal level. A literature search resulted in the selection of 74 articles, published between 1990 and 2016, which focus on E-L interactions that influence the success of an organisation. The overview shows most of the research has been done at the individual level of analysis, examining the impact of contact with HCNs on expatriate adjustment and performance. Several avenues and suggestions for future research are listed; an important starting point for future research is to clearly delineate which aspect of expatriate-local interactions is investigated – the frequency, depth, or breadth of the contact. This review counterbalances the predominant IHRM focus on expatriates as sole actors in expatriate success by specifically including another important stakeholder, the HCN. It further provides directions and a research agenda for future research on expatriate-local interactions.
Purpose
Based on the knowledge-based theories of the MNC, this research aims to develop and test a holistic model to analyse the relationship between the strategic knowledge management (SKM) processes undertaken by subsidiaries and MNC performance. Additionally, it focuses on determining the impact that the relational context can have on knowledge creation and transfer inside the internal network of an MNC.
Design/methodology/approach
The research hypotheses are tested by partial least squares (PLS) with data from a sample of Spanish subsidiaries of foreign multinational firms belonging to high-technology and knowledge-intensive sectors.
Findings
The results confirm that: the implementation of a SKM by a subsidiary positively impacts on knowledge creation; the knowledge created by a subsidiary positively influences knowledge transfer, increasing the knowledge existing in the MNC; the knowledge transfer across all MNC units has a positive impact on MNC performance; the subsidiary’s relational context arises as a mediating variable between the knowledge created by a subsidiary and its transfer to the rest of the MNC.
Originality/value
The research proposes a holistic model that contemplates the joint interaction of the variables knowledge creation, knowledge transfer and performance. In addition, the proposed model contemplates the variable SMK of the subsidiary as the beginning of the knowledge creation-knowledge transfer-performance process. Finally, the mediating role of the relational context in the relationship between knowledge creation and transfer is analysed.
Research shows the professional benefits of strong mentoring relationships. However, the majority of the extant mentoring research is either mentor-centric or Western-oriented. Even with the increasing trend of protégé-centric research, relatively little research exists that examines mentoring in India and what protégés from that country would most desire from the mentoring relationship and their mentors. This chapter uses the countries in the emerging economies group represented by the acronym BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India, China), combined with Hofstede’s classification system for cross-cultural comparisons. Findings from mentoring studies from countries economically and culturally similar to India are then generalized to suggest criteria Indian protégés would find most appealing in their mentors. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of future areas for research on mentoring in India.
Host-country nationals' (HCNs') attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates are critical for expatriate success. Thus, this study systematically reviews the existing literature on the antecedents and consequences of HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates. It is revealed that HCN personality, the perceived compensation gap between expatriates and HCNs, social categorization, HCNs' previous contact with expatriates, expatriate justice, task cohesiveness, interpersonal affect, and interpersonal relationships (guanxi) directly or indirectly predict HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates. The attitudes and behaviors of HCNs toward expatriates are significantly related to expatriate adjustment and performance. This review indicates that the extant research on HCNs' attitudes and behaviors toward expatriates is limited, and the findings of past studies are often contradictory. Theoretical and practical implications as well as future research directions are discussed.
Purpose
The purpose of this research is to create a definition of peer coaching using literature from various and disparate organizational and educational contexts. This research is intended to clarify what constitutes peer coaching overall, and guide the ever-growing practice of peer coaching.
Design/methodology/approach
Design/methodology/approach: This research uses a combination of inductive and deductive qualitative approaches through the implementation of qualitative content analysis (QDA). The research used a data reduction process with 87 existing scholarly articles in the area of peer coaching in which the researchers focused on selected aspects of the data and followed the practice of staying close to manifest artifacts within the data.
Findings
Findings: The results of the qualitative data analysis indicated that five themes emerged within the literature. Themes were as follows: a) program structure; b) purpose and goals of peer coaching, c) peer coaching processes and mechanisms in which peer coaching is conducted, d) outcomes of peer coaching, and e) relational contexts and functions of peer coaching relationships.
Originality/value
Originality: While there is an increase in peer coaching, (a) research on this type of coaching is scarce, so not much is known about it, (b) what has been conducted has not been particularly reliable (Hagen and Peterson, 2014) and (c) most of the published research is limited to education, nursing, other medical contexts, and non-profit organizations. This research helps to clarify the nature of peer coaching and create a cogent definition that defines formal peer coaching within all peer coaching contexts.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to review the literature on how success and failure for international assignments have been defined, and integrate several proposals for these definitions into a multi-dimensional model that considers task performance, relationship building, contextual performance and retention as all being part of how success or failure should be defined. The authors also discuss two proposed pre-requisites for success – absorptive capacity (operationalized at both the individual and the unit levels) and adjustment. The authors conclude by bringing in literature on performance management and how ideas about performance management must also be integrated into the discussion of the success or failure of international assignments.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper reviews existing proposals regarding the definition of expatriate success and failure, and proposes a multidimensional model of success based on the past literature. Based on this literature the authors also propose two pre-requisites for success and discuss several requisite KSAOs, as well as some suggestions from the literature on performance management.
Findings
The authors argue for a multidimensional model of expatiate success which includes task performance, relationship building, contextual performance and retention as part of what constitutes a successful assignment. The authors also argue that absorptive capacity and adjustment should be considered as pre-requisites for success, and that principles from performance management should be applied to dealing with international assignments.
Research limitations/implications
A more comprehensive definition of success and failure should aid research by providing a better dependent variable, and by leading to research on various aspects of this outcome.
Practical implications
The proposed model and approach can hopefully help practice by clarifying the different dimensions of success and how performance management techniques can be applied to dealing with international assignments.
Originality/value
There has been a lot written about how we should operationalize the success or failure of international assignments. The present paper reviews that literature and integrates a number of ideas and suggestions into a multi-dimensional model which includes information about pre-requisites for success and relevant KSAOs, along with ideas from performance management to help insure the success of these assignments.
Social capital is a crucial factor for expatriates to employ as they cope with the demands of an international assignment. This longitudinal study used a mixed method approach to examine the social support benefits of expatriate contact with a local host. Western expatriates in the Netherlands were randomly divided into two groups: an experimental group (n = 33), that had contact with a Dutch host during 9 months, and a control group (n = 32) with no host. Qualitative methods such as interviews and diaries were included to shed light on the various types of social support that occurred. Results show that local hosts offered all four types of social support: social companionship, informational support, emotional support, and instrumental support. Furthermore, expatriates with a host increased their social capital; they received significantly more social support from host nationals than did those without a host. This study shows that HRD professionals may develop the social capital of expatriates by bringing them into contact with a local host, which can produce more social support from host nationals. Increased social capital may lead to a higher performance at both the individual and organisational levels.
Henson defines the characteristics of a global mindset culture, and recommends the following practices for organizations that want to create this culture: top management commitment to building a global mindset culture; structures and processes for global alignment and coordination; infrastructures for global communication; assessment of global mindset potential; use of development assignments to build global mindset in individuals and teams; reduction of the headquarters “center of gravity”; cross-cultural awareness and sensitivity as a key element in the company’s learning strategy; identification of a global talent pool; recognition and rewards for those with global mindset; support for individuals on overseas assignments; and formal and informal processes for sharing best practices globally.
To more effectively address challenges of our increasingly global workplace, this chapter presents a promising fusion of two important areas of applied research: knowledge management and talent management. The mixture of these two conceptual orientations into a theoretical hybrid for directing future global business practice, which we call “smart global talent management,” merges the strengths of each approach, yet combined they also are able to surmount the shortcomings of each. We first will examine the strengths and limitations of each individual approach and then discuss the important advantages of our merged conceptual model for directing future research and practice in human resource management within a global context.
Although effective in improving socialization, development, and retention in the US domestic context, mentoring would likely benefit expatriates and their firms, but it remains theoretically underdeveloped in the international context. We develop a theory of international mentoring by integrating current perspectives on protean and boundaryless careers with the literature on mentoring and expatriates. Expatriates need multiple mentors to assist their adjustment and development during the pre-departure, expatriation, and repatriation stages of international assignments. We discuss both hierarchical and peer, and formal and informal, mentoring relationships to delineate which relationships best address specific expatriate needs. International mentoring may improve expatriate adjustment, development, and retention, and thus may affect outcomes of international strategy. We conclude by discussing implications and avenues for future research.
Primarily because of the significant rate and costs of failed international assignments, the attention paid by scholars to the topic of international adjustment has increased recently. Unfortunately, most of the work has been without substantial theoretical grounding. In an effort to move toward a theoretical framework for guiding future research, this article integrates theoretical and empirical work of both the international and the domestic adjustment literatures. This integration provides a more comprehensive framework than might be obtained from either of the literatures alone.
Introduction The Theoretical Foundations Future Research Conclusion References
In the past three decades or so, globalization/regionalization, migration and reverse migration (also referred to as "brain circulation"), the ascendancy of emerging markets, the demand for people with a global mindset, and the worldwide war for talent have brought about fundamental changes to the nature, magnitude, and raison d'etre for human resource management (HRM) in a global context. These changes require us to adopt new lenses to fully understand the dynamics that impact international human resource management (IHRM) policies and practices. This paper presents new perspectives on IHRM as they relate to research on multicultural teams under the three dimensions of diversity (separation, variety, and disparity) posited by Harrison and Klein (2007), and brain circulation in the context of movement of peoples across countries. These perspectives go toward the traditional approach of studying expatriates, whether company-sponsored or self-initiated assignments. The paper discusses how these new perspectives can set the agenda for future research on IHRM.
The purpose of this article is to provide a conceptual framework for mentoring as an added component of a learning organization in the context of adult learning and development theories. Mentoring is traditionally a process in which an experienced person (the mentor) guides another person (the mentee or protégé) in the development of her or his own ideas, learning, and personal/professional competence. Mentoring uses transformational theory through critical reflection in a non-judgmental manner and addresses the andragogical principle that experience is the richest source for adult learning. In a learning organization, adult development is fostered for both mentee and mentor in a reciprocal and collaborative learning partnership. Critical issues in designing a mentoring program for facilitating the development of a sustainable learning organization are discussed with potential pitfalls. Anticipated outcomes from a mentoring program in a learning organization include application of new knowledge in daily tasks, individual and collaborative analysis of problems and possible solutions, evaluation of new technologies or strategies and determination of their utility, and the creation of new business plans for the learning organization.
Contact between expatriates and a local host-a specific type of peer mentoring-has been shown to result in benefits to adjustment, social support, and intercultural competence. This longitudinal study examines the role of the quality of this contact. Expatriates in the Netherlands were randomly divided into an experimental group (N = 33) in which 21 participants had developed high-quality contact with their host, and a control group (N = 32) that had no host. The results suggest the higher the quality of the contact, the more benefit the expatriate experienced. Moreover, expatriates with low-quality contact did not experience a detrimental effect. Theoretical and practical implications for mentoring in general, and peer mentoring of expatriates specifically, are discussed.