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PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
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ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
This is an open access article under the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License
ATTACHMENT STYLES AND RISKY SEXUAL
BEHAVIORS IN ADOLESCENTS
Walter Odera Owino, Newton Mukholwe Asakhulu
Maasai Mara University, Kenya
E-mail: walt_harry@yahoo.com, newton.mukolwe2008@gmail.com
Jonathan Muema Mwania, Rose Mwanza
South Eastern Kenya University, Kenya
E-mail: muemamwania@yahoo.com, rmwanza@seku.ac.ke
Abstract
Infection with sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies are risks associated with
adolescents’ risky sexual behavior. Mental models of attachment relationships inuence behavior and
may inuence adolescents’ involvement in sexual activities that are risky. This study explored whether
attachment styles predicted adolescents’ involvement in risky sexual behavior. A correlational study
design was adopted with 367 students from public secondary schools in Nairobi County taking part in the
study. The Attachment Styles Questionnaire and Risky Sexual Behavior Scale were used to collect data.
Multiple regression analysis was used to determine whether secure, preoccupied, dismissing or fearful
attachment styles predicted students’ risky sexual behavior. The study found that preoccupied attachment
style and secure attachment style had predictive eects on risky sexual behavior. Preoccupied attachment
style was predictive of greater involvement in risky sexual behavior whereas secure attachment style was
predictive of less risky sexual behavior. It was evident based on the ndings that secure attachment style
was protective against risky sexual behavior whereas preoccupied attachment style created vulnerability
to risky sexual behavior. It was recommended that special attention should be paid to adolescents with
insecure attachment styles in guidance and counseling programs aimed at discouraging adolescents’
risky sexual behavior and parents/guardians should be encouraged to be more nurturing towards their
children in order to encourage formation of secure attachment which was protective against risky sexual
behavior.
Keywords: attachment styles, attachment avoidance, attachment anxiety, secure attachment, risky sexual
behavior
Introduction
Globally, involvement in risky sexual behavior by adolescents (age 10 to 19) and youth
(15 to 24 years) is a matter of public health concern (Bryan et al, 2012; Chan, 2021). Twenty
three percent of the people living in sub-Saharan Africa are adolescents and their number is
growing rapidly (Wado et al, 2020). Tulloch and Kaufman (2013) note that adolescents are
attaining physical maturity at a younger age and marrying at an older age. As adolescents enter
puberty, they start exploring intimate relationships and experimenting with sexual behavior
(Tulloch & Kaufman, 2013). Early commencement of sexual activity, unprotected sex, sex in
exchange for money or other benets, sex with multiple partners or sex with older partners
constitute risky sexual behavior (Eaton et al, 2003; Fetene & Mekonnen, 2018). According to
Firomsa et al (2019) adolescents who involve themselves in such behavior increase their risk
of getting HIV/AIDS or other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in addition to unplanned
pregnancies. Adolescents who become sexually active at an early age end up having signicantly
higher numbers of sexual partners in their lifetimes (Imaledo et al, 2013; Pettifor et al, 2009).
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.928
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Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
Researchers have found that the earlier an adolescent becomes sexually active, the
less likely they are to engage in safe sex. For instance, Finer and Philbin (2013) examined
the relationship between the age at which American adolescents became sexually active and
contraceptive use. Their analysis revealed that girls who started having sex when they were 14
years or younger were less likely to have used any contraception at rst sex and took longer to
begin using contraception.
Involvement in risky sexual activity by young people is a problem the world over. In
the United States for example, Grubb (2020) reports that in the period 2013 to 2017, infections
with STIs increased by 31% with over half of the infected individuals being 15 to 24 years old.
Globally, approximately 300,000 15-19-year-old adolescents get infected with HIV and two
thirds of these adolescents live in sub-Saharan Africa (Idele et al, 2014). Moreover, according
to the United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA, 2013) the Sub-Saharan region recorded the
highest rate of teenage pregnancies globally between 1991 and 2010. In this region, individuals
tend to become sexually active at an early age, typically before the age of 20 years (Marston
et al, 2013). Premarital sex is common with many young people having unprotected sex with
multiple partners or concurrent partners (Chapman et al, 2010; Fetene & Mekonnen, 2018;
Maonga et al, 2018; Wamoyi et al, 2016).
Risky sexual behavior during adolescence is widespread in Kenya. Mbuthia et al (2019)
carried out a survey of sexual behavior among university students based in the Coastal region.
The 473 students had a mean age of 19.6 years. Although the students were relatively young,
59.4% of them had had sex at least once. Moreover, the survey found that 41.2% of the students
who had had sex before had their rst sexual intercourse when they were between15 and 19
years old and 14% had their rst sexual intercourse before they were 14 years old.
Beguy et al (2013) examined sexual behavior in young people (12 to 24 years) living
in the slum areas of Nairobi County. The data came from the Transition to Adulthood project
and was collected between the years 2007 and 2010. The data revealed that among adolescents
who started having sexual intercourse before they were 15 years old, only 38.5% of boys and
34.2% of girls used condoms during their rst sexual encounter. A study by Maina et al (2020)
also focusing on adolescents living in slums in Nairobi County revealed that 13% of girls aged
between 10 and 14 years had had sexual intercourse at least once. According to Beguy et al
(2013) sexual activity by individuals who are not yet 15 years old can be considered as an early
sexual debut and is among the risky sexual behaviors (Eaton et al, 2003; Fetene & Mekonnen,
2018). Wanjiku (2015) surveyed risky sexual behavior specically in 16 to 19 year old students
attending secondary schools in Nairobi County. Forty three percent of the students reported
having had sexual intercourse in their lifetime and the mean age at which they had sex for the
rst time was 15 years. In addition, 55% of the students who reported having had sex before
had partners signicantly older than them and only 26% of the sexually active students used
any form of contraception. A report by the United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS estimated
that in the year 2018, 1.6 million Kenyans were living with HIV (UNAIDS, 2020). Of particular
concern was that 51% of new HIV infections happened in young people or adolescents aged
between 15 and 24 years and females had twice the risk of infection of males. The main mode
of infection was unprotected sexual contact (Mbuthia et al, 2019).
Theoretical Framework
A child forms secure attachment with the caregiver if the caregiver responds promptly
to the child’s distress, is available, caring and attentive to the child’s needs (Bowlby, 1969,
1973, 1982). Insecure attachment forms if the caregiver is unresponsive to the child’s distress,
unavailable and generally uncaring. According to Bowlby (1973), the ongoing interactions
between the child and caregiver results in the formation of a mental model of the attachment
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Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
relationship. The mental model consists of a “self-image” which is how the child perceives
himself or herself in relation to the caregiver and an “other-image” which is how the child
perceives the caregiver’s attitude towards him or her (Kerns & Brumariu, 2014).
These mental models of attachment inuence how children interact with their caregivers
(Kerns & Brumariu, 2014). As children grow older, other people apart from the caregiver can
become secondary attachment gures and meet some of their attachment needs (Dubois-comtois
et al, 2013). During adolescence, attachment relationships can be formed with other members
of the family, friends and romantic partners. Attachment relationships formed with secondary
attachment gures resemble attachment relationships with caregivers (Hazan & Shaver, 1987).
This is because the mental models of attachment formed earlier in childhood remain relatively
stable over time and inuence the relationships between adolescents and secondary attachment
gures (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991).
Bartholomew and Horowitz (1991) described attachment styles according to these mental
models of attachment relationships. Adolescents with secure attachment styles have positive
self-image and consider themselves to be worthy of attention and care from attachment gures.
They readily seek comfort from attachment gures whenever they feel distressed. They trust
attachment gures to be present when they need emotional comfort. Individuals with insecure
attachment styles relate with attachment gures dierently depending on their mental image of
themselves and of attachment gures.
Individuals with preoccupied attachment styles feel unlovable and unworthy of
attachment gures’ attention and care. They derive validation and self-esteem through approval
and acceptance by attachment gures (Chow et al, 2017). They have high levels of attachment
anxiety and uncertainty about attachment gures’ availability and are preoccupied with fear of
rejection or abandonment (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). They adopt a hyperactivating
strategy in their relationships. For example, they may exaggerate their emotions to attract the
attention of attachment gures.
Individuals with dismissing attachment styles have positive self-image and nd validation
from within themselves similar to individuals with secure attachment styles. However, they
do not trust attachment gures as a result of unsatisfying relationships with caregivers. They
adopt a deactivating strategy in the sense that they strive to be emotionally independent and
not depend on attachment gures (Sheinbaum et al, 2015). They suppress their emotions when
interacting with attachment gures. Individuals with dismissing attachment styles have high
levels of attachment avoidance and do not feel motivated to form intimate relationships with
attachment gures because they doubt attachment gures’ reliability or trustworthiness (Chow
et al, 2017).
Individuals with fearful attachment styles long for attachment gures’ attention and
acceptance as a source of self-validation. However, they distrust the attachment gures and
expect that their bids for intimacy will be met with rejection or hostility (Erozkan, 2011). They
have attachment anxiety as well as attachment avoidance (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012) and
while interacting with attachment gures, they are torn between wanting to be close to and
avoiding rejection by the same attachment gures.
Attachment Styles and Risky Sexual Behavior
According to Shumaker et al (2009) each adolescent has a stable attachment style. Allen
(2008) noted that by adolescence, an individual’s mental models of attachment relationships are
so well established that an adolescent’s attachment style can be seen as a personality trait that
inuences how one regulates their emotions, how they interact with signicant people in their
lives and their thinking and behavior. The attachment theory therefore provides a framework
through which risky sexual behavior in adolescents can be viewed. Part of adolescents’
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sexual behaviors in adolescents
attachment needs can be met within relationships with friends and members of the opposite
sex (Dubois-comtois et al, 2013). Hazan and Shaver (1987) described romantic relationships
as attachment relationships noting that attachment styles of partners are reminiscent of their
attachment styles in infancy. In this context, adolescents’ conduct in romantic relationships,
including their sexual behavior, may be inuenced by their attachment styles.
Researchers have found an association between attachment anxiety, which characterizes
preoccupied attachment style, and risky sexual behavior. Paulk and Zayae (2013) investigated
whether attachment styles predicted risky sexual behavior in American high school students.
Two hundred and fty eight students completed the Experiences in Close Relationships
Questionnaire and a scale designed by the authors to measure risky sexual behavior. The study
revealed that attachment anxiety predicted students’ risky sexual behavior but attachment
avoidance did not. The authors surmised that those students who had high attachment anxiety
were unlikely to turn down their partners’ overtures to engage in sexual activities, including
sexual activities that were risky. This was because such students were afraid of upsetting their
partners and losing the love and attention from their partners.
Potard et al (2017) carried out a study to determine whether sexual behavior in young
French adolescents with mean age of 13.8 years was related to their attachment styles to their
mothers and fathers. The study revealed that adolescents with ambivalent attachment (high
attachment anxiety) were more likely to have had sex compared to those adolescents who were
securely attached to their parents. At the same time, adolescents with avoidant attachment either
abstained from sex or engaged in casual sex without emotional connection to their partners.
According to the authors, adolescents with high attachment anxiety equated having sex with
their opposite sex partners with commitment to their relationships. Moreover, sexual intercourse
was a means of satisfying their craving for closeness and security that was not provided by
caregivers. The authors also noted that adolescents with avoidant attachment preferred casual
sex because they did not want to get emotionally close to one partner.
Saint-Eloi Cadely et al (2020) explored the relationship between insecure attachment
and high school students’ attitudes towards sex and relationships and a number of indicators of
sexual risk behavior such as the age at which students had sex for the rst time, whether they
used condoms and the number of sex partners students had. The study showed that students with
avoidant attachment started engaging in sexual activities at an earlier age, were less committed
to sexual partners, engaged in sex with partners they did not take time to know well and had
more sexual partners. Those students with avoidant attachment were however more likely to
use condoms regularly. According to the authors, students with avoidant attachment had no
interest in building long term or intimate relationships with their opposite sex partners but
engaged in sex only to lose their virginity. They were careful to avoid pregnancies that might
tie them to a partner.
Individuals with avoidant attachment may not participate in sexual activities with
their partners as a means of achieving closeness and intimacy. Instead, they prefer casual
sexual relationships and may have multiple sex partners (Kastbom, 2015). In some studies,
adolescents with avoidant attachment abstained from sexual activity because they did not value
close relationships that involved sexual intimacy. For instance, Lemelin et al (2014) examined
predictors of risky sexual behavior in young adults and adolescents in Canada and found that
adolescents with avoidant attachment started engaging in sexual behavior at a later age and the
reason was they were less likely to be involved in serious romantic relationships that might
avail opportunity for sexual activities.
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Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
Purpose of the Study
Secondary school students are at the adolescent stage of development characterized by
rapid physical, cognitive and emotional development (Cueto & Leon, 2016). When adolescents
enter puberty and mature sexually, they start exploring their sexuality and making decisions
concerning their sexual behavior. The attachment theory proposes that one’s attachment
security may inuence behavior and decision making in interpersonal relationships (Mikulincer
& Shaver, 2012). Adolescents’ attachment styles may inuence their decisions regarding sexual
behavior. Therefore, the goal of this study was to determine whether attachment styles predict
secondary school students’ involvement in risky sexual behavior.
Research Methodology
General Background
A correlational research design was used in this study. A correlational design was chosen
because it enabled the authors use data collected from the same subjects at one point in time to
nd out relationships among several quantiable variables and the degree of those relationships
(Ary et al, 2014; Gays et al, 2012). The goal of this study was to nd out whether there was a
relationship between students’ attachment styles and their involvement in risky sexual behavior.
A correlational design was also suitable because no variables were controlled or manipulated in
the study. The study was undertaken between May and June of 2021.
Participants
The study participants were 367 students from public secondary schools in three sub-
counties of Nairobi County. Nine out of the 28 schools in the three sub-counties were chosen and
385 students were randomly selected from the nine schools and issued with the questionnaires.
Three hundred and sixty seven properly lled questionnaires were returned hence the response
rate was 95.3% which was more than adequate for the study according to recommendations
by (Cooper & Schindler, 2003). The students’ demographic characteristics are summarized in
Table 1.
Table 1
Students’ Demographic Characteristics
Demographic Characteristic N %
Gender Male 181 49.3
Female 186 50.7
Age (years)
15 16 4.4
16 to 17 176 47.9
18 to 19 146 39.8
20 and above 29 7.9
Type of School
Boys Boarding 38 10.4
Girls Boarding 39 10.6
Boys Day 89 24.3
Girls Day 92 25.1
Boys Co-educational 54 14.7
Girls Co-educational 55 14.9
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Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
As presented in Table 1, 181 participants (49%) were male and 186 participants
(50.7%) were female therefore male and female students were equally represented in the study.
In regards to age, majority of respondents were in the 16 – 17 year age category (47.9%) or 18
– 19 year category (39.8%). The respondents in this study were representative of the adolescent
age group which was the target of this study. Students were selected from all types of public
secondary schools in Nairobi County.
Measures
Students’ attachment styles were measured using the Attachment Styles Questionnaire
(ASQ, Van Oudenhoven et al, 2003). This questionnaire contains 24 items that measure four
dimensions of attachment: secure attachment (e.g. I trust other people and I like it when other
people can rely on me), preoccupied attachment (e.g. I often wonder whether people like me),
dismissing attachment (e.g., It is important to me to be independent) and fearful attachment
(e.g., I am afraid that I will be deceived when I get too close with others). Students indicated
how much they agreed with each item on a scale from 1= strongly disagree to 5 = strongly
agree. A factor analysis using the main components method and orthogonal rotation was done
to verify the four factors in the ASQ (KMO = .784; Bartlett’s test of sphericity χ²df276 = 5309.24
p<.001) and four factors were obtained and together they explained 63.9% of the variance in
attachment styles. The 24 items were retained. Reliability of the ASQ as ascertained with the
following Cronbach’s alpha coecients: α = .74 for secure attachment, α = .89 for preoccupied
attachment, α = .88 for dismissing attachment and α = .87 for fearful attachment.
A Risky Sexual Behavior Scale developed by the researchers was used to measure
students’ risky sexual behavior. It contained 11 items (e.g. Have you ever had sex with a person
you did not know very well?). Students responded to these items on a scale from 1 = Not at all to
5 = Six or more times. A higher total score indicated more involvement in risky sexual behavior.
The items in this scale were pilot tested on secondary school students and the authors were
able to rene the items based on the outcome of the pilot testing. Chronbach’s alpha reliability
coecient for the nal version of the scale was .76.
Data Analysis
Multiple regression was used to test whether attachment styles predicted students’
risky sexual behavior. Before the analysis, the data was examined to determine whether the
assumptions necessary for regression analysis were met. Kurtosis and skewness coecients
presented in Table 2 were examined to ascertain that the data was normally distributed.
Table 2
Skeweness and Kurtosis Values for Normal Distribution of Variables
Variables Kurtosis Skewness
Secure attachment .425 -.566
Fearful attachment -.650 -.410
Preoccupied attachment -1.135 -.419
Dismissing attachment -.581 -.478
Risky sexual behavior .119 .871
As presented in Table 2, the coecients for skewness and kurtosis generally ranged
between -1 and +1 thus the data was considered to be normally distributed as recommended in
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sexual behaviors in adolescents
George and Mallery (2019). The exception was the kurtosis value for preoccupied attachment.
However, George and Mallery note that good results in regression analysis can still be obtained
if one of the predictor variables falls out of the recommended range of normality (p. 211).
The Variance Ination Factor (VIF) was examined to determine whether there was
multicollinearity among the predictor variables. The VIF values ranged between 1.003 and
1.265, all below 2.5 as recommended by Allison (2012). In addition, the tolerance values
obtained were in the acceptable range (between .790 and .997) as recommended by George
and Mallery (2019). It can be argued therefore that the assumptions of normality and non-
collinearity were not violated in this study.
Ethical Considerations
The researchers adhered to the legal and ethical requirements to conduct research in
Kenya. A research permit was given by the National Council for Science, Technology and
Innovation (NACOSTI). After the permit was obtained, the County Director of Education
for Nairobi County issued authorization to visit the schools to collect data. Participants were
requested to voluntarily take part in the study.
Research Results
The results of the correlation analysis between risky sexual behavior and students’
attachment styles are presented in Table 3.
Table 3
Correlations between Students’ Risky Sexual Behavior and Attachment Styles
Risky Sexual Behavior
Secure attachment
r -.192**
p<.001
N367
Preoccupied attachment
r.194**
p<.001
N367
Dismissing attachment
r.145*
p.004
N367
Fearful attachment
r.023
p.339
N367
Note: * p < .01 **p < .001
The bivariate correlations shown in Table 3 indicate that risky sexual behavior was
negatively correlated with secure attachment style (p < .001). Risky sexual behavior was
positively correlated with preoccupied attachment style (p < .001) and dismissing attachment
style (p < .004). The correlation between risky sexual behavior and fearful attachment was
not signicant (p = .339). The results of the correlation analysis show there were relationships
between risky sexual behavior and the attachment styles except fearful attachment style. The
results of the regression analysis conducted to nd out whether the four attachment styles
signicantly predicted students’ risky sexual behavior are shown in Table 4.
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Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
Table 4
Regression Analysis Results for Attachment Styles as Predictors of Risky Sexual Behavior
Variable B S.E βt p
(Constant) 21.186 2.255 9.396 <.001
Secure Attachment -.247 .071 -.182 -3.480 .001
Preoccupied Attachment .168 .056 .176 3.000 .003
Dismissing Attachment .128 .080 .094 1.603 .110
Fearful Attachment -.101 .077 -.076 -1.318 .188
R = .285 R2 = .081 F = 7.427 p <
.001
The regression analysis given in Table 4 shows that the four attachment styles signicantly
predicted students’ risky sexual behavior (F = 7.427, p<.001) and together they explained 8.1%
of the variance in the scores of risky sexual behavior. The standardized regression coecients
show the contribution of each attachment style in predicting risky sexual behavior. Secure
attachment style (β = -.182, p = .001) and preoccupied attachment style (β = .176, p < .003)
signicantly predicted risky sexual behavior whereas dismissing attachment style (β = .094, p
< .110) and fearful attachment style (β = -.076, p = .118) did not. The results of the regression
analysis show that the more secure a student’s attachment style was, the lower their propensity
for risky sexual behavior was. However, the more preoccupied their attachment style was, the
greater their propensity for risky sexual behavior.
Discussion
The ndings in this study revealed a signicant association between risky sexual behavior
and attachment styles in secondary school students. Regression analysis revealed that the more
secure a student’s attachment style was, the lower the likelihood that they were engaging in
risky sexual behavior. This nding is consistent with ndings reported in earlier studies where
individuals with secure attachment styles were less likely to engage in risky sexual behavior.
Earlier studies by Potard et al (2017) and Matson et al (2014) found that adolescents with
secure attachment styles engaged in risky sexual behavior at lower rates compared to their
counterparts with insecure attachment styles.
Adolescents with secure attachment styles may be less vulnerable to engaging in sexual
behaviors that are risky because they have positive self-image and nd validation from within
themselves. Their self-worth does not depend on acceptance or approval by other people. At
the same time, they are not concerned with rejection or abandonment by their romantic partners
because they have low level of attachment anxiety (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). As a result
of this disposition, students with secure attachment styles were less inclined to accept their
partners demands to engage in risky sexual activities to gain their partners’ approval or to hold
on to relationships (Olmstead, 2020).
Signicant correlations were found between risky sexual behavior and attachment
anxiety and also between risky sexual behavior and attachment avoidance. The implication of
that nding was that risky sexual behavior was associated with both dimensions of insecure
attachment to some extent. When the regression analysis was carried out, the resulting
model showed that attachment anxiety was a signicant predictor of risky sexual behavior
but attachment avoidance was not. The ndings therefore conrmed the association between
attachment anxiety and risky sexual behavior reported in previous studies. For instance, Paulk
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and Zayac (2013) reported that attachment anxiety predicted risky sexual behavior in American
high school students whereas the study by Potard et al (2017) revealed that adolescents with
high levels of attachment anxiety started engaging in sexual activities at a younger age.
Individuals with preoccupied attachment styles tend to feel that they do not deserve
attachment gures’ love and attention and are sensitive to any hint of rejection (Mikulincer &
Shaver, 2012). When they are in romantic relationships, they readily concede to their partners’
sexual demands to demonstrate their love and to avoid rejection by their partners even if the
sexual activities they are asked to participate in are risky (Olmstead, 2020). Their fear of
rejection and desire to please their partner drives them to engage in sexual activities despite
the risks involved. According to Cook et al (2016), students with preoccupied attachment styles
start engaging in sexual activities, including those that are risky, when they are still young
because sexual relationships get them desperately needed attention and may satisfy some of
their unfullled attachment needs. Adolescents with preoccupied attachment styles seek the
emotional security they did not receive from caregivers in sexual relationships (Tracy et al,
2003). They readily engage in sexual activities with romantic partners in order to feel secure
and avoid loneliness. In their perspective, the more the sexual intimacy in their relationships,
the better the quality of the relationship (Tracy et al, 2003). Moreover, adolescents with
preoccupied attachment styles need acceptance and approval of others to validate their self-
worth. Therefore they may interpret romantic partners’ sexual interest in them as armation
of their value and agree to take part in sexual activities including those are risky (Antonacci,
2014). Adolescents with preoccupied attachment styles are eager to get others to like them
therefore they are likely to take part in risky sexual activities to please others and earn their
liking (Paulk & Zayac, 2013).
Dismissing attachment style did not signicantly predict students’ risky sexual behavior
in the regression analysis although attachment avoidance was signicantly correlated with
risky sexual behavior. This nding can be interpreted to mean that attachment avoidance
was associated with risky sexual behavior albeit to a smaller extent than attachment anxiety.
Individuals with avoidant attachment styles have a self-image that is positive but do not trust
attachment gures and prefer to be emotionally independent (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). They
do not depend on other peoples’ approval or acceptance for self-validation unlike individuals
with preoccupied attachment styles. As a result, they are unlikely to agree to sexual activity for
the sake of pleasing their partners.
According to Jones and Furman (2010), adolescents with high attachment avoidance may
abstain from sexual relationships because they are uncomfortable with intimate relationships
and prefer to remain emotionally independent. According to Mikulincer and Shaver (2007)
individuals with avoidant attachment may not form close relationships because they do not
trust other people and fear disappointment in close relationships. Since they have fewer close
relationships, they have fewer opportunities to engage in sexual behavior. It is possible that the
weaker association between dismissing attachment style and risky sexual behavior was because
students with high attachment avoidance were taking part in less sexual behavior generally.
Research on attachment security and sexual behavior suggests that adolescents with
dismissing attachment styles and those with preoccupied attachment styles are motivated to
engage in sexual behavior for dierent reasons and this might explain why attachment anxiety
was a better predictor of risky sexual behavior in this study. Whereas students with preoccupied
attachment styles may engage in sexual activities for the reasons mentioned earlier, students
with dismissing attachment styles might have sex for specic reasons such as to lose their
virginity and t in with their peers who have already lost their virginity (Saint-Eloi Cadely et al,
2020) but with no intention of forming close relationships with the people they have sex with.
According to Thibodeau et al (2017) adolescents with avoidant attachment have little desire
for emotional intimacy or commitment to a partner so they prefer to have sexual relationships
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
937
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.928
Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
with strangers with whom they have no plan for long term relationships. Adolescents with
preoccupied attachment styles are less prone to casual sex because they have a stronger desire
for love, acceptance and security that is found in a committed relationship and view sex as a
means of strengthening such a relationship.
Individuals with fearful attachment styles score highly on both dimensions of attachment
anxiety and attachment avoidance (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2012). Students with this attachment
style were expected to be more prone to risky sexual behavior compared to students with secure
attachment styles (Paulk & Zayac, 2013). However, this study found no signicant association
between risky sexual behavior and fearful attachment style. This nding contradicted the
nding reported by Dumas-Koylass (2013) in which fearful and dismissing attachment styles
predicted risky and impulsive sexual behavior in 18 to 19 year old respondents. The nding in
that study should be compared with this study cautiously because of the age dierence of the
respondents. In a study looking at the links between sexual behavior and attachment styles in
homeless youth, Kidd and Shahar (2008) found that individuals with fearful attachment styles
were more likely to exchange sex for money, a behavior that is deemed to be harmful to them.
People who have fearful attachment styles have a negative self-image similar to
individuals with preoccupied attachment styles and crave for the love and attention of attachment
gures. However, they distrust attachment gures and are torn between seeking the attention
of attachment gures and avoiding closeness with attachment gures out of fear of rejection
(Erozkan, 2011). Students with this attachment style may not have stable relationships with
members of the opposite sex that might provide a context for sexual relationships because of
this conict. It is possible, as Cooper et al (2006, cited in Gause, 2017) suggest, that attachment
avoidance acts as a buer against risky sexual behavior because individuals with fearful
attachment avoid close relationships that might involve sexual intimacy. This might explain the
absence of any association between fearful attachment and risky sexual behavior in this study.
Conclusions and Recommendations
This study has shown that attachment styles, which are based on mental models of
attachment relationships, inuence secondary school students’ sexual behavior. The attachment
theory predicts that individuals’ perceptions of themselves and how they perceive signicant
others, based on their mental models of attachment relationships, inuences their behavior in
interpersonal relationships. The ndings of this study support the attachment theory in this
regard.
Most of the research on attachment has focused on children or adults and comparably
few researchers have examined how attachment inuences adolescent adjustment in various
domains. The ndings of this study demonstrate that attachment security is important in
adolescence and that the attachment theory is a valuable paradigm through which adolescents’
behavior can be understood. The ndings also reinforced the cross cultural applicability of the
attachment theory. This is important since most of the research on attachment in adolescents has
been done in Western countries. Few studies have explored attachment in relation to adolescent
populations in Kenya. This was the rst study to the authors’ knowledge that examined whether
attachment styles inuence adolescents’ risky sexual behavior in Kenya.
The ndings of this study are relevant to school guidance and counseling practice.
Based on the ndings, it is recommended that school counselors pay more attention to students
with insecure attachment styles since they are the ones with greater propensity to engage in
risky sexual behaviors. It is also recommended that parents and guardians be educated on
the importance of secure attachment so that they can adopt parenting that enhances secure
attachment in their children.
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
938
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.928
Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
Declaration of Interest
Authors declare no competing interest.
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IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 79, No. 6, 2021
941
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online) https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.928
Walter Odera OWINO, Newton Mukholwe ASAKHULU, Jonathan Muema MWANIA, Rose MWANZA. Attachment styles and risky
sexual behaviors in adolescents
Received: September 15, 2021 Accepted: December 03, 2021
Cite as: Owino, W. O., Asakhulu, N. M., Mwania, J. M., & Mwanza, R. (2021). Attachment
styles and risky sexual behaviors in adolescents. Problems of Education in the 21st Century,
79(6), 928-941. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/21.79.928
Walter Odera Owino Department of Education Foundation and Psychology, Maasai Mara
University, Kenya.
E-mail: walt_harry@yahoo.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7481-6203
Newton Mukholwe Asakhulu Department of Education Foundation and Psychology, Maasai Mara
University, Kenya.
E-mail: newton.mukolwe2008@gmail.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2584-4272
Jonathan Muema Mwania
(Corresponding author)
PhD, Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, School of
Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, South Eastern Kenya
University, Kenya.
E-mail: muemamwania@yahoo.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7291-8270
Rose Mwanza Department of Educational Psychology, School of Education, Humanities
and Social Sciences, South Eastern Kenya University, Kenya.
E-mail: rmwanza@seku.ac.ke
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0150-6666
