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DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 1
Demand-Avoidance Phenomena
(“Pathological”/”Extreme” Demand Avoidance): what are
the implications of it being a biopower identity?
Mr. Richard Woods.
London South Bank University PhD Student.
17th of December 2021.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 2
Conflicts of interest.
1) Developing various DAP tools, e.g., Pathological Demand-
Avoidance-Beliefs Scale (PDA-BS).
2) Income from delivering training sessions on DAP.
3) Reluctantly advocates for it to be diagnosed as a standalone
construct.
PROFILING MYSELF.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 3
Introduction.
1) Broader context.
2) Present situation with DAP in the UK.
3) DAP’s 3 other main schools of thought.
4) DAP, autism & stigma.
5) DAP’s intrinsic features intersection with culture.
6) SEND System Problems & DAP.
7) DAP is about control.
8) Bias can undermine DAP research & understandings.
9) Conclusion.
IN THE BEGINNING.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 4
My perspective.
1) Is autistic.
2) Meets Newson’s DAP profile, is not emotionally attached to it.
3) Reflect upon “how their values shape their understanding and
construction of autistic people.” (Botha 2021, p1).
4) Agenda is for at least inclusive good quality scientific-method
based research & practice.
5) Favours a transdiagnostic approach & we should be aspiring to
stop utilising Disorder based constructs in the future.
6) PhD is investigating DAP & part of CADS at LSBU.
7) My interpretation of DAP & its literature, others may disagree.
8) Autism & natures of Disorders.
PROFILING MYSELF.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 5
PROFILING MYSELF.
My perspective.
1) CAS definition:
“The ‘criticality’ comes from investigating power dynamics
that operate in Discourses around autism, questioning deficit-
based definitions of autism, and being willing to consider the
ways in which biology and culture intersect to produce
‘disability’.” (Waltz 2014, p1337).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 6
PROFILING MYSELF.
Broader literature.
1) This builds on a previous talk at delivered in the 2018 PARC
conference (Woods 2018).
2) Most will be familiar with how right-wing media controls public
by making persons angry/ scared, thus highly aroused & thusly
thinking emotively on a topic (O’Brien 2018).
3) Similar processes for autism by making persons scared of
autism, removing opportunities for a normal life. Offering
promises to fix autistic persons to give families a normal life
(McGuire 2016).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 7
PROFILING MYSELF.
Broader literature.
1) What is in literature makes into broader culture (Botha 2021).
2) Autism is often associated with males.
3) Such as clinician’s bias can be a barrier to identifying autistic
females (Lockwood-Estrin et al 2020).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 8
PROFILING MYSELF.
Broader literature.
1) “once a diagnosis takes hold and serves as the hub around
which so much wealth, so many people, and activities
coalesce, it takes on a life of its own as an authentic,
naturalized classification (Hacking 2000). This category, in
turn, provides an incentive for manufacturing people with the
diagnosis of autism whose presence and needs support this
financial infrastructure.” (Grinker 2020, p9).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 9
PROFILING MYSELF.
Broader literature.
1) “Caregivers and schools are understandably very motivated to
understand which approaches might work and for whom.
Meanwhile, proponents of particular approaches often make
strong claims for good outcomes, and commercial interests can
come into play with companies promoting their own product.
This can in turn create a demand for certain approaches. It can
also leave caregivers and practitioners vulnerable to trying out
methods that have no evidence base or are not suited to the
specific CYP.”(Guldberg et al 2021, p14).
2) Applicable to autism certain stakeholders on “DAP Profile of
ASD”, e.g., see Woods (2017a).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 10
Main DAP Discourse.
1) Called “Pathological Demand Avoidance” or “Extreme Demand
Avoidance”.
2) Originally a Pervasive Developmental Disorder.
3) A rare autism profile/ subgroup/ subtype.
4) Has unique strategies that are different to autism.
LET’S TALK.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 11
DAP in the UK.
1) DAP criteria is unstable (Eaton 2018a; O’Nions et al 2014a;
O’Nions et al 2016a).
2) General approach to reduce DAP traits down to those essential
for a diagnosis (Christie 2016; Christie et al 2012).
3) No agreement over diagnostic criteria & are not consistently
applied.
4) No agreement on how to do diagnose DAP.
5) 5 separate profiles, see Eaton et al (2018); Green et al (2018a);
Newson et al (2003); O’Nions et al (2016a); Woods (2019).
LET’S TALK.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 12
Autism (left) + DAP Traits (right), my view (Woods 2021b, p11).
TIME TO PROFILE YOU.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 13
DAP in the UK.
1) Research DAP via their autism understandings (O’Nions et al
2016b).
2) Caregivers are highly motivated to take part in research
(O’Nions et al 2016b).
3) “interest in the concept of PDA largely centres on the UK, it is
at present a culture-bound concept” (O’Nions et al 2020,
p398).
4) UK DAP interest has risen sharply over last 10 years & it way
outstrips its research base (O’Nions & Eaton 2021).
5) Due to campaigning efforts persons can be on the look-out for
DAP & is a potential source of bias (Woods 2020a).
AVOIDING DEMANDS OF ORDINARY RESEARCH.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 14
Should there be a bubble on “DAP Profile of ASD”? –NO!
1) “DAP Profile of ASD” proponents likely argue it should be a
globally accepted construct.
2) DAP is controversial (Falk 2020; Fidler & Christie 2019; Green
et al 2018b; O’Nions et al 2014a; O’Nions et al 2014b).
Independent reputable parties recently concluded no good
quality evidence to suggest what DAP is, or what features are
associated with it. Divergent opinion was treated equally
(Howlin et al 2021; Kildahl et al 2021; NICE 2021).
AVOIDING DEMANDS OF ORDINARY RESEARCH.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 15
Robust challenges & substantial divergent opinion both exist.
1) Robustly challenged for almost 2 decades (Garralda 2003;
Green et al 2018a; Green et al 2018b; Green 2020; Malik &
Baird 2018; McElroy 2016; Milton 2017; Moore 2020; Wing 2002;
Wing & Gould 2002; Woods 2017a; Woods 2019; Woods 2020a;
Woods 2021b).
2) Most autistic persons wishes not to divide autism (Fletcher-
Watson & Happé 2019; Kapp & Ne’eman 2019).
AVOIDING DEMANDS OF ORDINARY RESEARCH.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 16
Robust challenges & substantial divergent opinion both exist.
1) Experts say DAP is seen outside of autism (Green et al 2018a;
Woods 2020b).
2) Studies DAP is seen outside of autism (Absoud 2019; Eaton
2018b; Egan et al 2019; Flackhill et al 2017; Newson et al 2003;
O’Nions 2013; O’Nions et al 2016a; Reilly et al 2014).
3) Non-autistic persons with DAP have equal rights to diagnoses,
research & support, e.g., UNCRC (Summerhill & Collet 2018).
4) Ethical & professional guidelines, like HCPC, e.g.,:
- Not discriminate & challenge discrimination.
- Must give service users and carergivers the information they
want or need (HCPC 2016).
AVOIDING DEMANDS OF ORDINARY RESEARCH.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 17
Robust challenges & substantial divergent opinion both exist.
1) Three other prominent schools of thought:
- Common mental disorder.
- Rebranded autism.
- Symptoms from interaction between autism & co occurring
conditions (Woods 2021b).
AVOIDING DEMANDS OF ORDINARY RESEARCH.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 18
Different DAP diagnostic thresholds (Woods 2021a).
TIME TO PROFILE YOU.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 19
Rebranded autism (Moore 2019, s11).
CIRCLE WARS.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 20
How accepted constructs may relate to DAP(O’Nions 2013,
p93).
SPIKY PROFILE.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 21
DAP & its constituent components (Woods 2021b, p12).
SPIKY PROFILE.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 22
DSM-5 Autism vs Aggregated DAP Diagram.
SPITTING IMAGES OR SPLITTING IMAGES?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 23
CONTRASTING FORTUNES.
Autism & DAP stereotypes.
Number.
Autism Stereotypes.
DAP Clinical Literature.
1
Absent or delayed roleplay and pretend.
Comfortable in roleplay and fantasy.*
2
Are not sociable.
Are sociable, but it is surface.
3
Delays in social communication and
interaction from Theory of mind
deficits.
Surface sociability, appears to lack of
sense of social identity, pride, or
shame.*
4
Dislikes surprises.
Likes novelty.
5
Does not express strong emotions.
Intense emotions and dysregulation.
6
Does not make eye contact.
Makes eye contact.
7
Lacks empathy.
Manipulative demand avoidance
behaviours.*
8
Likes routines and structure.
Dislikes routines and structure.*
*Is a reason why it is problematic conceptualising DAP as an ASD.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 24
CONTRASTING FORTUNES.
Autism & DAP stereotypes.
Number.
Autism Stereotypes.
DAP Clinical Literature.
9
Likes routines and structure being
imposed upon them.
Has a need for control.
10
Passionate interest with unusual
intensity/ focus.
Intense interests are often focused on
people.
11
Should use clear and concise language.
Should use complex language to disguise
demands.
12
There are many more autistic males,
than females.
Female form of autism. Can be equally
prevalent in both genders.*
13
Typical autism strategies (often
behaviourism based, like Applied
Behaviour Analysis) work.
Typical autism strategies (often
behaviourism based, like Applied
Behaviour Analysis) do not work.*
*Is a reason why it is problematic conceptualising DAP as an ASD.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 25
CONTRASTING FORTUNES.
Autism & Stigma.
1) Autistic persons often adversely affected by stigma by
stereotypes, judged, and discriminated by others.
2) Can internalise stigma, more vulnerable to poorer mental
health & low self-esteem.
3) Can respond to this by concealment and camouflaging,
selective disclosure and self-advocacy, as well as positive
reframing and reconstructing identity (Han et al 2021).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 26
CONTRASTING FORTUNES.
Autism & Stigma.
1) Camouflaging is deleterious to autistic wellbeing (Mandy 2019).
2) Those not conforming to autism stereotypes are most likely not
to receive a dx under DSM-5 criteria (Evers et al 2021).
3) DAP features are opposite of many autism stereotypes, it makes
it harder for autistic persons to manage their information.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 27
AVOIDING DEMANDS OF ORDINARY RESEARCH.
Broader issues in autism studies.
1) Autistic persons are systemically poorly treated by society
(Botha 2021; Woods 2017b).
2) Much/ most autism research & practice is poor quality
(Bottema-Beutel et al 2021a; Bottema-Beutel et al 2021b;
Bottema-Beutel & Crowley 2021; Dawson & Fletcher-Watson
2021a).
3) Poor quality research is often associated with poor quality
ethics (Dawson & Fletcher-Watson 2021b; Waltz 2007).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 28
FOREVER BLOWING BUBBLES.
DAP’s nature makes it easy for anyone to identify with it.
1) DAP has no specificity (Christie et al 2012; Christie & Fidler
2015; Garralda 2003; Malik and Baird 2018; Wing 2002; Wing &
Gould 2002; Woods 2019).
2) Using questionnaires & lacking specific items from using
caregiver reports (Lord et al 2018).
3) DAP features overlap many accepted constructs & common
autism co-occurring conditions; it is easy for one to identity
with it, if they wish to.
4) Signs of autistic CYP & adults internalizing “DAP Profile of ASD”
discourse (Cat 2018; Finley 2019; O’Connor & McNicholas 2020;
Thompson 2019).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 29
FOREVER BLOWING BUBBLES.
How “DAP Profile of ASD” controls autistic persons.
1) Autistic persons often high number of co-occurring conditions,
70% at least 1, at least 40% at least 2 or more (Woods 2019).
2) Most of autistic persons ill-health is due to minority stress.
3) Positive experiences in autistic community can help protect
adverse impact of minority stress (Botha 2021).
4) One should expect many autistic persons to identify with DAP,
& a supportive community would form around “DAP Profile of
ASD” (Cat 2018; Thompson 2019).
5) “Pervasive Drive for Autonomy”.
6) Which suggests a person is not impaired in neoliberal culture.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 31
THE MEAN NORMAL.
Gaussian Curve different interpretations (Goodley 2011, p70).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 32
THE MEAN NORMAL.
Gaussian Curve different interpretations (Goodley 2011, p71).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 33
DAP & Gaussian Curves.
1)Normal for most persons to have a “spikey profile” (Goodley
2011).
2)Especially for autistic persons (Milton 2017).
PEAK DISTRICT.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 34
How accepted constructs may relate to DAP(O’Nions 2013,
p93).
SPIKY PROFILE.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 35
DAP & its constituent components (Woods 2021b, p12).
SPIKY PROFILE.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 36
DAP, Gaussian Curves & Spikey Profiles.
1)DAP’s own spikey profile seems to make it easier for persons to
identify with.
2)Compounded lack of specificity, generic items on tools, and the
several competing diagnostic thresholds & several different
behaviour profiles.
3)DAP appears easy to identify with.
PEAL DISTRICT.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 37
Societal issues.
1)It is needs based, supposedly.
2)Significant support is provided through EHCPs, via wrap around
support by working with all stakeholders.
3)Rampant Neoliberal market ideology.
4)Austerity, applying cuts to LA budgets & school budgets.
5)Many academies are independent of LAs, academies are
responsible for their own admissions (Woods 2018).
A PERVASIVE DRIVE FOR AUTONOMY?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 38
Societal issues.
1)Growing numbers of EHCPs are being refused.
2)Huge variation in SEND support across the country (Woods 2018).
3)Recent reduction in autism support services (Woods 2019).
4)Caregivers using DAP as a proxy to good quality strategies (Green
et al 2018b).
A PERVASIVE DRIVE FOR AUTONOMY?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 39
A FIAT PANDA?
AET DAP Strategies (Woods 2019).
1) A specific keyworker & trusted relationship.
2) Being flexible & adaptable.
3) Indirect praise.
4) Letting things go.
5) Negotiating by providing choices to pupils.
6) Positive relations.
7) Thinking aloud.
8) Tone of voice.
9) Treating anger as communication.
10)Use humour.
11)Use role play, novelty & various materials.
12)Visual communication methods.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 40
A FIAT PANDA?
PANDA Strategies
Infographic (PDA
Society 2019).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 41
SEND Issues.
1)“Praise, reward, reproof, and punishment ineffective;
behavioural approaches fail.” Newson et al (2003, p597).
2)Reinforcement-based approaches may remove CYP only coping
mechanism to aversive environments (O’Nions & Eaton 2020).
3)DAP diagnosis needed to protect CYP from caregiver
interventions for disruptive behaviour disorders (O’Nions &
Neons 2018).
4)DAP supposedly protects from ABA/PBS.
5)Used to provide excuse to allow CYP to transgress cultural
norms, in non-compliance in educational settings.
6)Caregivers excused from disciplining CYP.
A PERVASIVE DRIVE FOR AUTONOMY?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 42
Rebranded autism (Moore 2019, s11).
CIRCLE WARS.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 43
“Profound Autism”.
1)Autistic persons with co-occurring ID (IQ below 50).
2)Minimal or no language.
3)Who require round-the-clock supervision and assistance with
activities of daily living (Lutz 2021).
4)Seems covered by DSM-5 autism criteria, e.g., specifier for
Intellectual Impairment (APA 2013).
5)Like with DAP, it uses a co-occurring difficulty to try create a
new subtype.
WHO HAS A “PATHOLOGICAL” NEED TO CONTROL WHOM?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 44
Rationale for “Profound Autism” vs DAP.
1)Has different support needs from other autistic persons.
2)Clinical communities to prioritise needs of this vulnerable &
underserved group.
3)Group is often excluded from research & research prioritised by
those with HFA.
4)Prioritise research funding to this group (Lutz 2021; Robison
2021).
5)Strategic planning.
6)Comparison of research findings.
7)Enabling access to certain resources.
8)To better understand CYP (Christie 2019).
WHO HAS A “PATHOLOGICAL” NEED TO CONTROL WHOM?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 45
Rationale for removing subtypes are still valid.
1)All attempts to successfully divide autism failed (Woods 2020b).
2)Autism subtypes are intrinsically unstable, we can transition
between subtypes over lifespan (Frith 1991; Wing 2002; Wing et
al 2011), e.g., “Profound Autism” 18%-48% (Lutz 2021).
3)In different situations, e.g., non-speaking population (Botha et
al 2021).
4)Autistic IQ imprecise proxy for functional, i.e., HFA is a
misnomer (Alvares et al 2020).
WHO HAS A “PATHOLOGICAL” NEED TO CONTROL WHOM?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 46
Rationale for removing subtypes are still valid.
1)“This is particularly important for some people with autism,
including those with Asperger syndrome, who may face very
significant challenges in their everyday lives, despite having
average or above average IQ.” (DoH 2015, p15).
2)Autistic social model supporters tend to advocate for ALL
autistic persons to be better supported & included in practice &
research (Woods & Waldock 2019).
WHO HAS A “PATHOLOGICAL” NEED TO CONTROL WHOM?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 47
Rationale for removing subtypes are still valid.
1)There are insignificant differences between autism subtypes.
2)No evidence of differential treatments between subtypes.
3)Best predictor of which autism spectrum diagnosis a person
received was which clinic the individuals went to, rather than
any characteristic of the individual.
4)To reduce stigma for all autistic persons (Happé 2011).
5)Most autistic persons do not want autism to be divided
(Fletcher-Watson & Happé 2019; Kapp & Ne’eman 2019).
WHO HAS A “PATHOLOGICAL” NEED TO CONTROL WHOM?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 48
Some rationale for removing autism subtypes applicable to DAP.
1)Persons can transition into DAP over lifespan (Newson 1989;
1999; Newson et al 2003; Wing et al 2011).
2)Under transactional models of DAP, persons can transition into
DAP (Kildahl et al 2021).
3)CYP can transition out of DAP (Woods 2020a).
WHO HAS A “PATHOLOGICAL” NEED TO CONTROL WHOM?
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 49
DAP Timeline.
1)“Continues to resist and avoid ordinary demands of life”
(Newson et al 2003, p597).
2)In non-autistic persons (Newson et al 2003).
3)“A “manipulative child” in the 1970s might get the label of
Pathological Demand Avoidance Syndrome in the 2000s.”
(Goodley 2011, p10).
4)Standalone diagnostic entity, inconsistently applied in clinical
practice & with non-autistic persons (O’Nions 2013).
5)Since 2010 strong surge in interest in “DAP Profile of
ASD”outlook (O’Nions et al 2016a).
6)Mainly ASD + DAP Traits dual diagnoses (Russell 2018).
AN OLD ROLEPLAY.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 50
AN OLD ROLEPLAY.
Autism history implications for DAP.
1) DAP history is compared to autism (Christie et al 2012).
2) Autism used to be a form of schizophrenia (Woods 2019).
3) 1966 prevalence rates 1 in 2500, now ~ 1 in 100, can be higher.
4) Autism broadened into a spectrum (Happé & Frith 2020).
5) DSM4: PDD-NOS was the most commonly diagnosed subtype.
6) ASD Level One to Level Three (APA 2013).
7) “High Functioning Autism”, equivalent to Asperger’s.
8) Now accepted indistinguishable clinical differences & strategies
between autism subtypes (Woods 2020b).
9) Confirms DAP can change diagnostic groupings & may be
substantially broadened.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 51
AVOIDING VARIANCE.
When does DAP become “Pathological Demand Avoidance”?
1) DAP presents as a continuum in human population.
2) Fluid & transient over lifespan & diverse situations.
3) "the disturbance causes clinically significant distress or
impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas
of functioning.“ (APA 2013, p21).
4) “…start to display avoidant behaviour and challenging
behaviour in response to a particular stressor…” (Eaton 2018b,
p20).
5) Around EDA-Q threshold and/ or “problematic demand
avoidance” (O’Nions et al 2018).
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 52
Should be wary prioritising narrow views on DAP.
1)Most would accept Asperger’s views on autism was substantially
broader than Kanner’s.
2)Kanner’s his drive to establish child psychiatry held back
understandings of autism by decades (Silberman 2015).
3)“the best predictor of which autism spectrum diagnosis a person
received (Asperger disorder, PDD-NOS, or autistic disorder) was
which clinic the individuals went to, rather than any
characteristic of the individual.” (Happé 2011, p541).
4)Clinician’s bias can be a barrier to identifying autistic females
(Lockwood-Estrin et al 2020).
A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 53
A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE.
Biased research leads to problematic DAP understandings.
1) “However, identification of mental health problems in autism
can be challenging for a number of reasons… Autistic
individuals frequently have difficulties conveying information
about their emotional states or levels of anxiety… mental
health problems may present in atypical or unusual ways… and
may not always be easily observable to families, caregivers or
clinicians… The types of events or stimuli that can give rise to
anxiety may also be different, or more varied, in autistic
individuals than in the general population” (Kildahl et al 2021,
p2163).
2) DAP probably presents differently in autism vs non-autism.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 54
A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE.
Biased research leads to problematic DAP understandings.
1) “Professionals and teams working with children need to
become aware of the ways in which girls can mask their
difficulties, and need to move away from using the DSM as a
‘bible’. Stating that someone does not fulfil criteria, when
these criteria are based on upon a ‘male’ presentation of a
disorder, is short sighted in the extreme.” (Eaton 2018a, p176).
2) Is applicable to basing understanding of DAP on assumption it is
a “Profile of ASD”.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 55
A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE.
Biased research leads to problematic DAP understandings.
1) “One of the strengths of the current study was that the data
used were collected in 2010 or earlier: for the most part prior
to the large peak in interest in PDA and the series of annual
conferences on the topic held in the UK. As such, it is likely
that clinicians were not particularly ‘on the lookout’ for PDA
features in their cases. This meant that it was possible to get
an honest and unbiased picture of the features of PDA in this
sample.” (O’Nions et al 2016a, p418).
2) Campaigning for DAP as form of autism probably creates source
of confirmation bias.
3) Only “DAP Profile of ASD” supporters know what DAP looks like.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 56
A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE.
1) “DAP Profile of ASD” supporters are as biased as anyone else.
2) These contributing factors suggest that autism subgroups are a
political choice more than anything else.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 57
Concluding comments.
1) DAP is being used to control autism stakeholders.
2) Autism subgroups seem to be mainly a political choice.
3) “DAP Profile of ASD”, since 2010 becoming a “culture-bound
concept” is predictable.
4) Respect autistic persons wishes not to divide autism (Fletcher-
Watson & Happé 2019; Kapp & Ne’eman 2019).
5) Seems unwise to view DAP as a “Profile of ASD”.
6) Non-autistic persons with DAP have equal rights.
7) Balanced & accurate information should be provided.
AVOIDING VARIANCE.
DAP: Implications of it being a biopower identity? 59
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THE FIRST BIBLE.
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