Competence Frameworks of Sustainable Entrepreneurship: A Systematic Review

Abstract

The importance of the transformation to a sustainable economy for the protection from global crises such as climate change is widely recognized. Sustainable entrepreneurs are considered to play a key role in this transformation process as they create innovative market solutions with ecological, social, and economic value. So far, there is no consensus on competences students need to solve sustainability challenges as sustainable entrepreneurs. The aim of this article is to identify competence frameworks that enable competence-oriented education of future sustainable entrepreneurs. An academic search engine and a bibliographic database were screened for documents written in English and published between January 2010 and November 2020 to identify the existing competence frameworks discussed in the current literature in the field of Sustainable Entrepreneurial Education (SEE). The review process led to a set of 65 empirical and nonempirical works on SEE. A computer-assisted qualitative data analysis was used for this review. The data analysis showed an increasing number of SEE articles published over the last decade mostly in scientific journals (69.2%). Fifty-six (86.2%) of publications related to tertiary education. The data analysis revealed three stand-alone competence frameworks for Sustainable Entrepreneurship (SE). The frameworks show an overlap in content but differences in terms of construction, validation, complexity. All competence frameworks were developed for use in higher education institutions, which necessitates adaptation for use in other educational institutions. The analysis of 28 SEE interventions identified in the literature provides information on the reception of the frameworks for competence-based teaching and assessment.

Full text

sustainability
Review
Competence Frameworks of Sustainable Entrepreneurship: A
Systematic Review
Charlotte S. Diepolder 1, * , Holger Weitzel 1and Johannes Huwer 2


Citation: Diepolder, C.S.; Weitzel, H.;
Huwer, J. Competence Frameworks
of Sustainable Entrepreneurship: A
Systematic Review. Sustainability
2021,13, 13734. https://doi.org/
10.3390/su132413734
Academic Editor: Antonis A. Zorpas
Received: 19 October 2021
Accepted: 6 December 2021
Published: 13 December 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Department of Biology, University of Education Weingarten, 88250 Weingarten, Germany;
weitzel@ph-weingarten.de
2Department of Science Education, University of Konstanz, 78464 Konstanz, Germany;
johannes.huwer@uni-konstanz.de
*Correspondence: charlotte.diepolder@ph-weingarten.de; Tel.: +49-751-501-8173
Abstract:
The importance of the transformation to a sustainable economy for the protection from
global crises such as climate change is widely recognized. Sustainable entrepreneurs are considered
to play a key role in this transformation process as they create innovative market solutions with
ecological, social, and economic value. So far, there is no consensus on competences students
need to solve sustainability challenges as sustainable entrepreneurs. The aim of this article is to
identify competence frameworks that enable competence-oriented education of future sustainable
entrepreneurs. An academic search engine and a bibliographic database were screened for documents
written in English and published between January 2010 and November 2020 to identify the existing
competence frameworks discussed in the current literature in the field of Sustainable Entrepreneurial
Education (SEE). The review process led to a set of 65 empirical and nonempirical works on SEE.
A computer-assisted qualitative data analysis was used for this review. The data analysis showed
an increasing number of SEE articles published over the last decade mostly in scientific journals
(69.2%). Fifty-six (86.2%) of publications related to tertiary education. The data analysis revealed
three stand-alone competence frameworks for Sustainable Entrepreneurship (SE). The frameworks
show an overlap in content but differences in terms of construction, validation, complexity. All
competence frameworks were developed for use in higher education institutions, which necessitates
adaptation for use in other educational institutions. The analysis of 28 SEE interventions identified
in the literature provides information on the reception of the frameworks for competence-based
teaching and assessment.
Keywords:
sustainable entrepreneurial education; competence framework; sustainable development;
higher education
1. Introduction
The transformation to a sustainable economy is of crucial importance for the recovery
from the consequences of the COVID pandemic and the protection from further crises
such as climate change [
1
]. The importance of the entrepreneurial activity to counteract
climate change or reduce inequalities to contribute to the implementation of the SDGs is
internationally recognized [
2
,
3
]. Sustainable Entrepreneurship (SE) is considered to play a
key role in the transformation process as it solves sustainability challenges with innovative
market solutions [4].
Despite the growing interest of the past decade in the young research field, there is
no consensus definition of SE so far [
5
]. The research from different disciplines has led to
different terms describing the link between the concept of sustainable development and
entrepreneurship, such as ecological, or social entrepreneurship [
6
]. However, SE represents
a special form of entrepreneurship that can be distinguished from those and other forms
of entrepreneurship by a sustainable founding motive and business objective [
6
]. While
the concept of conventional entrepreneurship, focuses on economic value creation [
7
,
8
],
Sustainability 2021,13, 13734. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132413734 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 2 of 26
systematic literature reviews on SE by Greco and de Jong [
9
] and Binder and Belz [
10
]
indicate a preference for a definition of SE as the process of discovery or creation, and
exploitation of business opportunities to develop and successfully implement innovative
goods and services with an ecological, social and economic value on the market [
4
,
11
–
13
]
visualized in Figure 1. In this context, the triple bottom line is significant, a framework that,
according to Elkington [
14
], aims at the holistic evaluation of business based on the factors
people, profit, and planet.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 26
While the concept of conventional entrepreneurship, focuses on economic value creation
[7,8], systematic literature reviews on SE by Greco and de Jong [9] and Binder and Belz
[10] indicate a preference for a definition of SE as the process of discovery or creation, and
exploitation of business opportunities to develop and successfully implement innovative
goods and services with an ecological, social and economic value on the market [4,11–13]
visualized in Figure 1. In this context, the triple bottom line is significant, a framework
that, according to Elkington [14], aims at the holistic evaluation of business based on the
factors people, profit, and planet.
Figure 1. Visualization of the three goal dimensions SE strives for when developing and implement-
ing goods and services at the market compared to other entrepreneurial concepts (adapted from
[10]).
The perception that SE is a promising tool for addressing biodiversity loss or, for
example, resource depletion, as well as social problems such as poverty and hunger, e.g.,
[11], may have contributed to the growing interest in the education of sustainable entre-
preneurs. Higher education institutes are considered to play a major role in facilitating SE
through the support of a SE ecosystem and the educators and students working in it [15].
The core purpose of Sustainable Entrepreneurial Education (SEE) is to provide entrepre-
neurs with skills and attitudes to evaluate business opportunities in light of environmen-
tal and societal needs [16]. The ambition of SEE is therefore to foster the competences (In
general, competences are described as a combination of key components knowledge,
skills, and attitudes required in specific contexts [17] enabling individuals to act responsi-
bly and be self-organized to mature and achieve objectives [18]. The assessment of com-
petences is challenging because competences are complex interactions of knowledge,
skills, values, and attitudes [19,20] and are composed of cognitive, behavioral, and socio-
emotional elements [21,22], expressed as “realized abilities” [23] or “performance” [24]. In
contrast to context-independent concepts such as intelligence, the concept of competence
is characterized as an attribute or disposition a person needs to act successfully in different
complex contexts and situations [25]. Competences cannot be taught as predefined solu-
tions, since they are developed by acting learners themselves through experiences and
reflection [21]) necessary to enable learners to solve sustainability problems with innova-
tive market solutions, regardless of whether the students go on to start their own business
or work for an employer. Lans et al. [16] were the first of several scholars that identified
the competences of sustainable entrepreneurs that integrate the competences from the
field of entrepreneurship and sustainable development.
Despite the growing interest in the education of sustainable entrepreneurs, lacking
integration of sustainability aspects into entrepreneurial education, e.g., [26,27] or vice
versa is often criticized. For students to become so-called “change agents for sustainabil-
ity”, specific learning environments that foster SE competences have to be developed [28]
(p. 114). In order to contribute to the development and assessment of competence-oriented
SEE interventions, previous research findings have to be presented and clarity about rel-
evant sustainable entrepreneurship competences have to be achieved. The aim of the pre-
sent research is therefore to analyze the literature on SEE to identify existing competence
frameworks and their reception in SEE interventions. A systematic review was conducted
to systematically map the research done in the field of SEE and identify existing gaps in
research.
Economic value Economic AND social
OR ecological value
Economic AND social
AND ecological value
Conventional
Entrepreneurship
Social OR Environmental
Entrepreneurship
Sustainable Entrepreneurship
Figure 1.
Visualization of the three goal dimensions SE strives for when developing and imple-
menting goods and services at the market compared to other entrepreneurial concepts (adapted
from [10]).
The perception that SE is a promising tool for addressing biodiversity loss or, for ex-
ample, resource depletion, as well as social problems such as poverty and hunger, e.g., [
11
],
may have contributed to the growing interest in the education of sustainable entrepreneurs.
Higher education institutes are considered to play a major role in facilitating SE through
the support of a SE ecosystem and the educators and students working in it [
15
]. The
core purpose of Sustainable Entrepreneurial Education (SEE) is to provide entrepreneurs
with skills and attitudes to evaluate business opportunities in light of environmental and
societal needs [
16
]. The ambition of SEE is therefore to foster the competences (In general,
competences are described as a combination of key components knowledge, skills, and
attitudes required in specific contexts [
17
] enabling individuals to act responsibly and be
self-organized to mature and achieve objectives [
18
]. The assessment of competences is
challenging because competences are complex interactions of knowledge, skills, values,
and attitudes [
19
,
20
] and are composed of cognitive, behavioral, and socio-emotional ele-
ments [
21
,
22
], expressed as “realized abilities” [
23
] or “performance” [
24
]. In contrast to
context-independent concepts such as intelligence, the concept of competence is character-
ized as an attribute or disposition a person needs to act successfully in different complex
contexts and situations [
25
]. Competences cannot be taught as predefined solutions, since
they are developed by acting learners themselves through experiences and reflection [
21
])
necessary to enable learners to solve sustainability problems with innovative market solu-
tions, regardless of whether the students go on to start their own business or work for an
employer. Lans et al. [
16
] were the first of several scholars that identified the competences of
sustainable entrepreneurs that integrate the competences from the field of entrepreneurship
and sustainable development.
Despite the growing interest in the education of sustainable entrepreneurs, lacking in-
tegration of sustainability aspects into entrepreneurial education, e.g., [
26
,
27
] or vice versa
is often criticized. For students to become so-called “change agents for sustainability”, spe-
cific learning environments that foster SE competences have to be
developed [28] (p. 114)
.
In order to contribute to the development and assessment of competence-oriented SEE
interventions, previous research findings have to be presented and clarity about relevant
sustainable entrepreneurship competences have to be achieved. The aim of the present
research is therefore to analyze the literature on SEE to identify existing competence
frameworks and their reception in SEE interventions. A systematic review was conducted
to systematically map the research done in the field of SEE and identify existing gaps
in research.
The literature review was guided by the research question: What is known from the
literature about SEE for formal education settings?

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 3 of 26
The following sub-questions directed the analysis of the literature sample regarding
competence frameworks:
•RQ 1: Which SE competence frameworks can be identified?
•RQ 2: How were the SE competence frameworks developed and validated?
•
RQ 3: Do the SEE interventions identified in the literature refer to these SE competence
frameworks?
In total, three stand-alone SE competence frameworks could be identified in the
literature on SEE:
1.
Framework: Validated Competence Framework for Sustainable Entrepreneurship by
Ploum, Blok, Lans, and Omta (2017) [28].
2.
Framework: Key competences for sustainability-driven entrepreneurship by Biber-
hofer, Bernhardt, and Rieckmann (2019) [29].
3.
Framework: Process-Oriented Framework of Competences for Sustainability En-
trepreneurship by Foucrier and Wiek (2019) [30].
They differ in terms of their construction, validation, and scope. Their reception in
publications reporting on SEE interventions has been low so far.
Published systematic literature reviews of the research area of SEE have focused on
three areas: teaching and learning methods and approaches applied in “sustainability-driven
entrepreneurship” in tertiary education [
31
], the scope that research on entrepreneurial
education is directed to the international SDGs in the context of fragile states [
32
], and the
structure of the ongoing research in the academic field of “sustainable entrepreneurship
education” [
15
]. The latter article is a very recent systematic review published outside the
review period, i.e., after November 2020.
Mindt and Rieckmann [
31
] introduce their review with a description of sustainability-
driven entrepreneurship and the required competences according to Lans et al. [
16
]. The
authors discuss higher ESD, the competences required to solve sustainability problems
according to Wiek [
33
,
34
], and the teaching-learning approaches suitable to foster these
competences in higher education. Mindt and Rickman [
31
] point out that to promote SE
competences, the approaches and methods of higher education for entrepreneurship and
sustainable development must be brought together. The focus of their work is to identify the
approaches and methods currently used or recommended in research on the two disciplines
of higher education for entrepreneurship and sustainable development. The authors [
31
]
found commonality in that collaborative and experiential learning are most often described
in both disciplines, but also differences, such as noting more transformative learning in
higher ESD or more real-world learning in higher education for entrepreneurship.
The scope of research on entrepreneurial education which addresses several SDGs like
responsible consumption and production is analyzed by the literature review of Rashid [
32
].
The author focused on the status of entrepreneurial education and its exploration in fragile
states referencing the importance of employment (of young people) for overcoming the
“vicious cycle of poverty and violence” [
32
]. Rashid [
32
] identifies several factors, such as
unavailability of entrepreneurial education for pupils, lack of experiential teaching and
learning approaches, or limited use of educational technology, that constrain the impact of
entrepreneurial education in fragile states.
The review by Sharma et al. [
15
] analyzed literature to gain knowledge about the
structure of themes of SEE research and the emerging trends. The authors found that
research activities in SEE could be grouped into the three areas: “institutional framework”
including the groups acting in it and the infrastructural and strategic aspects as well as
the policy and culture of the educational institution, and “external interactions” with
stakeholders from the public and private sectors embracing cooperation formats like
service-learning. In addition to the distinction between internal and external research areas,
Sharma et al. [
15
] also list the research area “teaching learning approaches” comprising a
list of eight approaches and methods.

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 4 of 26
So far, no systematic review analyzed the literature body of the last decade on SEE
research to identify the available SE competence frameworks and their reception in SEE
interventions. This review will analyze and condense the previous findings on SE compe-
tence frameworks to contribute to the development and assessment of competence-oriented
SEE interventions for formal educational settings.
2. Sustainable Entrepreneurial Education (SEE)
The main educational disciplines of Sustainable Entrepreneurial Education (SEE) are
entrepreneurial education and the Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) [26,31].
2.1. Entrepreneurial Education
The increasing number of academic courses, faculties, or journals for entrepreneurship
indicates its growth as an educational subject and branch of science [
35
]. Educational
measures to facilitate entrepreneurship exist today in educational settings from primary
school to doctoral programs [
36
]. This broad reception is fostered by the notion that
entrepreneurship is a driver of economic and social development [37].
To date, there is no uniform definition of the term entrepreneurship [
38
]. This het-
erogeneity is reflected in research on entrepreneurial education, a discipline spread over
divergent fields [
39
] covering different definitions. One side of the continuum is “enterprise
or enterprising education”, which includes European research and is oriented towards
a wider definition of entrepreneurship, according to which it is about the personal de-
velopment of an entrepreneurial mindset and life skills [
40
,
41
]. On the other side of the
continuum is “entrepreneurship education”, which includes North American research and
is oriented towards the narrower definition of entrepreneurship, which is about the creation
of ventures [
42
]. Acknowledging the narrower and wider perspective in the review, the
expression “entrepreneurial education” is used in this paper as in [
43
] to refer to education
in entrepreneurship.
Contemporary research on entrepreneurial education is moving away from the nar-
row start-up perspective [
44
] focused on a target audience of students interested in an
entrepreneurial career [
45
] towards a wider perspective addressing all students to foster
entrepreneurial competences regardless of future self- or dependent employment [
46
]. In
the context of the wider enterprising perspective, entrepreneurial education is not limited
to business programs and can be integrated across the curriculum [47].
The term competence is interpreted and defined differently depending on the field
of application or initial discipline, and country [
48
], so that even within entrepreneurship
research a recent literature review on 32 key publications identified 12 different defini-
tions [
18
]. Discussing the body of entrepreneurship literature, Tittel and Terzidis [
18
] define
“entrepreneurial competence as the specific set of domain competences, social competences
and personal competences needed to generate entrepreneurial action”. They further specify
the following subcategories within the framework of domain competence: “opportunity
recognition, organizational and strategic and management competence” [18].
Pedagogy in entrepreneurial education has evolved, like pedagogy in general, from
traditional teacher-guided instructional approaches in the 1980s towards learner-centered
constructivist approaches to date [
39
]. According to the systematic review by Hägg and
Gabrielsson [
39
], pedagogy in entrepreneurial education research today is mainly influ-
enced by six theories and approaches: constructivist educational philosophy [
49
], experi-
ential learning theory [
50
], situated learning [
51
], action learning [
52
], and problem-based
learning [
53
]. Thus, the theoretical framework of modern entrepreneurial education is
experiential and constructivist in nature.
The use of these modern experiential approaches enables the facilitation of innova-
tiveness and creativity among learners [
54
]. Meta-studies have confirmed the empirical
evidence of the impact of entrepreneurship courses and programs on entrepreneurial
competences and skills [
55
,
56
], while at the same time criticizing the methodology [
57
].
The evidence of impact of entrepreneurial education regarding intentions towards en-

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 5 of 26
trepreneurship is less clear, as pre-educational intentions are little affected by education
programs [
28
]. The empirical evidence of entrepreneurial education is also dependent on
the age and gender of the learners [56,58].
The content of entrepreneurial education developed from learning about to learning
in or through the experience of entrepreneurship [
39
] e.g., [
59
,
60
]. Typical entrepreneurial
education content relating to different stages of the entrepreneurial process range from
developing ideas or discovering opportunities and writing business plans, to creating a ven-
ture and manage related activities [
44
]. Current methodological contributions to the design
of entrepreneurial education include for example effectuation [
61
] e.g., in
Cowden et al. [62]
or lean start-up [
63
], e.g., in Harms [
64
]. The worldwide homogeneity of used methods
like business model canvas, mini-companies, entrepreneurship competitions, and start-up
pitches is labeled as “McDonaldization” of entrepreneurial education and criticized as
lacking variation acknowledging aspects like gender, or cultural background [65].
Contemporary research on entrepreneurial education is focused not only on the
individual but increasingly on the environment and the individual’s interaction with it,
e.g., [
26
,
66
]. In the context of global crisis such as the economic crisis of 2008 or the ongoing
destruction of livelihoods, the question of the ethical responsibility of entrepreneurs and
entrepreneurial education is gaining importance [
39
] and interest in concepts such as social
entrepreneurship or SE is growing, e.g., [45,46].
2.2. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD)
Papenfuss et al. [
67
] highlight the 1960s with widely recognized publications on
socially induced environmental disasters, such as Silent Spring [
68
], as the beginning of
the emergence of sustainability education. While the focus was initially on environmental
problems and the concept of environmental education [
69
], in subsequent years, issues
of development, social justice, and economics arose and the discourse transitioned to the
concept of sustainability education [
70
]. The notion of ESD, a United Nations initiative,
was introduced in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 [
71
] and since then internationally explored by
a growing number of scholars [
72
] and politically promoted, for example, by the United
Nations Decade of ESD [
73
]. Other terms used synonymously with the United Nations
terminology for ESD are, e.g., sustainability education or education for sustainability [
72
].
In 2015, following the Decade of ESD, the United Nations [
74
] adopted the Agenda
2030 to further enhance sustainable development that “meet the needs and aspirations of
the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future” [
75
] (p. 51). The
political agenda defines 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) comprising a total of
169 environmental, social, and economic interconnected targets corresponding to sustain-
ability concerns, such as the exploitation of natural resources, environmental pollution,
and social injustice [
74
]. ESD was now included in goal four “Quality Education” [
76
] and
seen as an essential element to achieve all goals [77].
According to the UNESCO, ESD is a ‘holistic’ approach that addresses all levels of
education across all disciplines and requires the consideration of sustainability issues
in every aspect of teaching and learning [
78
]. Pedagogy discourse in ESD has evolved
analog to the development of pedagogy in general from content-focused and teacher-
guided learning about sustainable development issues to learner-centered transformative
and action-oriented pedagogy [
67
,
79
] integrating learners in the solution of real-world
sustainability challenges [
80
,
81
]. Accordingly, innovative teaching-learning methods are
often applied in which learners work collaboratively (e.g., service-learning), imagine an
alternative to current practices and foster creativity (e.g., story-telling), or work in an
interdisciplinary way to analyze complex sustainability challenges from all sides (e.g.,
community research) [
82
,
83
]. Emerging trends in the ESD research literature identified by
Grosseck et al. [
72
] are e.g., referring to education on alternatives to the linear economic sys-
tem [
84
] or the broad area of digitalization. Research regarding the latter lies in three main
areas: content-related, (e.g., in the effect and handling of fake news [
85
]), medium-related,
(as shown by Carrión-Martínez et al. [
86
] in mobile learning, e.g., massive open online

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 6 of 26
courses [
87
]), or interactive learning environments, (e.g., serious games [
88
], augmented
reality [89]).
The central subjects of ESD are the fundamental topics for sustainable development
on a local and global level [
61
]. The 17 SDGs relevant to sustainable development are again
condensed by UNESCO [
78
] into four key areas: climate change, sustainable consumption
and production, biodiversity, and disaster risk reduction. As early as 2006, PISA revealed
that almost all learners in OECD member countries attend schools where these and other
issues such as pollution and environmental degradation are part of the curriculum [78].
To contribute to solutions for these environmental, economic, and social challenges of
the present and the future, and thus contribute to sustainable development of societies, ESD
aims to enable learners to make informed decisions and act responsibly as ‘sustainability
citizens’ [
74
,
75
]. ESD thus becomes a means of facilitating a range of essential competences
necessary to successfully act when facing the complexity and uncertainty of sustainability
issues [
22
]. Among a plethora of different competence concepts like “shaping competences”
by de Haan [
90
], “sustainability literacy” by Stibbe [
91
], different “key competences in
sustainability” by Wiek et al. [
33
,
34
], or “key competences for sustainable development” by
Rieckmann [
92
], “sustainable skills” by Wals [
93
] including so-called “core competences”
by Glasser and Hirsch [
94
] following Redman et al. [
95
] there is agreement on these key
competences: anticipatory or futures-thinking-, collaboration or interpersonal-, values-
thinking or normative-, strategic-, and systems-thinking [
33
], and integrated problem-
solving competence [
34
], as well as following the UNESCO [
22
] and Rieckmann [
82
]
furthermore: critical thinking and self-awareness competence. Increasingly, there is interest
in assessing the impact of ESD interventions on learning attainments and the resulting
behavioral and decision-making changes in order to identify elements of the pedagogical
reality that are effectively fostering competences [25,79].
Often, learners in ESD are limited to the role of consumers and lifelong workers, rather
than as “empowered producer und life-long learner”, as Wals and Lenglet call for [
96
]
(p. 56). However, individuals can also contribute to achieving the SDGs as innovative,
sustainable producers and service providers [97].
3. Method
To identify the existing SE competence frameworks and their reception in the literature
on SEE interventions, a comprehensive systematic literature review was conducted. The
review process was guided by the PRISMA 2020 Statement for systematic reviews [
98
].
Systematic reviews are a distinct research method for analyzing and synthesizing existing
research literature, with a systematic and replicable approach [99].
3.1. Eligibility Criteria and Restrictions
3.1.1. Eligibility Criteria
The review included all kinds of documents dealing with research on SEE considering
nonempirical and empirical research. To map the current state of research internationally,
publications were included if they were written in English and published between January
2010 and November 2020. To enable a comprehensive examination of the research field,
all documents, including so-called gray literature (unpublished articles [
100
] such as
conference proceedings [101]) were collected.
3.1.2. Restrictions
Publications were excluded if they did not meet the research interest and were limited,
for example, to promoting SE only in specific educational contexts, such as engineering
education, e.g., [
102
]. Similarly, studies were excluded that did not fit the defined concept
of sustainability and were limited, for example, to the economic dimension of sustainability,
e.g., [103].

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 7 of 26
3.2. Information Sources
The data collection was conducted in November 2020 inclusive using the academic
search engine Google Scholar and the bibliographic database Web of Science. A survey of
the Scopus bibliographic database was not conducted because the Web of Science provides
analogous results according to Harzing and Alakangas [
104
]. The research question was
translated into a search strategy that included the following three groups of terms:
•sustainable (green, ecologic, environment)
•entrepreneurship
•education (teach, train)
The listed synonyms were identified by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) Thesaurus for the group “Education—Teaching
and training” [105]. The roots of these terms were broadened with the wildcard character
asterisk (*) that represents none, one or more characters [
106
] which ensures the inclusion
of spelling variants. The search was performed as a title search in Google Scholar and Web
of Science.
3.3. Search Strategy and Selection Process
In the academic bibliographic database Web of Science, the following search string
was used:
•
TI = (sustainab* OR green OR eco OR ecol* OR environment*) AND TI = entrepreneur
* AND TI = (educat* OR teach* OR train*),
•TI = ecopreneur* AND TI = (educat* OR teach* OR train*),
•and TI = sustainopreneur* AND TI = (educat* OR teach* OR train*).
The syntax was discussed among the authors regarding the appropriate use of Boolean
operators and brackets.
Additionally, the academic search engine Google Scholar was used. This provides the
most comprehensive results compared to the 12 most used academic search engines and
bibliographic databases [
107
]. Google Scholar cannot apply search queries with wildcards,
such as the asterisk (*). The complex search query applied in the Web of Science was
therefore translated into 418 individual search queries. Search queries for Google Scholar
were performed as title searches using Harzing’s ‘Publish or Perish’ software. The software
returns identical results to an Advanced Google Scholar search [
108
]. The first 1000 records
of every search on Google Scholar were captured and the results were downloaded as a file
in CSV format.
All search results were exported into the spreadsheet program Excel, and 176 dupli-
cates were removed. The titles and abstracts of the remaining publications were screened
regarding the eligibility and restriction criteria and 487 records were excluded. Another
67 records were excluded after screening the full texts. The reference lists of the remaining
54 records were scanned and 11 additional publications were identified. The review pro-
cess shown in the flow diagram (Figure 2) illustrates the records identified, included, and
excluded in each of the three phases: identification, screening, and inclusion.

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 8 of 26
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 26
Figure 2. Flow diagram adapted from The PRISMA 2020 statement [98].
Sixty-five publications alphabetically listed in Appendix A Table A1 remained in the
selection and were analyzed using the MAXQDA [109] software which led to the
following results.
4. Results
The bibliographic data analysis provides information regarding the number of
publications over the last decade, the publication formats, and the most frequent journals
as well as information on the authors, for example, the geographical location of the first
author’s university. The content analysis of the publications provides general information
regarding the paper type, educational level, and the most frequent words.
The information on competence frameworks is structured into a detailed description
and the analysis of the reception in SEE interventions.
4.1. Bibliographic Results
As Figure 3 shows the number of articles addressing SEE has risen over the last ten
years. Between 2010 and 2015 a total number of 19 publications was identified while
between 2016 and November 2020 the publication volume has more than doubled and 46
publications were identified. This emphasizes the increasing discussion on SEE.
Figure 3. Annual volume of publications on SEE between January 2010 to November 2020 inclusive.
The identified publication formats are shown in Figure 4. Forty-five articles were
published in journals. Ten conference proceedings, seven chapters from books, and three
project reports were identified. Scientific results regarding SEE are therefore mostly com-
municated via journal articles.
Figure 2. Flow diagram adapted from The PRISMA 2020 statement [98].
Sixty-five publications alphabetically listed in Appendix ATable A1 remained in
the selection and were analyzed using the MAXQDA [
109
] software which led to the
following results.
4. Results
The bibliographic data analysis provides information regarding the number of publi-
cations over the last decade, the publication formats, and the most frequent journals as well
as information on the authors, for example, the geographical location of the first author’s
university. The content analysis of the publications provides general information regarding
the paper type, educational level, and the most frequent words.
The information on competence frameworks is structured into a detailed description
and the analysis of the reception in SEE interventions.
4.1. Bibliographic Results
As Figure 3shows the number of articles addressing SEE has risen over the last ten
years. Between 2010 and 2015 a total number of 19 publications was identified while
between 2016 and November 2020 the publication volume has more than doubled and 46
publications were identified. This emphasizes the increasing discussion on SEE.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 26
Figure 2. Flow diagram adapted from The PRISMA 2020 statement [98].
Sixty-five publications alphabetically listed in Appendix A Table A1 remained in the
selection and were analyzed using the MAXQDA [109] software which led to the
following results.
4. Results
The bibliographic data analysis provides information regarding the number of
publications over the last decade, the publication formats, and the most frequent journals
as well as information on the authors, for example, the geographical location of the first
author’s university. The content analysis of the publications provides general information
regarding the paper type, educational level, and the most frequent words.
The information on competence frameworks is structured into a detailed description
and the analysis of the reception in SEE interventions.
4.1. Bibliographic Results
As Figure 3 shows the number of articles addressing SEE has risen over the last ten
years. Between 2010 and 2015 a total number of 19 publications was identified while
between 2016 and November 2020 the publication volume has more than doubled and 46
publications were identified. This emphasizes the increasing discussion on SEE.
Figure 3. Annual volume of publications on SEE between January 2010 to November 2020 inclusive.
The identified publication formats are shown in Figure 4. Forty-five articles were
published in journals. Ten conference proceedings, seven chapters from books, and three
project reports were identified. Scientific results regarding SEE are therefore mostly com-
municated via journal articles.
Figure 3.
Annual volume of publications on SEE between January 2010 to November 2020 inclusive.
The identified publication formats are shown in Figure 4. Forty-five articles were pub-
lished in journals. Ten conference proceedings, seven chapters from books, and three project
reports were identified. Scientific results regarding SEE are therefore mostly communicated
via journal articles.

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 9 of 26
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 26
Figure 4. Chart of publication formats.
The three most frequent journals are the Journal of Cleaner Production with five
articles, the Journal Sustainability with four articles, and the journal Discourse and
Communication for Sustainable Education with two articles. The remaining 77% of
articles were all published in different journals either from the field of sustainability,
specifically sustainability education, or from the field of economics, specifically
entrepreneurship or management education. No paper was published in a special journal
on SEE which highlights the fact that it is still a scientific niche.
The information on the geographical location of the first authors' university was
collected and grouped into continents (Figure 5). The country may therefore differ from
the country of the author’s citizenship or birth. Thirty-seven (56.9%) first authors were
located at universities on the European continent, 14 (21.5%) on the American continent,
10 (15.4%) on the Asian continent followed by four (6.2%) on the African continent. The
three countries where most of the first author’s universities were located are the United
States of America (11; 16.9%), followed by the United Kingdom (eight; 12.3%), Austria,
Germany, and the Netherlands (each five; 7.7%).
Figure 5. Chart of the geographical location of the first authors' university by continents.
In summary, 138 different authors contributed to the identified publications on SEE.
Fourteen (10.1%) authors contributed to more than three but less than six publications and
another 14 (10.1%) authors contributed to two publications. The majority of 111 (80.4%)
authors contributed to one publication. Eighteen (27.7%) publications were written by a
single author.
4.2. Content Results
4.2.1. Paper Type
All publications were differentiated according to the classification of paper types
(Figure 6) adopted from Emerald Open Research [110]. Thirty (46.2%) publications were
classified as Research Papers, as the authors reported on some type of research
undertaking (e.g., the construction or testing of a SE competence framework, action
research on SEE interventions, or surveys on SEE intentions). Seventeen (26.2%)
publications were classified as Conceptual Papers as they were discursive, covering
philosophical discussions and focused on developing hypotheses. Case studies describing
SEE interventions or SEE experiences within organizations were classified 16 (24.6%)
Figure 4. Chart of publication formats.
The three most frequent journals are the Journal of Cleaner Production with five
articles, the Journal Sustainability with four articles, and the journal Discourse and Com-
munication for Sustainable Education with two articles. The remaining 77% of articles
were all published in different journals either from the field of sustainability, specifically
sustainability education, or from the field of economics, specifically entrepreneurship
or management education. No paper was published in a special journal on SEE which
highlights the fact that it is still a scientific niche.
The information on the geographical location of the first authors’ university was
collected and grouped into continents (Figure 5). The country may therefore differ from
the country of the author’s citizenship or birth. Thirty-seven (56.9%) first authors were
located at universities on the European continent, 14 (21.5%) on the American continent,
10 (15.4%) on the Asian continent followed by four (6.2%) on the African continent. The
three countries where most of the first author’s universities were located are the United
States of America (11; 16.9%), followed by the United Kingdom (eight; 12.3%), Austria,
Germany, and the Netherlands (each five; 7.7%).
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 26
Figure 4. Chart of publication formats.
The three most frequent journals are the Journal of Cleaner Production with five
articles, the Journal Sustainability with four articles, and the journal Discourse and
Communication for Sustainable Education with two articles. The remaining 77% of
articles were all published in different journals either from the field of sustainability,
specifically sustainability education, or from the field of economics, specifically
entrepreneurship or management education. No paper was published in a special journal
on SEE which highlights the fact that it is still a scientific niche.
The information on the geographical location of the first authors' university was
collected and grouped into continents (Figure 5). The country may therefore differ from
the country of the author’s citizenship or birth. Thirty-seven (56.9%) first authors were
located at universities on the European continent, 14 (21.5%) on the American continent,
10 (15.4%) on the Asian continent followed by four (6.2%) on the African continent. The
three countries where most of the first author’s universities were located are the United
States of America (11; 16.9%), followed by the United Kingdom (eight; 12.3%), Austria,
Germany, and the Netherlands (each five; 7.7%).
Figure 5. Chart of the geographical location of the first authors' university by continents.
In summary, 138 different authors contributed to the identified publications on SEE.
Fourteen (10.1%) authors contributed to more than three but less than six publications and
another 14 (10.1%) authors contributed to two publications. The majority of 111 (80.4%)
authors contributed to one publication. Eighteen (27.7%) publications were written by a
single author.
4.2. Content Results
4.2.1. Paper Type
All publications were differentiated according to the classification of paper types
(Figure 6) adopted from Emerald Open Research [110]. Thirty (46.2%) publications were
classified as Research Papers, as the authors reported on some type of research
undertaking (e.g., the construction or testing of a SE competence framework, action
research on SEE interventions, or surveys on SEE intentions). Seventeen (26.2%)
publications were classified as Conceptual Papers as they were discursive, covering
philosophical discussions and focused on developing hypotheses. Case studies describing
SEE interventions or SEE experiences within organizations were classified 16 (24.6%)
Figure 5. Chart of the geographical location of the first authors’ university by continents.
In summary, 138 different authors contributed to the identified publications on SEE.
Fourteen (10.1%) authors contributed to more than three but less than six publications and
another 14 (10.1%) authors contributed to two publications. The majority of 111 (80.4%)
authors contributed to one publication. Eighteen (27.7%) publications were written by a
single author.
4.2. Content Results
4.2.1. Paper Type
All publications were differentiated according to the classification of paper types
(Figure 6) adopted from Emerald Open Research [
110
]. Thirty (46.2%) publications were
classified as Research Papers, as the authors reported on some type of research undertaking
(e.g., the construction or testing of a SE competence framework, action research on SEE
interventions, or surveys on SEE intentions). Seventeen (26.2%) publications were classified
as Conceptual Papers as they were discursive, covering philosophical discussions and
focused on developing hypotheses. Case studies describing SEE interventions or SEE
experiences within organizations were classified 16 (24.6%) times. Two (3.1%) literature
reviews with the main purpose of annotating and critiquing the literature in the field of
SEE were identified in the sample.

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 10 of 26
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26
times. Two (3.1%) literature reviews with the main purpose of annotating and critiquing
the literature in the field of SEE were identified in the sample.
Figure 6. Chart of the paper types of each publication. (No multiple categorization possible).
4.2.2. Educational Level
Fifty-six (86.2%) of 65 publications related to tertiary education by researching or
testing SEE in universities or colleges. Similarly, five (7.7%) publications refer to
secondary education. Four publications are categorized as undefined or overlapping
(6.2%) of which one publication mentions various target groups in the school or university
education sector [111] and three other publications do not refer to a specific education
sector. No publication of the data set refers to the primary education sector. Figure 7
shows the clear focus of the testing and research on SEE at the tertiary level.
Figure 7. Chart of the educational level of each publication. (No multiple categorization possible).
4.2.3. Keywords
To analyze the keywords, the number of publications containing the respective
keyword assigned by the authors were counted. Table 1 shows their frequency among the
65 publications. Keywords that were counted in at least two publications are shown in
Table 1. A further 91 keywords are not shown in Table 1, as each was only counted in one
publication. The most frequent keyword is entrepreneurship education (18 publications).
Table 1. Table of keyword frequencies.
Keyword Frequency
Keyword Frequency
entrepreneurship education 18 eco-entrepreneurship education 2
sustainability 11
competence 2
higher education 10 intention 2
entrepreneurship 10
key competencies 2
sustainable entrepreneurship 10 learning 2
education 8
problem-based learning 2
Education for sustainable development 6 social entrepreneurship 2
innovation 6
corporate social responsibility 2
sustainable development goals 5 sustainability competencies 2
eco entrepreneurial 5 sustainability education 2
sustainable development 3 sustainability-driven entrepreneurship 2
Figure 6. Chart of the paper types of each publication. (No multiple categorization possible).
4.2.2. Educational Level
Fifty-six (86.2%) of 65 publications related to tertiary education by researching or
testing SEE in universities or colleges. Similarly, five (7.7%) publications refer to secondary
education. Four publications are categorized as undefined or overlapping (6.2%) of which
one publication mentions various target groups in the school or university education
sector [
111
] and three other publications do not refer to a specific education sector. No
publication of the data set refers to the primary education sector. Figure 7shows the clear
focus of the testing and research on SEE at the tertiary level.
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 26
times. Two (3.1%) literature reviews with the main purpose of annotating and critiquing
the literature in the field of SEE were identified in the sample.
Figure 6. Chart of the paper types of each publication. (No multiple categorization possible).
4.2.2. Educational Level
Fifty-six (86.2%) of 65 publications related to tertiary education by researching or
testing SEE in universities or colleges. Similarly, five (7.7%) publications refer to
secondary education. Four publications are categorized as undefined or overlapping
(6.2%) of which one publication mentions various target groups in the school or university
education sector [111] and three other publications do not refer to a specific education
sector. No publication of the data set refers to the primary education sector. Figure 7
shows the clear focus of the testing and research on SEE at the tertiary level.
Figure 7. Chart of the educational level of each publication. (No multiple categorization possible).
4.2.3. Keywords
To analyze the keywords, the number of publications containing the respective
keyword assigned by the authors were counted. Table 1 shows their frequency among the
65 publications. Keywords that were counted in at least two publications are shown in
Table 1. A further 91 keywords are not shown in Table 1, as each was only counted in one
publication. The most frequent keyword is entrepreneurship education (18 publications).
Table 1. Table of keyword frequencies.
Keyword Frequency
Keyword Frequency
entrepreneurship education 18 eco-entrepreneurship education 2
sustainability 11
competence 2
higher education 10 intention 2
entrepreneurship 10
key competencies 2
sustainable entrepreneurship 10 learning 2
education 8
problem-based learning 2
Education for sustainable development 6 social entrepreneurship 2
innovation 6
corporate social responsibility 2
sustainable development goals 5 sustainability competencies 2
eco entrepreneurial 5 sustainability education 2
sustainable development 3 sustainability-driven entrepreneurship 2
Figure 7. Chart of the educational level of each publication. (No multiple categorization possible).
4.2.3. Keywords
To analyze the keywords, the number of publications containing the respective key-
word assigned by the authors were counted. Table 1shows their frequency among the
65 publications. Keywords that were counted in at least two publications are shown in
Table 1. A further 91 keywords are not shown in Table 1, as each was only counted in one
publication. The most frequent keyword is entrepreneurship education (18 publications).
Table 1. Table of keyword frequencies.
Keyword Frequency Keyword Frequency
entrepreneurship education 18 eco-entrepreneurship education 2
sustainability 11 competence 2
higher education 10 intention 2
entrepreneurship 10 key competencies 2
sustainable entrepreneurship 10 learning 2
education 8 problem-based learning 2
Education for sustainable development 6 social entrepreneurship 2
innovation 6 corporate social responsibility 2
sustainable development goals 5 sustainability competencies 2
eco entrepreneurial 5 sustainability education 2
sustainable development 3 sustainability-driven entrepreneurship 2
entrepreneur 3 creativity 2
curriculum and course development 3 authentic learning 2
environmental education 2 change agents 2
environmental problems 2 teaching 2
experiential learning 2 transformation 2
gamification 2 values 2

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 11 of 26
4.2.4. Word Frequencies
The evaluation of the word frequencies of all publication’s full texts [
112
] was con-
ducted using a lemma list by Mˇechura [
113
]. The analysis showed that the term from the
root competence (e.g., competences) and hyphenated compounds (e.g., competence-mix)
appears 2620 times in 46 (70.77%) documents and occurs under the 10 most frequent words.
However, a comparison with the other most frequent words (Table 2) shows that the term
is not mentioned in about one-third of the publications. The number of publications in
which the term competence was mentioned increased from 18 publications (2010–2015) in
the first half of the last decade to 49 publications (2016–November 2020).
Table 2. Table of word frequencies.
Rank Word Frequency Documents Documents %
1 sustainability 6699 62 95.38
2 learn 4260 61 93.85
3 student 3930 61 93.85
4
entrepreneurship
3918 62 95.38
5 education 3462 63 96.92
6 business 2876 62 95.38
7 development 2631 63 96.92
8 competence 2620 46 70.77
9 course 1781 54 83.08
10 social 1710 60 92.31
4.3. Sustainable Entrepreneurship Competence Frameworks
In 65 publications, four papers were found that report on relevant competences
for SE and deal with the development of a competence framework or a list of key
competences [
16
,
28
–
30
]. The four publications were subjected to a detailed analysis. Using
the mind mapping method, a development context between the competence framework
of [
16
] and [
28
] was identified, and the number of stand-alone competence frameworks
was reduced to three.
The analysis of the three competence frameworks was carried out along three criteria:
construction, validation, and complexity, derived from the research question.
4.3.1. Validated Competence Framework for Sustainable Entrepreneurship
The following competence framework includes six competences and was identified in
Ploum et al. [
28
]. It is the only empirically validated competence framework identified in
the literature sample for SEE. The authors conducted the research to identify the central
competences for SE and equip higher education institutes with the necessary information
for the further development of higher education learning settings.
•
Construction: The competence framework is the result of a validation of the first
competence framework on SE developed by Lans et al. [
16
] which is therefore not
separately listed. The initial framework by Lans et al. [
16
] includes seven key com-
petences that integrate entrepreneurial and sustainable competences. It was based
on focus group discussions about two literature-based lists of competences for sus-
tainable development [
114
] and entrepreneurship [
115
,
116
] with eight educators in
the field. The developed framework was tested among 210 students and results
were analyzed by explorative factor analysis [
16
]. Lans et al. [
16
] identified a specific
spectrum of SE competences that overlap and differ from the entrepreneurship and
sustainability competence domains. For example, normative competence is unique to
sustainability competences.
•
Validation: Ploum et al. [
28
] tested the initial framework by Lans et al. [
16
] using
confirmatory factor analysis of data gained from a questionnaire with competence
self-reports of 402 students that showed the intention to become a sustainable en-

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 12 of 26
trepreneur (would-be entrepreneurs). For a better model fit the two competences
strategic management competence and action competence were merged.
•
Complexity: The validated competence framework for SE consists of six competences
listed in Table 3. Descriptions of individual competences do not appear in the frame-
work but are summarized based on Lans’ et al. [
16
] previous framework. For example,
system thinking competence is described according to [
33
] as the “ability to identify
and analyze all relevant (sub)systems across different domains (people, planet, profit)
and disciplines, including their boundaries” [28] (p. 119).
Table 3. Competence framework adopted from Ploum et al. [28].
Excerpt of the Validated Competence Framework for Sustainable Entrepreneurship
(Ploum et al., 2017, p. 124)
1. Strategic action competence
2. Diversity competence
3. System thinking competence
4. Normative competence
5. Foresighted thinking competence
6. Interpersonal competence
Excerpt of the competence framework adopted from Ploum et al. [28] including the key competences (p. 124).
4.3.2. Key Competences for Sustainability-Driven Entrepreneurship
The following competence framework includes five key competences and was identi-
fied in Biberhofer et al. [
29
]. According to the authors, it is the only framework in whose
development process any corporate practitioners with experience in implementing sus-
tainability strategies were interviewed. The authors conducted the research to identify the
required competences for SE that should be integrated into higher education programs
for SE.
•
Construction: To identify necessary competences for SE 48 managers and entrepreneurs
experienced in the application of sustainability strategies in their ventures were in-
terviewed including questions on challenges and tasks of sustainable entrepreneurs
and the competences necessary to cope with them [
29
]. The answers then were cat-
egorized between key categories which correspond to five key competences. Those
five key competences had been derived from the interview guide which was modified
considering the sustainability competences framework by Wiek et al. [
33
,
34
] as well
as the SE competences framework developed by Lans et al. [16].
•Validation: An empirical validation was not identified in the literature.
•
Complexity: The key competences for SE consist of five competences listed in
Table 4[29]
and several condensed and assigned interview answers.
Table 4. Competence framework adopted from Biberhofer et al. [29].
The Key Competences for Sustainability-Driven Entrepreneurship and Excerpts of the
Condensed and Assigned Interview Answers (Biberhofer et al. 2019, p. 28)
1. Systemic competency Coping with and understanding the complexity
of sustainability
2. Anticipatory competency Integrational thinking, time horizons
3. Normative competency
Dealing with norms and ethics promoting sustainability
4. Strategic competence Openness for possibilities
5. Interpersonal competency Work in multi-stakeholder networks; sustaining them
via a culture of cooperation
Excerpt of the competence framework adopted from Biberhofer et al. [
29
] including the key competences and
exemplary details of the condensed and assigned interview answers (p. 28).

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 13 of 26
4.3.3. Process-Oriented Framework of Competences for Sustainability Entrepreneurship
The competence framework by Foucrier and Wiek [
30
] does not list stand-alone
competences, but rather the tasks to be accomplished and the knowledge, skills, and
attitudes required to accomplish them, structured in a five-stage entrepreneurial process
model. It is the only competence framework in the literature sample for SE considering
the process of building and running an enterprise. The authors conducted the research to
identify the essential competences for SE along the entrepreneurship process to provide
information for the development and evaluation of higher education programs for SE.
•
Construction: The framework is based on a literature review including the articles about
the previous competence frameworks from Ploum et al. [
28
] and
Biberhofer et al. [29]
.
The authors derive a fundamental five-phase entrepreneurship process model from
literature and aggregate the main tasks and necessary competences identified in
the literature on entrepreneurs, sustainability professionals, social—and sustainable
entrepreneurs for each phase. The competences for SE are described in the parts:
knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Table 5). An overarching term is not stated.
•Validation: An empirical validation was not identified in the literature.
•
Complexity: The competence framework by Foucrier and Wiek [
30
] is found on an
entrepreneurial process model including the five phases of discovery, planning, start-
up, build-out, and consolidation. Each phase is completed with the main inherent
tasks followed by a detailed description of the necessary competences separated into
the elements of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. In addition, the authors added to
each phase the sustainability competences according to Wiek et al. [33].
Table 5. Competence framework adopted from Foucrier and Wiek [30].
Excerpt of the Process-Oriented Framework of Competences for Sustainability Entrepreneurship (Foucrier and Wiek 2019, pp. 8,9)
First Entrepreneurship Phase Exemplary Sustainability Entrepreneurship Task Exemplary Sustainability Entrepreneurship
Competence (Knowledge, Skills, Attitudes)
1. Discovery
Recognition of social, environmental, and
sustainability issues manageable through
entrepreneurial activity from a systems perspective
e.g., [28]
Knowledge about social, environmental, and
sustainability challenges
Information search skills
Entrepreneurial mindset e.g., [29]
Excerpt of the competence framework adopted from Foucrier and Wiek [
30
] including the first phase of the generic entrepreneurial process
model and exemplary details of the discovery phase (pp. 8,9).
4.4. Reception of Competence Frameworks
To evaluate the reception of the SEE competence frameworks, all SEE interventions in
the literature were identified and evaluated. The majority of 37 (56.9%) publications do not
report on the performance of a SEE intervention (Figure 8). Another 25 (38.5%) publications
report on the performance of one or more SEE interventions. However, consideration
of any of the three competence frameworks for these interventions is not cited. Two
publications [
117
,
118
] report on one SEE intervention planned considering the competence
framework by Fourcier and Wiek [
30
]. It should be mentioned that the same authors were
involved in these two publications. One publication [
119
] reports on the performance
of 21 SEE interventions planned considering the competence framework by Biberhofer
et al. [
29
]. It should be mentioned that the same authors were involved in this publication.
No paper reports on the performance of a SEE intervention that considers the competence
framework by Ploum et al. [28].

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 14 of 26
Sustainability 2021, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 26
4.4. Reception of Competence Frameworks
To evaluate the reception of the SEE competence frameworks, all SEE interventions
in the literature were identified and evaluated. The majority of 37 (56.9%) publications do
not report on the performance of a SEE intervention (Figure 8). Another 25 (38.5%) publi-
cations report on the performance of one or more SEE interventions. However, consider-
ation of any of the three competence frameworks for these interventions is not cited. Two
publications [117,118] report on one SEE intervention planned considering the compe-
tence framework by Fourcier and Wiek [30]. It should be mentioned that the same authors
were involved in these two publications. One publication [119] reports on the perfor-
mance of 21 SEE interventions planned considering the competence framework by Bib-
erhofer et al. [29]. It should be mentioned that the same authors were involved in this
publication. No paper reports on the performance of a SEE intervention that considers the
competence framework by Ploum et al. [28].
Figure 8. Number of publications reporting on one or more performed SEE interventions and con-
sidered SE competence frameworks. (No multiple categorization possible.).
5. Discussion
5.1. Summary
The conduction of the literature review was guided by the research question: What
is known from the literature about the SEE for formal education settings? A total of 65
publications were identified and analyzed in terms of bibliographic data. Table 3 showed
an increasing volume of publications. Whether this is caused by the generally increasing
global scientific output [120] or the increasing interest in SEE cannot be answered.
The analysis shows that although the majority of publications were identified in jour-
nals, 30.7% of the publications are disseminated in alternative formats. Future literature
reviews should also consider articles outside scientific journals to minimize inclusion bias.
The geographical location of the first authors' university indicates the international
interest in the research area. An example of international collaboration in research on SEE
can be seen on the European continent where most publications came from (37; 56.9%).
Seven (18.9%) of these 37 European publications could be assigned to the project called
CASE. It is a project funded by the European Commission program Erasmus Plus—
Knowledge Alliances to develop a European Master Program on Sustainability-driven
Entrepreneurship [31].
The results of the analysis of the paper types showed that more than a quarter (26.2%)
of the publications are of a conceptual nature. This is a significantly higher proportion
compared to the ESD research literature, where the percentage of 17.7% conceptual essays
is criticized as too high [70]. The results also showed that just under a quarter (24.6%) were
conducted as case studies. Although case studies, for example, create great practical rele-
vance [121] they are criticized in research on entrepreneurial education as well as envi-
ronmental education and ESD for the limited generalizability of their research findings,
e.g., [121,122].
This literature review shows a clear focus of implementation and research on SEE at
tertiary education (86.2%) and a limited investigation at secondary education (7.7%). The
lack of consideration of secondary education indicates a research and implementation
Figure 8.
Number of publications reporting on one or more performed SEE interventions and
considered SE competence frameworks. (No multiple categorization possible.).
5. Discussion
5.1. Summary
The conduction of the literature review was guided by the research question: What
is known from the literature about the SEE for formal education settings? A total of
65 publications were identified and analyzed in terms of bibliographic data. Table 3showed
an increasing volume of publications. Whether this is caused by the generally increasing
global scientific output [120] or the increasing interest in SEE cannot be answered.
The analysis shows that although the majority of publications were identified in
journals, 30.7% of the publications are disseminated in alternative formats. Future literature
reviews should also consider articles outside scientific journals to minimize inclusion bias.
The geographical location of the first authors’ university indicates the international
interest in the research area. An example of international collaboration in research on
SEE can be seen on the European continent where most publications came from (37;
56.9%). Seven (18.9%) of these 37 European publications could be assigned to the project
called CASE. It is a project funded by the European Commission program Erasmus Plus—
Knowledge Alliances to develop a European Master Program on Sustainability-driven
Entrepreneurship [31].
The results of the analysis of the paper types showed that more than a quarter (26.2%)
of the publications are of a conceptual nature. This is a significantly higher proportion
compared to the ESD research literature, where the percentage of 17.7% conceptual essays
is criticized as too high [
70
]. The results also showed that just under a quarter (24.6%)
were conducted as case studies. Although case studies, for example, create great practical
relevance [
121
] they are criticized in research on entrepreneurial education as well as
environmental education and ESD for the limited generalizability of their research findings,
e.g., [121,122].
This literature review shows a clear focus of implementation and research on SEE at
tertiary education (86.2%) and a limited investigation at secondary education (7.7%). The
lack of consideration of secondary education indicates a research and implementation gap.
To empower learners, regardless of whether the students go on to start their own business
or work for an employer, to cope with sustainability challenges in a professional context,
the implementation of and research on SEE cannot be limited to academic careers because
not all learners receive tertiary education. On average, internationally, less than half (45%)
of the 25–34 year-olds have tertiary education [
123
], and even among entrepreneurs, an
average of 13.5% in the European Union do not have a university degree [124].
The analysis of the frequencies of keywords provided by authors indicates that the
fields of sustainability education and entrepreneurial education are currently still merged
in the literature. Only two publications use the keyword eco-entrepreneurship educa-
tion [
125
,
126
], one publication uses the keyword higher education for sustainability-driven
entrepreneurship [
31
] and another mentions sustainable entrepreneurial education [
127
].
In contrast, the separately used keywords entrepreneurship education (18) or sustainabil-
ity (11) are assigned most often.
The evaluation of the word frequencies of the full texts showed that the term compe-
tence is among the 10 most frequent words, but only occurs in 70.77% of all publications.

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 15 of 26
Despite the increasingly perceived importance of competence orientation in teaching-
learning research, there is a need for further research and development. This result leads to
the analysis of the competence frameworks in the literature sample.
The following sub-questions directed the analysis of the literature sample regarding
competence frameworks:
•
RQ 1: Which SE competence frameworks can be identified? In total, four competence
frameworks for SE could be identified in the literature sample. The earliest competence
framework is by Lans et al. [
16
]. The framework was validated by Ploum et al. [
28
] and
resulted in a modified competence framework. Another SE competence framework
was developed by Biberhofer et al. [
29
] in the context of the CASE project. The latest
competence framework was developed by Foucrier and Wiek [
30
] and integrates an
entrepreneurial process.
•
RQ 2: How were the SE competence frameworks developed and validated? The
six-factor competence framework by Ploum et al. [
28
] is the result of validation by
means of confirmatory factor analysis of an initial competence framework on SE by
Lans et al. [
16
] using competence self-reports of 402 would-be entrepreneurs. The
competence framework by Biberhofer et al. [
29
] includes five key competences. The
development process included interviews of sustainability experienced managers and
entrepreneurs. The competence frameworks by Wiek et al. [
33
,
34
] and Lans et al. [
16
]
were considered when evaluating the interviews. An empirical validation was not
found. Foucrier and Wiek’s [
30
] competence framework does not list individual
competences, but rather the tasks to be accomplished and the knowledge, skills,
and attitudes required to accomplish them, structured in a five-stage entrepreneurial
process model. The framework is based on a literature review that also includes the
publications by Ploum et al. [28] and Biberhofer et al. [29] mentioned earlier.
•
RQ 3: Do the SEE interventions identified in the literature refer to these SE compe-
tence frameworks? The SE competence frameworks are applied in three publications
reporting on the performance of one or more SEE interventions. The low reception of
the frameworks to interventions beyond the use in the research groups in which they
originated can possibly be explained by their relative novelty. However, in 2018 two,
2019 three, and in 2020 five publications were identified that report on performed SEE
interventions but none of them cited the consideration of a competence framework
nor the first SE competence framework by Lans et al. [16].
5.2. Limitations
The review process shows some limitations as only publications written in English
were eligible. This may cause the exclusion of publications and information for example
on local SEE projects in non-anglophone countries like South America written in Spanish
or Portuguese. Of 14 publications assigned to the American continent, only three (4.6%)
publications from South America were identified. Whether this result was influenced by
the exclusion of publications written in Portuguese or Spanish cannot be determined.
Likewise, only the Web of Science and Google Scholar were examined, although there
are other data sources that should be assessed to ensure a complete dataset. To enable a
comprehensive examination of the SEE research field, all documents should be captured,
including unpublished so-called gray literature [
100
], such as conference proceedings [
101
].
However, in the review, the search for gray literature was limited to the Google Scholar
data platform. To minimize the weaknesses of the search tool as a stand-alone means of
identifying gray literature, the recommendations made by Haddaway et al. [
100
] were
to use the title search and capture the first 1000 entries in each case. Nevertheless, gray
literature is not comprehensively identified in this way [100].
5.3. Conclusions and Implications
This systematic literature review outlines the current state of research on SE compe-
tence frameworks to contribute to the development and assessment of competence-oriented

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 16 of 26
SEE interventions. Condensed information on three SE competence frameworks is pro-
vided, to allow for a comprehensive and straightforward comparison. SEE is a young
but very dynamic research field that has already yielded three stand-alone competence
frameworks for tertiary education in the time period between 2014 and 2019. The preceding
appearance and further development of the frameworks clearly show the progress and
professionalization of the field and thus the maturity of the interdisciplinary SE discipline.
The literature review was guided by the research question: What is known from the
literature about SEE for formal education settings? The research question did not limit
the selection of literature to a specific educational setting such as primary or vocational
education. Despite the open nature of the research question, the selection of the literature
sample shows a clear focus of implementation and research on SEE at tertiary education
and a limited focus on secondary education. The absence of implementation and research
in educational institutions beyond higher education is also criticized in the context of
entrepreneurial education [
128
]. Ismail and Sawang [
128
] emphasize that the vast majority
of entrepreneurial education programs target college participants in their 20s, and thus are
more likely to start suddenly than to be cumulatively funded. Against the backdrop of
lifelong learning and according to the skill formation model of Cunha et al. [
129
] learning
processes that start early and build on each other are particularly successful. Thus, if
early support is lacking, for example in the context of fostering SE competences, later
learning processes are less productive. If SEE is to empower learners, regardless of whether
the students go on to start their own business or work for an employer, to cope with
sustainability challenges in a professional context the implementation of and research
on SEE should address further levels of education like early, secondary, vocational or
continuing education.
Hallinger and Nguyen [
70
] highlighted in their review on ESD a geographical im-
balance in publications more frequently identified from countries assigned to the global
south and Rashid [
32
] identified in a review on entrepreneurship education to achieve the
SDGs in fragile states, several challenges like limited access to programs, lack of qualified
teachers or funding in countries like Mozambique or Indonesia. A geographical imbal-
ance can also be observed in this review, which is challenging because these countries,
underrepresented in the sample, are particularly affected by environmental issues [
130
]
as well as by underemployment contributing to social conflicts [
131
]. Therefore, research
on SEE in these countries should be encouraged and collaboration with countries of the
global north should be strengthened, whereby the field of SEE research would benefit
from diversification.
The review sheds light on gaps existing in research and practice that can be addressed
in the future. Therefore, the question arises whether the development of three independent
competence frameworks into one coherent framework is possible and necessary. Further-
more, the question if particular competences should be prioritized in the development of
SEE interventions is open for discussion. The limited reception of the frameworks in the
literature sample beyond their use in the research groups in which they originated empha-
sises the desideratum for the development and assessment of further competence-oriented
interventions. The extent to which the competence frameworks need to be adapted for
use at educational levels other than higher education, such as vocational or secondary
education, also remains to be addressed.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, C.S.D.; methodology, C.S.D.; software, C.S.D.; validation,
C.S.D., H.W. and J.H.; formal analysis, C.S.D.; investigation, C.S.D.; resources, C.S.D., H.W. and
J.H.; data curation, C.S.D.; writing—original draft preparation, C.S.D.; writing—review and editing,
C.S.D., H.W. and J.H.; visualization, C.S.D.; supervision, H.W. and J.H.; project administration, C.S.D.,
H.W. and J.H.; funding acquisition, C.S.D., H.W. and J.H. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was funded by a doctoral scholarship of the Konrad-Adenauer-Foundation.
The APC was funded by University of Konstanz.

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 17 of 26
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement:
Tha dataset generated during the study is reported in Appendix A
Table A1.
Acknowledgments:
We would like to thank the authors of the articles from the literature sample for
making their publications available and for answering occasional questions. We thank the anonymous
reviewers for their valuable comments, which helped to improve the quality of the publication.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1. Alphabetically sorted list of all publications of the literature sample.
Author (s) Year Title Author (s) Year Title
Abina et al. [132] 2015
Determinants of Eco
Entrepreneurial Intention
among Students: A Case
Study of University Students
in Ilorin and Malete
Letovsky &
Banschbach [133]2011
Developing “Green” Business
Plans: Using
Entrepreneurship to Teach
Science to Business
Administration Majors and
Business to Biology Majors
Amatucci et al.
[134]2013
Sustainability: A Paradigmatic
Shift in Entrepreneurship
Education Lindner [135] 2018 Entrepreneurship Education
for a Sustainable Future
Ambros &
Biberhofer [136]2018 Fostering Higher Education
for Sustainability-Driven
Entrepreneurship Lloyd [137] 2010 Sustainability and
Entrepreneurship Education
at the University Level
Aviles et al. [138] 2019
Is Sustainable
Entrepreneurship a Learning
Competence?: Vision from
High Education Organisation
Lourenço et al.
[139]2012 Promoting sustainable
development: The role of
entrepreneurship education
Baade et al. [140] 2020
The History of Sustainability
and the Case of the Global
Entrepreneurship Summer
School: An Incentive to
International Education
Masjud [141] 2020 Ecopreneurship as a Solution
to Environmental Problems:
Implications for University
Basu et al. [142] 2011 A new Course on
Sustainability
Entrepreneurship McEwen [143] 2013
Ecopreneurship as a Solution
to Environmental Problems:
Implications for College Level
Entrepreneurship Education
Beeri et al. [144] 2020
The Impact of Training on
Druze Entrepreneurs’
Attitudes Towards and
Intended Behaviors Regarding
Local Sustainability
Governance: A Field
Experiment at the Mount
Carmel Biosphere Reserve
Mindt &
Rieckmann [31]2017
Developing Competences for
Sustainability-driven
Entrepreneurs in Higher
Education: A Literature
Review of Teaching and
Learning Mehods
Bernhardt et al.
[145]2015
CASE Needs Analysis.
Summary. Findings on
Competences for
Sustainability-driven
Entrepreneurship. Based on
interviews with partners from
sustainability-driven
enterprises and universities
Moon [146] 2017
100 Global innovative
sustainability projects:
Evaluation and implications
for entrepreneurship
education

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 18 of 26
Table A1. Cont.
Author (s) Year Title Author (s) Year Title
Bernhardt et al.
[119]2017
Joint CASE Report on
Cooperation between higher
education institutions and
companies and Evaluation of
regional pilots Including an
Executive summary
Moon [125] 2015
Green universities and
eco-friendly learning: from
league tables to
eco-entrepreneurship
education
Biberhofer et al.
[147]2016
Joint CASE Report on Content
and Methods for the Joint
Master Program on
Sustainability-Driven
Entrepreneurship
Nadim & Singh
[148]2011 A System’s View of
Sustainable Entrepreneurship
Education
Biberhofer et al.
[29]2019
Facilitating work performance
of sustainability-driven
entrepreneurs through higher
education: The relevance of
competences, values,
worldviews and opportunities
Nuringsih &
Puspitowati [149]2017
Determinants of Eco
Entrepreneurial Intention
Among Students: Study in the
Entrepreneurial Education
Practices
Brazdauskas &
Žirnel˙
e [150]2018 Promoting Sustainable
Entrepreneurship in Higher
Education Nurita et al. [151] 2020
Worksheet of
Entrepreneurship Students to
Train Ecopreneurship
Characters:
Cincera et al. [97] 2018
Designing a
sustainability-driven
entrepreneurship curriculum
as a Social Learning Process:
A Case Study from an
International Knowledge
Alliance
Obrecht [152] 2016
Sustainable entrepreneurship
education: a new field for
research in step with the
‘effectual entrepreneur’
de Jong [153] 2019 Educating sustainable
entrepreneurship: the case of
the University of Groningen Özuyar [154]2020
How to Teach Strategic
Sustainable Entrepreneurship?
A Proposal for Higher
Education
Foster et al. [155] 2010 Teaching environmental
entrepreneurship at an urban
university: Greenproofing Parra [156] 2013
Exploring the Incorporation of
Values for Sustainable
Entrepreneurship
Teaching/Learning
Foucrier & Wiek
[30]2019
A Process-Oriented
Framework of Competences
for Sustainability
Entrepreneurship
Ploum et al. [28] 2017 Toward a Validated
Competence Framework for
Sustainable Entrepreneurship
Foucrier & Wiek
[117]2020
Assessing Students’
Competence in Sustainability
Entrepreneurship Through
In-Vivo Simulated
Professional Situations
Ploum et al. [157] 2018
Exploring the relation
between individual moral
antecedents and
entrepreneurial opportunity
recognition for sustainable
development
Foucrier et al.
[118]2020
Educating Students and
Professionals in Sustainability
Entrepreneurship—Strengths
and Weaknesses of Innovative
Course Formats
Ploum et al. [158] 2019
Educating for self-interest or
-transcendence? An empirical
approach to investigating the
role of moral competences in
opportunity recognition for
sustainable development:
Business Ethics: A
European Review
Gilje & Erstad
[159]2017 Authenticity, agency and
enterprise education studying
learning in and out of school
Ramírez-Pasillas
& Evansluong
[160]2017
Sustainable entrepreneurship
undergraduate education: A
community of
practice perspective

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 19 of 26
Table A1. Cont.
Author (s) Year Title Author (s) Year Title
Halberstadt et al.
[5]2019
Learning Sustainability
Entrepreneurship by Doing:
Providing a Lecturer-Oriented
Service Learning Framework
Rashid [32] 2019
Entrepreneurship Education
and Sustainable Development
Goals: A literature Review
and a Closer Look at Fragile
States and
Technology-Enabled
Approaches
Hermann &
Bossle [161]2020
Bringing an entrepreneurial
focus to sustainability
education: A teaching
framework based on
content analysis
Refai et al. [127] 2017
Promoting Values through
Sustainable Entrepreneurial
Education—An Axiological
perspective
Hermann et al.
[162]2020
Lenses on the post-oil
economy: integrating
entrepreneurship into
sustainability education
through problem-based
learning
Severo et al. [163] 2019
The teaching of innovation
and environmental
sustainability and its
relationship with
entrepreneurship in
Southern Brazil
Holzbaur [111] 2016 An Educational Game for
Entrepreneurship and
Sustainability Shu et al. [164] 2020
The Development of a
Sustainability-Oriented
Creativity, Innovation, and
Entrepreneurship Education
Framework: A
Perspective Study
Holzbaur [165] 2016
VAL-U: Development of an
Educational Game for
Entrepreneurship and
Sustainability in and for
Developing Countries
Strachan [166] 2018
Can Education for Sustainable
Development Change
Entrepreneurship Education
to Deliver a Sustainable
Future?
Huda [167] 2016
Towards Sustainopreneurship
Development at the Tertiary
Level Education: A Case
study on Southern University
Bangladesh
Suparno et al.
[168]2019
Do Entrepreneurial Education
and Training Impact on
Entrepreneurial Skills-Based
Ecopreneurship?
Iscenco & Li [169] 2014
The game with impact:
Gamification in
Environmental Education and
Entrepreneurship
Throop [170] 2013
From environmental
advocates to sustainability
entrepreneurs: Rethinking a
sustainability-focused general
education program
Ivanov [171] 2017
Fostering Sustainable
Innovations and
Entrepreneurship through
Strategic Niche Management:
The Bulgarian Case in Higher
Education
Tripathi et al.
[172]2017
Innovation in sustainable
entrepreneurship education in
Africa. Strategy and
social impact
Iyer [173] 2015 Strengthening of Extension
Learning and Education or
Sustainable Entrepreneurship
Voldsund et al.
[174]2020 Entrepreneurship Education
Through Sustainable Value
Creation
Jenkins [175] 2018 Entrepreneurial Learning for
Sustainable Futures Wokocha [176] 2020
Perspectives of Biology in
Entrepreneurial Education for
Sustainable Development in
River State
Karari & Munyua
[126]2018
Entrepreneurship Education
and Eco-Preneurship
Innovation as Change Agents
for Environmental Problems
Wyness & Jones
[26]2018
Boundary crossing ahead:
perspectives of
entrepreneurship by
sustainability educators in
higher education

Sustainability 2021,13, 13734 20 of 26
Table A1. Cont.
Author (s) Year Title Author (s) Year Title
Karlusch et al.
[177]2018
Educating for the
development of sustainable
business models: Designing
and delivering a course to
foster creativity
Wyness et al.
[178]2015 Sustainability: what the
entrepreneurship
educators think
Lans et al. [16] 2014
Learning apart and together:
towards an integrated
competence framework for
sustainable entrepreneurship
in higher education
Zain et al. [179] 2013
Innovation in Sustainable
Education and
Entrepreneurship through the
UKM Recycling Center
Operations
Zain et al. [180] 2013 Sustainable Education and
Entrepreneurship Triggers
Innovation Culture in 3R
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