Factors Determining the Involvement in Non-Religious Activities in the Parish: A Cross-Sectional Study of the Catholic Laity

Abstract

Charitable activities of the Catholic Church in Poland are carried out primarily at two levels: national church organizations, diocesan and religious, and at the level of less formalized parish organizations. The data show a relatively low percentage of people who are strongly involved in parish activities and in non-religious (social, charitable) affairs of the parish community. The first purpose of this paper is to indicate the socio-demographic features that characterize people who are socially engaged. The second aim is to search for model regularities indicating determinants of social activity of parishioners. We conducted the research in parishes of Lublin Archdiocese in 2020. The research sample was 1867 people, of whom 70% were women. The average age of the respondents was 54.31 years. We have selected predictors that characterise the participants of the non-religious activities in the parish. Referring to the theoretical model of social participation and the concept of social capital, we have indicated the factors that shape the pro-social attitudes of parish members.

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religions
Article
Factors Determining the Involvement in Non-Religious
Activities in the Parish: A Cross-Sectional Study of the
Catholic Laity
Krzysztof Jurek * , Jadwiga Plewko and Małgorzata Szyszka


Citation: Jurek, Krzysztof, Jadwiga
Plewko, and Małgorzata Szyszka.
2021. Factors Determining the
Involvement in Non-Religious
Activities in the Parish: A
Cross-Sectional Study of the Catholic
Laity. Religions 12: 1097. https://
doi.org/10.3390/rel12121097
Academic Editor: Antony W.
Alumkal
Received: 22 October 2021
Accepted: 4 December 2021
Published: 10 December 2021
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Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
The Institute of Sociological Sciences, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, 20-950 Lublin, Poland;
jadwiga.plewko@kul.pl (J.P.); malgorzata.szyszka@kul.pl (M.S.)
*Correspondence: kjurek@interia.eu
Abstract:
Charitable activities of the Catholic Church in Poland are carried out primarily at two
levels: national church organizations, diocesan and religious, and at the level of less formalized
parish organizations. The data show a relatively low percentage of people who are strongly involved
in parish activities and in non-religious (social, charitable) affairs of the parish community. The first
purpose of this paper is to indicate the socio-demographic features that characterize people who are
socially engaged. The second aim is to search for model regularities indicating determinants of social
activity of parishioners. We conducted the research in parishes of Lublin Archdiocese in 2020. The
research sample was 1867 people, of whom 70% were women. The average age of the respondents
was 54.31 years. We have selected predictors that characterise the participants of the non-religious
activities in the parish. Referring to the theoretical model of social participation and the concept of
social capital, we have indicated the factors that shape the pro-social attitudes of parish members.
Keywords:
community engagement; parish; social participation; determinants of community
engagement
1. Introduction
The Polish society is still characterized by one of the highest rates of religiosity in
Europe. As of 2021, 91.9% of Poles declare themselves as Catholic, and 32.5 million
believers belong to the Catholic Church in Poland (Przeciszewski 2021). The Catholic
Church, as an institution, has 15 metropolises, which include 45 dioceses, and is divided
into 10,382 diocesan and religious parishes (Kasper 2021). The mission of the universal
Church includes worship and works of evangelization, as well as the performance of works
of mercy. Caritas, as Pope Benedict XVI emphasizes, belongs to the nature of the Church; it
is an inalienable expression of her essence (Benedykt XVI 2006). The Catholic Church in
Poland is also very committed to charitable functions and is the largest organization, after
the state, that provides assistance to the needy. This is confirmed by data from the Central
Statistical Office, which show that socio-religious entities more often than other third sector
organisations declare activities in the field of social and humanitarian assistance. (Kami ´nski
2019). Charitable activities of the Catholic Church in Poland are carried out primarily at
two levels: national church organizations, diocesan and religious, and at the level of less
formalized parish organizations (Sadło´n 2021). The Church’s charitable activities, not only
in the colloquial sense but also in official documents, are often called charitable, social, or
often non-religious activities.
A significant part of aid activities is carried out locally, in parishes and in relation to the
needs of the local community (Biela 2021). This is expressed both in the statutory activities
of parish associations and organisations and in various forms of grass-roots self-help
initiatives, which are a manifestation of the interpersonal solidarity of Catholics. The most
important tasks that a parish may carry out as an ecclesiastical unit, which at the same time
Religions 2021,12, 1097. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121097 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions

Religions 2021,12, 1097 2 of 15
has legal personality under the state law, are educational activities, charitable activities,
protection and support of the family, protection of cultural goods and national heritage,
cultural development, health care and development of physical culture (Steczkowski
2009). All dimensions of parish activity require the cooperation of the parish priest, other
clergies, and lay Catholics, who have their legal status in the Church and specific tasks
to fulfil. This creates the possibility for the active participation of the faithful in the life
of the parish, and at the same time opens the way for Catholics to take responsibility
for their communities of faith in the spirit of the ongoing process of the search by lay
Catholics for their own subjectivity in the Polish Church. The involvement of the faithful
in organizational activities within the parish is an important condition for the realization
of these tasks. The effects may be both a strengthening of their faith and religiousness, as
well as concrete assistance provided to those in need.
The Catholic Church in Poland includes numerous organizations of the laity that op-
erate in parishes. According to the research conducted by the Institute for Catholic Church
Statistics (ISKK), there are currently 65,500 more or less formalized parish organizations
(Przeciszewski 2021). According to a survey of parish organizations regularly conducted
by ISKK, almost 52% of all such communities are involved in charitable activities. The
peculiarity of Polish Catholicism is the strong identity, bonds and activity of people who
engage in small prayer, and formation and charity communities (Petrowa-Wasilewicz
2021). Parishes are one of the important centres of community life in the local environment.
Members of parish organizations, to varying degrees (depending on the type of organi-
zation, the quality of formation and the degree of personal involvement), internalize and
disseminate values such as solidarity, the common good, trust, participation, cooperation,
subjectivity and openness. The conviction of the importance of these values belongs to the
civic attitude and determines the appearance of civic behaviour (Wnuk-Lipi´nski 2005). The
parish, as the primary form of the Church’s presence in society, shapes a certain type of
social personality of its members (´
Swi ˛atkiewicz 2010). The issue of the significance of lay
activity within the parish seems to be an important counterbalance to the less favorable
phenomenon of the relatively small number of the faithful involved in various forms of
church, including parish, activities. Against the background of the very large number of
Catholics belonging to the Church, the percentage of those actively involved in activities
on behalf of church communities ranks low. Currently, less than every 10th Catholic is
seriously involved in the organizational life of the Church. The low percentage of active
persons reflects the generally low level of social activity among Poles, although indicators
of involvement are slowly rising. This phenomenon is clarified by Dixon, who states that
the level of parishioners’ involvement decreases when there are more Catholics in the
parish. This can be explained by the fact that people may show less willingness to take
an active role in parish life if they think that there is a great deal of other people around
who are able to take the initiative for them (B. Dixon 2010). According to national surveys
conducted every two years since 1998 by the Centre for Public Opinion Research (CBOS),
social work in civic organizations was initially declared by 23% of respondents, while
currently (data from 2020) it is declared by 43% of surveyed Poles (CBOS 2020). In the
case of the Catholic Church faithful, about 8% (2018), which is about 2.5 million people
are involved. According to data from February 2020, Poles are slightly less likely than
two years earlier to declare that they devote their free time to activities in organizations,
religious movements, church, and parish communities; there has been a decline of 1.4
points. When analysing the data on the relatively small number of parishioners directly
and actively involved in work in parish communities, it should be remembered that un-
til 1989, Catholic parishes in Poland were limited in conducting non-cult activities, and
parishioners did not have much experience in organizing social activities within their
parishes. It takes some time to become active, to break the passive attitude and to develop
new forms (Maria´nski 2020). Parishes fulfil primarily sacral (religious) functions, but they
are also a place for building social ties, creating cultural and educational initiatives, and
even sometimes economic ones. Small religious communities have non-religious functions,

Religions 2021,12, 1097 3 of 15
because the parish is a religious and social institution and, in part, activities in these two
dimensions overlap. Sociologists point to social and humanizing functions; social problems
that interest everyone, or almost everyone, and must be solved together. Of the more than
65,000 parish organizations surveyed by the Institute for Catholic Church Statistics, the
largest number are directed toward children and youth, followed by the elderly, the poor,
the disabled, the unemployed, and victims of violence. Sociological literature, ascribing
to the parish the value of multifunctionality, lists the following non-religious functions:
care and protection, cultural and educational, administrative and economic, recreational,
tourist and pilgrimage, and advisory and intervention (´
Swi ˛atkiewicz 2010).
The purpose of this paper is primarily to identify forms of parishioner involvement
in non-religious activities in the parish. The article is an attempt to explain the socio-
demographic characteristics of parishioners, which determine the assessment of their
influence on non-religious (social, charitable) activity in parishes. A literature review
on this subject shows a lack of research on the non-religious activities of parishioners.
Therefore, undertaking such an analysis is of significant exploratory importance. The
second aim of the study of social involvement of people functioning within one of the
smallest types of local communities, the parish, is to search for model regularities indicating
the determinants of social activity of parishioners. Non-profit activity, oriented towards
the realization of interests and values of various social groups on different levels: social,
cultural, economic, civic, political, is identified with the process of social participation
(Jabło´nski and Szymczak 2021). Therefore, we refer here to the basis of the theoretical
model of social participation, applying its assumptions to determine the factors of shaping
pro-social attitudes of members of the local community. According to the concept of
social participation seen as a person’s experience, the process of social involvement has
four dimensions: 1. subjective justification of participation (indicators include: conscious
decision of a given person, goal orientation, autonomy and voluntariness of involvement,
definition of one’s role and tasks, sense of responsibility); 2. axiological content (indicators:
other person as a value, moral, social, civic, aesthetic, self-realization, religious values);
3. sense of agency (indicators: sense of influence on reality and effectiveness in action,
sense of influence on social issues); 4. experience of participation (indicators: experiencing
the value of the community, recognizing oneself as a subject in the community, orientation
towards common good, experiencing bidirectionality and reciprocity, i.e., contribution of
the person and receiving from the community). Referring to these assumptions and the
results of own research, we propose a scheme of determinants for social involvement of
parishioners (Szymczak 2013).
Social commitment, which entails networks of connections between individuals and
soft skills, aiming to fulfil the common needs or matters, is one of the fundamental elements
of social capital. Social capital is defined in various ways in the sociological literature.
Hereby, various aspects of this phenomenon are emphasised here and are to be found in
the three most classical approaches to this idea. Pierre Bourdieu perceives social capital
as own resource of each individual rather than a community (Bourdieu 1983) but related
to a network of interpersonal relations. According to Robert Putnam, social capital is
an attribute of a community, especially in relation to the social benefits of its existence.
Another author, James Coleman, indicates a group (social structure) as the creator and main
beneficiary of social capital (Coleman 1988). In this context, it is worth paying attention
to the interest of some researchers in religious structures as a place for creating and
developing social capital, supporting the activity and social commitment of the believers,
maintaining norms, and building relationships. This is especially emphasized by Putnam’s
research conducted in the United States, which shows the positive relationship between
social capital and religiosity. Faith-based communities constitute an important reservoir
of social capital there (Putnam 2000) and are the most frequently indicated places for
creating voluntary attitudes and activities (Becker and Dhingra 2001). According to Putnam,
religious groups support social activity and are an incubator of social skills, norms, or
social commitment (Putnam 1994). Numerous social studies conducted in various countries

Religions 2021,12, 1097 4 of 15
have mainly focused on the approach to religion (faith) as a source of social capital of
religious communities (Candland 2000;R. E. Dixon 2010;Oreshina et al. 2015;Williams
and de Mola 2007;Wuthnow 2002). The research presented by us shifts the emphasis of
interest to important, but other than religiousness and less frequently analysed component
of parish life, i.e., its non-religious dimension of activity, its extensive functions. Their
accomplishment would not be possible without the existence in the parish environment
of such features as bonds of trust, loyalty, solidarity, cooperation for the common good,
i.e., classic manifestations of social capital: real and potential resources embedded in the
network of relations by an individual or group, made available through them and derived
from them (Nahapiet and Ghosal 2000). Parishes provide a stable and safe environment for
the development of various types of social commitment (Cassel 1999). The issues of social
and non-religious activities of parishioners as a research area is therefore an extension of
the current perspective of researching the social capital of religious structures.
It should be emphasized that the empirical research presented in this paper is not
representative. Therefore, the analyses and conclusions should be treated as a pilot study.
Nevertheless, it is interesting and worth presenting as a contribution to further research.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Design
The parishes of the Archdiocese of Lublin were included in the study. The bishopric
of Lublin was created in 1805 on the basis of a bull issued by Pope Pius VII. The diocese of
Lublin covered an area of 23,250 km
2
and had 330 thousand people. It was divided into
17 deaneries and 214 parishes. Major changes in the diocese of Lublin began to take place
during the Second Republic of Poland. The outdated parish network was supplemented by
creating about 100 new parishes, the pastoral ministry was reorganized and streamlined,
and a number of church institutions, such as charitable institutions and schools, were
established. Not without significance is also the fact that in 1918 the Catholic University
of Lublin was founded, with the Bishop of Lublin as its the Great Chancellor. In 1992, the
administrative structures of the Church in Poland were reorganized. By virtue of the bull
“Totus Tuus Poloniae Populus”, Lublin diocese was raised to the rank of archdiocese and
a metropolis was established in Lublin. Currently the Archdiocese of Lublin covers an
area of 9108 km
2
, which is inhabited by approximately 1.75 thousand people, of which
over a million are Catholics. There are 271 parishes in the archdiocese. There are about
900 diocesan priests who serve in various pastoral capacities in the diocese and beyond
its borders, either working in teaching and research, working in diocesan institutions, or
who are retired. In addition, the Archdiocesan community includes nearly 200 priests, over
500 nuns, and nearly 50 alumni preparing for priestly ordination. Of the more than one
million Catholics—residents of the Archdiocese of Lublin— 38% attend church and 20%
receive Holy Communion (which is 53% of those attending Mass on the day of the count).
Of those attending Sunday Eucharist, 40% are men and 60% are women. On the other hand,
among the communicantes, 34% are men and 66% are women (Data of the Archdiocese
of Lublin 2018). These data reflect nationwide rates of dominicantes and communicantes.
In 2019, there were 36.9% and 16.9%, respectively (Annuarium Statisticum Ecclesiae in
Polonia 2020). In this aspect, the Archdiocese of Lublin can be treated as a “picture” of
statistical average.
When considering the parishes of the Archdiocese of Lublin as a subpopulation of
the parish population in Poland, it is necessary to point out the characteristic features
resulting from the geographical location and economic and cultural conditions of the
Lubelskie voivodeship (although the area of the Archdiocese is larger than the province).
In general, Lubelskie is an agricultural region with a relatively high unemployment rate
(8.2%, Poland—6.2%), an average gross salary lower than the national one (4300 PLN,
Poland—5100 PLN) and a much higher percentage of poor households than the national
average (income poverty in 2018 affected 26% of households in Lubelskie voivodeship,
average for Poland—13%). The percentage of people satisfied with their living conditions

Religions 2021,12, 1097 5 of 15
in Lubelskie is one of the lowest in the country (in 2018 it was 59%, the average for Poland—
63%), thus Lubelskie is one of the regions with the lowest level of satisfaction with life (76%,
average for Poland—83%). At the same time, it is the region with the highest percentage of
believers and deep believers (91%, Poland—81%). It ranks 9th among Polish provinces in
the number of marriages, 8th in the number of marriages dissolved by divorce, and 11th in
the number of separations pronounced (Demographic Yearbook 2020).
2.2. Participants and Procedure
The analyses included in this article are part of the study conducted by the Institute
of Sociological Sciences in the XXX on the perception of parishes as a source of social
support. The research was conducted in January and February 2020 in the parishes of
the Lublin Archdiocese. The survey covered the entire area of the Archdiocese. Twenty
questionnaires were distributed to parishioners in each parish, and the criteria for selecting
respondents included the following categories of people or groups: families with children,
single parents, elderly people (over 60), single people, dependent people (including people
with disabilities). The data collection technique was a survey questionnaire distributed
for self-completion by respondents. The method of distribution of the questionnaires
involved the delivery of questionnaires by internal mail to each parish, which were then
distributed by the parish priest(s) to parishioners according to the criteria adopted for
the selection of respondents. After completing the questionnaires, parishioners returned
them in sealed envelopes to the parish office, which were then sent back to the XXX. In
the end, 150 parishes returned the questionnaires (55.3% of the parishes that returned
the questionnaires). A total of 1931 questionnaires were received (36% return rate) and
1867 completed questionnaires qualified for analysis. The survey return rate is similar to
surveys conducted in other archdioceses (e.g., the Archdiocese of Łód´z) (Ka´zmierska 2018).
It should be clearly emphasized that, due to the sample selection and the method
of collecting the data, the research sample is not representative and does not correspond
to the distribution of socio-demographic characteristics in the society. Similar problems
were faced by American researchers, among others the team of D. C. Leege (Leege and
Trozzolo 1985), and Centre for Applied Research in the Apostolate (CARA) (Zech et al.
2017). Therefore, we stress caution in generalizing from our findings.
The procedure was approved by the Research Ethics Committee at the Institute of
Sociological Sciences of the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin (protocol code
11/DKE/NS/2021).
2.3. Statistical Methods
The analysis began by characterising the study group. The percentage and frequency
of each category was indicated. Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations) were
calculated for the quantitate variables. The Chi-square test of independence was used to
compare forms of engagement between men and women. CATREG was used to analyse
the determinants of parishioners’ social involvement, while normal regression analysis
was used to examine models with only interval variables; categorical regression makes
it possible to analyse models with nominal, ordinal and interval variables. In CATREG,
nominal variables are quantified by assigning numerical values to the categories. After
rescaling, nominal and ordinal variables are treated as interval in the procedure to find an
optimal linear regression equation.
3. Results
The research sample was 1867 persons—parishioners of the Archdiocese of Lublin, of
whom 70% are women. The average age of the respondents was 54.31 years. Nearly 40% of
the parishioners surveyed have a college degree, more than one-third have a high school
education and 58% of the respondents are married. Of the 80% who have children, more
than one-third have two children, one in five have three children, while 14% are raising
one child. The vast majority of respondents rate their financial situation well. In terms

Religions 2021,12, 1097 6 of 15
of Mass attendance, two-thirds of respondents report regular weekly attendance. 38% of
parishioners belong to religious communities, associations, or ministries, and 19% perform
some function in them (Table 1).
Table 1. Characteristics of the study group.
Characteristics Categories Parameter
N/M %/SD
Gender
Female 1305 69.9
Male 538 28.8
NA 24 1.3
Age 54.31 16.49
Children Yes 1478 79.2
No 389 22.8
Marital status
Married 1075 57.6
Single 769 41.2
NA 23 1.2
Number of children
1 265 14.2
2 660 35.4
3 360 19.3
4 and more 168 9.0
NA 25 1.3
No children 389 20.8
Education
Elementary 143 7.7
Vocational 307 16.4
Secondary 672 36.0
Higher 723 38.7
NA 22 1.2
Attendance at Mass
Several times a week 485 26.0
Once a week 1155 61.9
1–2 times per months 111 5.9
Several times a year 76 4.1
Not at all 12 0.6
NA 28 1.5
Material situation
Very good 158 8.5
Rather good 712 38.1
Satisfacory 885 47.4
Rather bad 87 4.7
Very bad 6 .3
NA 19 1.0
Membership in religious
communities, ministries or
organizations in the parish
Yes 712 38.1
No 1125 60.3
NA 30 1.6
Functions held in parish
organizations
Yes 352 18.9
No 1354 72.5
NA 161 8.6
N—frequency; %—percentage; M—mean; SD—standard deviation.
3.1. Non-Religious Involvement of Parishioners
There were 1082 in the women’s group who were involved in at least one form of
activity. In the male group, there were 461 such individuals. The most common forms
of involvement in non-religious life of the parish include work around the church, such
as cleaning and decorating. A significant percentage of respondents were involved in
collections for the needs of the church, collecting food or clothing for the needy, and helping
the elderly, lonely and disabled. There were no differences between men and women in

Religions 2021,12, 1097 7 of 15
these activities. Other forms of involvement appeared less frequently. Differences between
men and women were noted for activities such as building and maintenance work and
fundraising for parishioners (p< 0.05) (Table 2).
Table 2. The most popular forms of parishioner engagement.
Forms
Female
[N = 1082]
Male
[N = 461] Statistics
N % N % χ2
Work around the church
(cleaning, decorating) 815 75.3 328 71.1 0.886
Collecting money for the church
449 41.5 211 45.8 2.992
Construction, maintenance 55 5.1 117 25.4 134.430 ***
Collection of money for the
needs of parishioners 203 18.8 115 24.9 7.983 **
Collection of food and/or
clothing for the needy 311 28.7 125 27.1 0.136
Counselling for those in need 61 5.6 24 5.2 0.019
Organization of recreation for
children and youth 45 4.2 25 5.4 1.069
Help the elderly,
lonely, disabled 209 19.3 99 21.5 1.127
Editing the parish newspaper 27 2.5 13 2.8 0.062
Organizing cultural and
sporting events 75 6.9 40 8.7 1.404
Organizing activities for
children and youth 50 4.6 31 6.7 2.731
Organizing activities for
the elderly 22 2.0 12 2.6 0.315
χ2—chi–squere test; ** p< 0.01; *** p< 0.001.
3.2. Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Parishioners with a Sense of Influence on the
Non-Religious Life of the Parish
The CATREG analysis identified those socio-demographic variables that are associated
with the belief of influence or lack of influence on participation in the organization of the
parish’s non-religious activities (F = 16.251; p< 0.001). Significant predictors were found
to be gender (p= 0.016), marital status (p= 0.005), education (p< 0.001), assessment of
financial situation (p= 0.002), attendance at Mass (p= 0.005), holding a function (p= 0.001),
tie with parish (p< 0. 001), age (p< 0.001), number of children (p= 0.001), interest in
the nonreligious life of the parish (p= 0.001), use of parish-organized instrumental help
(p= 0.009), and assessment of material situation (p< 0.001). The model explains 25% of the
variation in the dependent variable. Table 3shows the quantification values obtained by
applying the alternating least squares (ALS) algorithm. Impact coefficients were calculated
to determine the relationship of the predictor categories to the dependent variable. The
highest sense of influence was reported for parishioners expressing a high interest in parish
affairs, holding office with parish organizations, and receiving instrumental assistance
organized at the parish.

Religions 2021,12, 1097 8 of 15
Table 3. Results of qualitative regression analysis (CATREG).
Variables Categories of Variables Quantification Beta Impact Coefficients
Gender Female −0.586 0.066 −0.039
Male 1.706 0.113
Marital status Married 0.676 0.094 0.064
Single −1.479 −0.139
Education
Elementary/vocational −1.256 0.107 −0.134
Secondary −0.448 −0.048
Higher 1.192 0.128
Material situation
Good 0.881 0.066 0.058
Avarage −1.045 −0.069
Bad 1.531 0.101
Attendance at Mass
Once a week −0.858 0.049 −0.042
Several times a week 0.471 0.023
Less often −0.048 −0.002
Not at all −11.143 −0.546
Functions performed in
parish organizations
Yes 1.924 0.110 0.212
No −0.520 −0.057
Tie with parish
Yes 0.242 0.095 0.023
No −5.057 −0.480
Hard to say −3.406 −0.324
Age
=<40 1.295 0.076 0.098
41–50 −1.446 −0.110
51–60 0.500 0.038
61–70 −0.638 −0.048
>70 0.924 0.070
Number of children 1 −1.894 0.055 −0.104
2 0.525 0.029
3 0.788 0.043
4 and more −0.713 −0.039
Interest in non-religious life
of the parish
Low −1.420 0.395 −0.561
Avarage −0.113 −0.045
High 1.129 0.446
Housing situation I live alone 2.509 0.059 0.148
I live with my family −0.399 −0.024
Use of instrumental help
organized in the parish
Yes 2.140 0.078 0.167
No −0.467 −0.036
R2= 0.268; Adjusted R2= 0.251
4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was an attempt to identify social and demographic variables
that are related to parishioners’ evaluations in order to assess their impact on the non-
religious life of the parish. The results of the study should be of particular interest to the
church authorities/leaders.
They can better recognise and identify the categories of parishioners who have a sense
of influence on the functioning of the parish community. This knowledge can therefore be
useful in taking action to engage and promote parishioner involvement. It seems that, in the
context of secularisation processes, sociological knowledge about the socio-demographic
profile of parishioners with a sense of influence on parish activities (parishioners involved
in non-religious life) is very interesting. Participation in the decision-making process
increases parishioner morale, satisfaction, and involvement in parish life (Conrad 1988).
Pargament (2002) noted that not everyone experiences the same benefits from religion.

Religions 2021,12, 1097 9 of 15
Religiosity is more helpful for more socially marginalised groups (e.g., the elderly, the poor)
and for those who are more committed.
Our research has shown that parishioners who express a strong interest in parish
events and hold positions in parish organisations have a stronger sense of influence over the
non-religious life of the parish. In line with the idea of social participation, such individuals
have a greater sense of agency. Participation in official structures enables them to take part
in decision-making. In this sense, involvement in parish activities values the individual. A
study conducted in the USA in 2002 found that both men and women feel more valued for
their participation in church if they are currently involved in various parish activities and if
they are elected to the church board. In our study, we found that men and those aged under
40 had a greater sense of influence over non-religious activities in the parish.
Lummis (2001)
argues, in turn, that younger men feel more appreciated than older men, even if they do
relatively little in church, while women’s age is unrelated to their sense of being valued
for their participation (2004). Those who received instrumental assistance organized in
the parish had a greater sense of influence on non-religious activities. Perceived spiritual
and social benefits have a positive and significant relationship with church participation
among regular and irregular church goers (Casidy and Tsarenko 2014). According to the
rational choice theory of religion, participation in religious/church activities is determined
by a rational assessment of the potential costs connected with that participation (e.g.,
time, effort) and the potential benefits (such as spiritual, social, instrumental intellectual,
entertainment support) (Christiano et al. 2008).
The parish thrives on the commitment of the faithful, on the one hand by building up a
community of faith (strictly religious activities), and on the other by non-religious activities
that serve the local community, such as social and psychological support. It seems that
those who attend Mass regularly and frequently feel more influenced by the non-religious
activities of the parish. The literature shows that believers who are more religiously
committed perceive more benefits from participating in church activities, both religious
and non-religious (Iannacone 1992). Cieslak (1984) indicates that overall parishioner
involvement is related to financial donations to the parish, weekend Mass attendance,
and involvement in non-liturgical parish activities. Small and medium-sized parishes
that exhibit “responsiveness” are shown to have higher parishioner involvement. This
relationship is much weaker for large parishes. Perhaps small and medium-sized parishes
provide opportunities for clergy to build deeper relationships with parishioners.
In our study, we have shown that parishioners who feel a connection to the parish
are characterised by greater involvement in non-religious activities. Ploch and Hastings
demonstrate that parishioners’ ties/close relationships (friendship network) are a stronger
predictor of church attendance than parental attendance (socialization) or family status.
Strong bonds between believers foster community building, identify, and create various
forms of mutual support (Ploch and Hastings 1998). American research has shown changes
in the social commitment of parishioners. In order to adopt common interests, they are
seeking to participate in common meetings (e.g., retreats) to provide services to those in
need (Sweetser and Forster 2011). Analyses thus indicate the increasing role of the laity in
parish decision-making (Zech et al. 2017).
The second aim of the analysis was to inscribe the results of the research in the concept
of social participation and an attempt to indicate which factors have a key influence on
the activity of community members and the building of social bonds, and in a broader
perspective on the formation of pro-social attitudes of parish members. The starting point
is the model of social participation (Szymczak 2013) as an interesting source of inspiration
for the author’s concept of factors determining the social involvement of the faithful for
their own parishes, perceived as local communities. The parish is thus treated as a local
community. Adopting the interaction-processual perspective (Kaufman 1959;Turowski
1999;Pietraszko-Furmanek 2021), a parish is a community functioning in a separate space,
whose members are linked by a sense of identity, solidarity, and shared values, who
communicate with each other and undertake grassroots initiatives (social actions) pursuing

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a common interest, thus building a social bond. Social participation is understood as a
person’s involvement in activities that provide interaction with others in society or the
community (Levasseur et al. 2010). Therefore, in conceptualising the determinants of
parishioners’ social engagement, it is important to consider both the wider environmental,
social, and cultural context and the personal characteristics of those in social roles and their
preferences. (Piškur et al. 2014).
Considering the above-mentioned findings, a scheme for social participation in the
parish, commonly understood as a local community, was developed, with particular
reference to the interdependence of factors determining the social involvement of its
members and actors. The analyses in the first part of this article identified the determinants
of parishioners’ social engagement as community members, i.e., their individual metric
characteristics. Twelve significant predictors defining a socially engaged parishioner were
identified. The conformity of the results of our own research with the model of social
participation is evidenced by, among others, the occurrence of a sense of agency and
influence on the social, non-religious life of the parish (the second dimension of the model)
among parishioners declaring a high interest in parish affairs, as well as performing
functions in parish organisations. The study of parishioners revealed the dependence of
their sense of influence on social life on certain socio-demographic variables. The common
elements of the model of social participation and our own research also relate to the
role of an axiological content (especially religious, moral, social values and an attitude
to help other people) as the basis for the non-religious activity of the people surveyed
(the third dimension of the model). Some other converging single indicators can also
be mentioned, such as voluntariness of involvement (one of the indicators of the first
dimension), orientation to the common good of the community, and the experience of
community values (as indicators of the fourth dimension of the model) (Kasper 1986).
The obtained results respond to a problem of building social capital based on the parish
and its resources. Non-religious involvement is strongly related to the social capital built
around the parish. As Dixon points out, social capital that grows within the parish structure
has certain attributes (trust, commitment of parishioners, common goal, etc.), is generated
and coordinated by leaders, has both internal (bonding) as well as external (bridging)
features. The bonding social capital can be thought of as the networks, trust, beliefs, and
behaviours which create and build up the parish community. The bridging social capital is
created when the parish lives out its mission through outreach to the wider community
(B. Dixon 2010). The parish affects the external environment, which includes its institutional
links to the diocese and the universal Church, as well as to the national and Catholic culture
in general. Dixon emphasises that another important aspect of building social capital is
the demography of the local Catholic population (e.g., gender, age, marital status) and
social factors (e.g., functions in the parish, leadership) (2010). For example, consolidating
the position of a leader or fulfilling functions in parish organizations constitutes a very
strong predictor of commitment to the life of the parish. If leaders encourage parishioners
to use their talents and skills, it is highly likely that they would be more involved in parish
issues. Leege’s research shows that parish leaders are more oriented to the performance of
their parish as a religious and social community. For them, community is a “property of
the particular,”, i.e., it is developed through the actions of the local church (Leege 1987).
Participation in parish life for many people makes an important form of building social
capital. The local parish is one of the most important places where citizens often meet with
each other, build interpersonal relationships, a network of formal and informal contacts,
spend their free time, look for financial, instrumental, or informational support. In this
sense, the parish can be understood as a local community. Parish as community is not
a product solely of friendliness but of the feeling of rootedness. Thus, the community is
proclaimed by the way it is lived (Leege 1987). In our research, we have shown that people
who feel a strong bond with the parish are more involved in non-religious activities for its
benefit. Nevertheless, Dixon suggests that an important role in building the social capital
of the parish is also played by people who are not involved in the life of the parish, or

Religions 2021,12, 1097 11 of 15
their commitment is low. A parish that relies solely on people who have a strong sense
of connection with it may endanger the risk of being isolated from the rest of society
(B. Dixon 2010). In this context, there is an important role for both priests and lay leaders
in undertaking not only religious, but also non-religious activities. This has to inspire
parishioners to joint ventures and build a civil society (Wuthnow 1991). Moreover, our
research shows that people living alone are more involved in non-religious activities for
their parish. Perhaps it can be justified by the fact that parish provides them with a sense
of belonging, and at the same time these people, thanks to their commitment, feel more
appreciated and valued.
Many researchers prove that active members of the church community (parish) are
more motivated, for example, to participate in aid measures (Becker and Dhingra 2001).
It is indicated in the literature that the influence of religious involvement on social par-
ticipation/activity manifests through the social networks of community members (ties,
norms, values) and not through the content or strength of religious beliefs (Birdwell and
Littler 2012;De Hart and Dekker 2005). Putnam believes that religious people are more
likely to volunteer or donate to charity only because of social networks (1994). Research,
e.g., in Great Britain, shows that religious people are also more eager to show social com-
mitment, such as volunteering and charity work, than people who declare themselves as
non-believers. Another issue is that the strength of parishes (churches) is also to be found
in their connections with local communities and the ability to keep them motivated and
use local resources, including volunteers (Gallet 2016).
The research presented here focuses mainly on the specific factors that determine
(and thus can both stimulate and inhibit) the involvement of the faithful in social activities
for the parish. However, social participation is conditioned not only by the personal
characteristics of parishioners (individuals). The factors arising from the essence of the
parish as an institution are also important. Therefore, in the diagram (Figure 1) we indicate
the importance of such elements as: communication between priests and parishioners,
effectiveness of information flow, network of connections, level of partnership, awareness
of common goal, material resources and human resources (both parish and parishioners),
as well as priests’ attitude and their openness to the actions of parishioners involved. The
aforementioned factors can also play both a role in stimulating the social activity of parish
members and, under certain circumstances, not fostering their activation. This opens up the
possibility of learning about and shaping those characteristics of the community that may
be considered important, valuable and desirable for its development. This is exemplified by
the way in which communication takes place between the clergy and the faithful, between
the pastor and the leaders of the various communities and associations that function
within the parish structure, and between parish members who are not affiliated with
small communities.
In the literature and practice of church life, an optimal model of parish management
has been developed for some time. One of the basic postulates appearing in the sociological
reflection on parishes points to the necessity of rejecting the model of the parish as an
institution, an office, or an administrative centre, in favour of becoming communities in
which lay Catholics would feel themselves real subjects of the life of the Church, responsible
for their parish communities (Maria´nski 2020). Verification of the new model of the parish,
both in the religious dimension, the parish as a community of communities (Chmielewski
1999) and in the process of social interaction of the parish with the local environment,
requires careful discernment and highlights the need for the implementation of empirical
and comparative research on a wider scale. This postulate should also be applied to other
characteristics of the parish such as the local community, in order to have the widest
possible knowledge of the potential of parish-type local communities that can be activated
in the process of the social participation of its members.

Religions 2021,12, 1097 12 of 15
Religions 2021, X, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16
Figure 1. Determinants of parishioners’ social involvement (perspective of the parish as a local community).
In the literature and practice of church life, an optimal model of parish management
has been developed for some time. One of the basic postulates appearing in the sociolog-
ical reflection on parishes points to the necessity of rejecting the model of the parish as an
institution, an office, or an administrative centre, in favour of becoming communities in
which lay Catholics would feel themselves real subjects of the life of the Church, respon-
sible for their parish communities (Mariański 2020). Verification of the new model of the
parish, both in the religious dimension, the parish as a community of communities
(Chmielewski 1999) and in the process of social interaction of the parish with the local
environment, requires careful discernment and highlights the need for the implementa-
tion of empirical and comparative research on a wider scale. This postulate should also be
applied to other characteristics of the parish such as the local community, in order to have
the widest possible knowledge of the potential of parish-type local communities that can
be activated in the process of the social participation of its members.
In sociology, since the times of August Comte, the phenomena of social engagement
and activities of individuals leading to creating a common community are both conveyed
in a following question: What connects, unites, and makes people and social communities
stick together? In spite of the fact that the responses of sociologists to the foregoing ques-
tion differ from each other, they converge on the category of a social bond. According to
Robert Nisbet, the aforementioned concept of a social bond appears to be a power, which
enables people to stick together in, so called, “social molecules” (Nisbet 1970). Apart from
the fundamental religious bond, moral and behavioural ones also play an important role
in parish communities; they are based on common activities. Admittedly, not all members
of a parish, which is both an institution as well as a community, manifest their bond spirit
in the same way. It can be elaborated, as Peter Worsley emphasizes, on existence of two
types of bonds in social communities: objective or subjective. The objective ones result
from mutual relationships, similarities in lifestyles (e.g., place of residence) and official
Figure 1. Determinants of parishioners’ social involvement (perspective of the parish as a local community).
In sociology, since the times of August Comte, the phenomena of social engagement
and activities of individuals leading to creating a common community are both conveyed
in a following question: What connects, unites, and makes people and social communities
stick together? In spite of the fact that the responses of sociologists to the foregoing question
differ from each other, they converge on the category of a social bond. According to Robert
Nisbet, the aforementioned concept of a social bond appears to be a power, which enables
people to stick together in, so called, “social molecules” (Nisbet 1970). Apart from the
fundamental religious bond, moral and behavioural ones also play an important role in
parish communities; they are based on common activities. Admittedly, not all members of
a parish, which is both an institution as well as a community, manifest their bond spirit in
the same way. It can be elaborated, as Peter Worsley emphasizes, on existence of two types
of bonds in social communities: objective or subjective. The objective ones result from
mutual relationships, similarities in lifestyles (e.g., place of residence) and official affiliation
to specific groups. In turn, the subjective bonds are based on a sense of belonging shared
with other group members and their mutual solidarity (Worsley 1984).
Therefore, the parish is a place of forming bonds and building a community in an
objective and subjective sense. Objective sense means that parishes operate in a specific
area. Everyone within it has right and opportunity to participate in parish life; naturally,
only if one shows such a willingness. Then, a subjective bond refers to a community of
values, norms, symbols, rituals, and invariable ceremonies. In this sense, the parish is a
place, in which people build their own personal and social identity. What is more, it is
also an area where a moral bond based on trust and solidarity is formed. This is expressed
within participation in social activities for the parish. In other words, undertaking common
religious and non-religious activities is a constitutive element of a parish, which is perceived
as a local community (social group). The awareness of one’s impact on the broadly
understood parish life gives a sense of being an actor (subject), i.e., sense of agency. Parish
participation indicates a departure from (extremely institutional) views of the Church, in
which only priests are active subjects of pastoral ministry, and the laity representatives

Religions 2021,12, 1097 13 of 15
constitute a passive and peripheral “mass” for the parish as a community (Dantis 2016;
Maria´nski 2014).
The research presented in this article did not address the determinants of community
engagement that arise from the idea of the parish as a local community. The proposed
list is the result of my own reflections based on literature and research and certainly
does not include a complete set of possible determinants. However, this points to the
need for a dual perspective on the concept of community participation. This approach
would reveal the interdependence of community engagement factors. The more factors
activating parishioners on the part of the parish, the more active and creative people
among parishioners. Conversely, the greater the interest of community members in its
non-religious affairs, the greater the awareness of common purpose and the higher the
level of partnership.
Thus, the suggested scheme opens a wide spectrum of future directions for social
research on the concept of social participation in the local community, of which the parish
is a good example. We believe that the issue of benefits derived from participation in
various non-religious practices of the parish community should become an area of further
scientific research. Apart from the widely understood aid activities, other needs may also
occur. For example, Neal Krause and Elena Bastida researched whether church support is
related to health (Krause and Bastida 2011). Thus, it is worth extending the investigated
problems in order to include the widely understood, extensive functions of parishes. In
addition, the direction of further research should concern engagement in non-religious
activities, and the creation of communities not only based on primary bonds (primary
groups). Other areas of future research may include the following problems: Does parish
affiliation constitute a factor in engaging in community activities, or, rather, whether an
individuals’ personal traits cause such a social engagement? Does religious engagement
enhance parishioners’ social commitment? In our opinion, providing an answer to the
foregoing research questions requires interdisciplinary studies.
Limitations
The limitation of the presented research is the lack of a representative research sam-
ples. The research was conducted on the territory of the Archdiocese of Lublin (one of
15 metropolitan areas in Poland), however the features important for the subject under
consideration (the level of religiosity and the level of social involvement) constitute the
statistical average for Poland. The collected data constitute sufficient material to outline
clear tendencies and characteristics of parishioners as committed members of the parish
community. The disadvantage of this research is that it does not take a broader perspective
into account—the characteristics of the parish as important factors determining the level of
social involvement of parishioners. This is because the analyses presented herein concern
only a portion of the research, focusing on indicating those socio-demographic variables
that relate to the assessment of parishioners’ influence on parish non-religious activities. A
better understanding of the potential of the parish as an institution requires further research.
The important line of study is undoubtedly the research conducted among priests, which
can enhance knowledge about the role of parish capacity as an institutional support for
community building.
Another limitation of this study is related to the data collection method. During data
collection, results based on participants’ own experiences were used, which may cause bias.
Participants are often not objective when talking about their own experiences. Respondents
may give more socially acceptable answers than truthful ones and may not be able to assess
themselves accurately. Nevertheless, when self-report surveys are used correctly, the data
can help to obtain a wider range of responses than many other data collection instruments.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, J.P. and M.S.; methodology, J.P. and M.S.; formal analysis,
K.J.; investigation, J.P. and M.S.; data curation, J.P., M.S. and K.J.; writing—original draft preparation,
J.P., M.S. and K.J.; writing—review and editing J.P., M.S. and K.J.; visualization, M.S. and K.J.;

Religions 2021,12, 1097 14 of 15
project administration, J.P. and M.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement:
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of
the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Institute of Sociological
Sciences of the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin (protocol code: 11/DKE/NS/2021).
Informed Consent Statement:
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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