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Perspectives
Studies in Translation Theory and Practice
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rmps20
Towards a definition of transcreation: a systematic
literature review
Mar Díaz-Millón & María Dolores Olvera-Lobo
To cite this article: Mar Díaz-Millón & María Dolores Olvera-Lobo (2021): Towards a definition of
transcreation: a systematic literature review, Perspectives, DOI: 10.1080/0907676X.2021.2004177
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2021.2004177
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Towards a definition of transcreation: a systematic literature
review
Mar Díaz-Millón
a
and María Dolores Olvera-Lobo
b
a
Department of Translation and Interpreting, University of Granada, Granada, Spain;
b
Department of
Information and Communication Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
ABSTRACT
‘Transcreation’has appeared in the last decade as a translation-related
activity consisting in the creative reinterpretation of texts to suit the
characteristics of an intended audience. However, the scientific
literature surrounding transcreation does not offer a homogenous
definition of the term. Given these disparities, the main objective of
this work is to create a reliable source of reviewed scientific
information about the topic. A sample of scientific works regarding
the topic ‘transcreation’has been compiled from databases and
repositories of recognized reliability and has been analyzed with a
qualitative data analysis software (NVivo). Findings show that
research on transcreation expanded significantly between 2015 and
2019 and that most studies are of a qualitative nature. A critical
analysis of the content connects transcreation with other fields of
research:translation,communication, advertising and poetry.
Following a concept-centric approach, this Systematic Literature
Review has permitted the formulation of definitions for transcreation
and the landscape of academic research on the topic to be outlined.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 6 April 2021
Accepted 5 November 2021
KEYWORDS
Transcreation; systematic
literature review; translation
studies; qualitative analysis;
critical analysis
Introduction
‘Transcreation’can be defined as a translation-related activity that combines processes of
linguistic translation, cultural adaptation and (re-)creation or creative re-interpretation
of certain parts of a text. The balance between these three elements will depend on,
among others, the characteristics of the text, the instructions provided in the transcrea-
tion brief or by the client, the linguistic and cultural traits of the audience receiving the
text, and the purpose and objective of the text. In the last two decades, transcreation as a
professional practice within the language service industry has gained prominence, and
even international standards such as ISO:17100 (AENOR, 2016) recognize it as an
added-value translation service.
Previous research defines transcreation as the creative inter-/intra-lingual re-
interpretation of texts in order to suit the characteristics of an intended audience
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way.
CONTACT Mar Díaz-Millón mardiazmillon@ugr.es Department of Translation and Interpreting, University of
Granada, Buensuceso, 11, Granada 18002, Spain
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2021.2004177.
PERSPECTIVES
https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2021.2004177
(Benetello, 2018; Gaballo, 2012; Pedersen, 2017). Evidence shows that it can be present in
a wide range of fields: literature, marketing, advertising, video-games, websites, infor-
mation materials, mobile applications, etc. (Katan, 2016; Morón & Calvo, 2018;
O’Hagan & Mangiron, 2013; Ruvalcaba et al., 2019). It is not only a linguistic translation
of the content, but also a cultural adaptation (Fernández Rodríguez, 2019). This is why, in
recent years, transcreation has played a role in marketing and advertising, as it has been a
popular way for companies to tailor their marketing campaigns to international markets.
Some of the typical projects that may require the use of transcreation are web campaigns
aimed at attracting clients from other markets (Ray & Kelly, 2010).
As this is a current discussion in academia, inconsistencies are present in the scientific
literature on transcreation and, so far, it has not provided a homogenous definition. As a
consequence, many authors, researchers and professionals disagree on issues such as the
origin of the activity, its main features or the fields of specialization it can be applied to.
In fact, some authors do not even consider it as an area of specialization in itself nor a pro-
fessional practice, and consider it as another label for translation (Gambier, 2019). Conver-
sely, some other authors argue that transcreation is a different practice from translation,
but do not base this difference on the ‘creativity’that may be implied in the word ‘tran-
screation’. On the contrary, this difference is attributed to the emphasis of cultural rel-
evance and fitness for purpose (Gaballo, 2012;Ray&Kelly,2010), which places
transcreation halfway between translation and copywriting (Benetello, 2018). In this
context, concepts such as ‘translation error’or ‘text inadequacies’would not apply to tran-
screation contexts. Thus, the discussion on the differences between translation and tran-
screation would move away from the traditional debate on ‘translation vs. free translation’.
In the academic context, it is suggested that the term transcreation was introduced by
the scholar and translator Purushottam Lal, who described the translation of ancient San-
skrit texts into the modern language as a task in which ‘the translator must edit, reconcile
and transmute; his work in many ways becomes largely a matter of transcreation’(Ped-
ersen, 2017). At the same time, it is also noted that the term was proposed by the Brazilian
poet and translator Haroldo De Campos in reference to a poetics of translation based on
Oswald de Andrade’s1928 Manifiesto Antropófago (O’Donnell-Smith, 2017; Vitra &
Queiroz, 2018).
There is a wide range of areas in which transcreation is present, as accounted for by pre-
vious research. For example, it is present in different domains such as literature translation
(Gaballo, 2012; Katan, 2016), audiovisual translation (Chaume, 2018) and other creative
industries like marketing and advertising (Pedersen, 2014). In the latter, transcreation
plays the role of transferring the message from a marketing or advertising campaign to
make it more attractive to a different audience and marketplace while respecting the identity
of the brand (Pedersen, 2014;TAUS,2019). Thus, transcreation has found its way into the
field of persuasive texts (Benetello, 2018; Fernández Rodríguez, 2019). This variety of fields
of application supports its transdisciplinary character as an area of specialization.
Given its creative nature, transcreation would be located halfway between translation
and copywriting (Benetello, 2018). In this regard, transcreation would be different from
marketing translation (a translation that aims to evoke an emotional reaction and that
goes beyond a faithful representation of a descriptive text) and from multilingual copy-
writing (the process of creating texts in multiple languages from scratch, with reference
to brand and campaign requirements) (TAUS, 2019).
2M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
However, transcreation is also present in fields that are not creativity-related, such as
healthcare. In this domain, transcreation refers to the adaptation of health education
materials for improved understanding and cultural relevance to specific language and
ethnic groups (Nápoles & Stewart, 2018). In fact, in the last decades, many researchers
have addressed the potential of transcreation as a means of disseminating healthcare
information among audiences with different linguistic and cultural characteristics
(Díaz-Millón et al., 2020), and notably, among the Spanish-speaking population in the
United States (Macario & Montealegre Boyte, 2008; Piñeiro et al., 2018; Ruvalcaba
et al., 2019; Santoyo-Olsson et al., 2019; Simmons et al., 2010).
Therefore, the fact that transcreation is so prolific and has become a professional
activity makes it, likewise, an interesting area of research present in a wide variety of
fields. The processes that form part of it, the agents involved, its origin and evolution,
the skills that need to be acquired to carry it out, etc.: all these questions are of interest
and have been dealt with by different authors (Benetello, 2016; Fernández Rodríguez,
2019; Katan, 2013,2016; Pedersen, 2014).
Maybe due to its burgeoning appearance in the professional market of translation,
some universities around the world have been recently introducing transcreation training
in Translation and Interpreting higher studies, for example the University of Roehamp-
ton (2020) and University College London (2020) in the United Kingdom, and the Pablo
de Olavide University in Spain (Morón & Calvo, 2018), to name a few.
Given the disparities on the definition of transcreation and its role and potential in the
professional and the academic field, this work aims to review scientific literature on tran-
screation to answer the following research questions:
1. How is ‘transcreation’defined in the scientific literature?
2. To which fields can it be applied?
3. What are the core concepts related to transcreation?
4. What kind of studies about transcreation have been carried out in the last decades?
Thus, the main objective of this work is to create a reliable source of scientifically
reviewed information about the topic ‘transcreation’. This main objective is divided
into two specific objectives: SO1) To compile a source of scientific works regarding
the topic ‘transcreation’from reliable databases and repositories, and SO2) To rigorously
analyze said works in order to answer the research questions stated above. This study will
address these questions following a meticulous methodology: the systematic literature
review (SLR).
Materials and methods
Sampling
An SLR was conducted in order to compile the essence of discussion about how tran-
screation has been defined and applied by scholars specializing therein. A systematic
review is a scientific investigation of the literature and procedures that limits bias and
random error (Denyer & Neely, 2004).
PERSPECTIVES 3
The following steps were taken to detect the relevant studies compiled in well-known
information retrieval systems:
1. The keywords were identified, as well as any possible synonyms or replacement terms.
2. The query was constructed from the keywords and the possible replacement terms.
3. Several online databases for searching were selected.
4. The search string was applied to titles, abstracts or keywords whenever possible.
5. A CSV file containing title, abstracts, authors, publication and date was exported.
6. The search results were managed using the qualitative data analysis software NVivo.
Given the research questions for this study, and to avoid documentary noise the
selected keyword was ‘transcreation’. Two possible replacement terms were identified
in the existing literature: ‘trans creation’and ‘trans-creation’. The query used to search
on the titles, abstracts or keywords of documents was:
TITLE+ABS+KEY(transcreation OR “trans creation”OR trans-creation)
The search string was then applied to different online databases to ensure that relevant
studies were not missed. No limitation of time of publication was applied as the aim
of this paper was to outline the transcreation research landscape. The final selection of
databases was motivated by two characteristics: interdisciplinarity and volume of
indexed items.
a. Web of Science (www.webofknowledge.com): A multidisciplinary platform compil-
ing regional, specialty, data and patent indexes. It includes millions of records from
thousands of impactful scientific journals.
b. Scopus (www.scopus.com): A platform indexing content from over 20,000 titles. It
includes millions of documents from multiple scientific disciplines.
c. ProQuest (www.proquest.com): A multidisciplinary search tool including academic
and non-academic documents from 48 databases.
d. Sage Journals (https://journals.sagepub.com): A multidisciplinary search tool
offering content from 1000 journals published under Sage Publishing.
e. Google Scholar (scholar.google.com): A freely accessible web search engine indexing
the full text or metadata of scholarly literature across a wide range of disciplines.
In this review, all publications on the topic ‘transcreation’published and collected in
the above-mentioned databases by 1 July 2020 have been included, the day in which the
sample was compiled. The sample included works published between 1995 and the first
half of 2020.
A total of 346 works were extracted. Then, a series of guidelines and criteria were
applied to screen the sample and increase the quality of the works analyzed. The next
step was to exclude duplicate works. Then, in order to ensure that the final study
sample would be constituted by validated scientific knowledge, some quality exclusion
criteria were applied. These criteria were: (1) for journal articles, only those placed in
the top two quartiles of the SCImago Journal ranking (SJR) were included; (2) for
book chapters, only those placed in the first half of the general ranking of the Scholarly
Publishers Indicators (SPI) were included; (3) full books were excluded; (4) conference
4M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
proceedings were excluded; (5) for dissertations, only doctoral theses were included; (6)
any non-academic or non-scientific work was excluded; (7) any works for which the
abstract and the full-text version were not available online were excluded.
Finally, all irrelevant works extracted due to poor performance of the search databases
and works written in a language other than English were excluded. This process resulted
in a final sample of 64 works meeting the highest quality standards. The initial search and
selection process is summarized in Table 1.
Analysis
Whenever possible, the full text of the paper was analyzed. However, when it was not
available for copyright reasons, only the abstract was analyzed.
The qualitative data analysis program NVivo was used. This software helped to codify
the studies around core concepts present in the analyzed studies. A concept-centric
approach was followed to determine the structure of the literature review, that is, con-
cepts determined the organizing framework of the review (Webster & Watson, 2002).
A series of thorough steps were followed for the processing of the data. First, using the
search tool of the program, a list of the 25 most frequent words in the overall number of
files was extracted. For this purpose, a combination of the derived forms of a stem word
was used. For example, words such as ‘transcreation’,‘transcreator’,‘transcreate’,‘trans-
created’or ‘transcreational’were grouped together.
Among the words in this list, four stood out as they represented fields of application
for the activity ‘transcreation’:‘translation’,‘communication’,‘advertising’and ‘poetry’.
Using the software NVivo, the scientific works analyzed were coded around these four
fields of application and text references about them were extracted. In this manner,
the four main fields of application (Application Field Code or AFC) referenced in scien-
tific literature for transcreation were identified.
To maximize the precision of the analysis, other words from the list of the 25 most
frequent words in the overall of studies were also converted into codes (Frequent
Word Code or FWC). Irrelevant words (e.g., stop words such as ‘was’or ‘has’) and the
main topic of the analysis ‘transcreation’were excluded. The objective of this step was
to group the references extracted for those new codes (FWC) as sub-codes for the four
above-mentioned AFCs. For the purpose of this work, ‘reference’will be understood
as any of the text fragments retrieved by NVivo program in which a code or sub-code
appears.
Table 1. Summary of the search and sampling process.
Online database Number of works
Web of Science 66
Scopus 70
ProQuest 102
Sage Journals 8
Google Scholar 100
Total retrieved documents 346
Total after duplicates were removed 229
Total after quality exclusion criteria were applied 77
Total after irrelevant and non-English works were excluded 64
FINAL SAMPLE 64
PERSPECTIVES 5
To group the new codes as sub-codes, hierarchy charts of intersecting codes were pro-
duced. These charts compare the extracted text references for each AFC and identify with
which codes they share a larger number of references.
Thus, each new FWC was aggregated under the AFC with which it shared the largest
number of text references. For example, for the word ‘voice’, 415 text references were
extracted. The chart of intersecting codes showed that the code with which it shared
the largest number of references was ‘poetry’. So, ‘voice’was considered a sub-code for
‘poetry’and its references were aggregated to those for ‘poetry’. After this process, all
the texts were classified according to the main subject or subjects they dealt with. A
summary of the final coding scheme is shown in Table 2.
The following steps included adding attributes to classify the studies according to a
series of characteristics: type of academic work, year of publication, author country
affiliation, and applied research methods (descriptive analysis). The final part of the
analysis (thematic analysis) was carried out employing the text search tool of the
NVivo program looking for: (1) interactions between AFCs and the studied documents;
(2) most frequent words/concepts present in each AFC; and (3) definitions of the concept
‘transcreation’.
Findings
As the approach of this review is concept-centric, findings around the content analysis of
the works will be offered in relation to the main concepts and fields of application ident-
ified in the sample. First, a quantitative descriptive analysis of the scientific works
sampled will be conducted. Finally, a qualitative thematic analysis containing the
results found will be presented.
Descriptive analysis
Main fields of research
Files were coded around the main fields of application (AFC) for transcreation men-
tioned in the texts. All 64 studies were coded around the topic ‘translation’, that is, the
Table 2. Coding scheme summary.
AFC* FWC** Studies References % over the total of retrieved references
translation 64 6657 36.23
culture 54 1036 5.64
language 53 938 5.11
text 52 1872 10.19
inform 45 566 3.08
copy 22 340 1.85
term 49 611 3.33
origin 46 545 2.97
communication 48 887 4.83
health 22 315 1.71
advertising 45 1796 9.78
product 40 710 3.86
market 30 497 2.71
poetry 38 1188 6.47
voice 27 415 2.26
*AFC (Application Field Code); **FWC (Frequent Word Code).
6M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
word ‘translation’was mentioned in every paper, with a total of 6657 references. Further-
more, the field ‘communication’was present in 48 works, with 887 references; the word
‘advertising’was mentioned in 45 studies, with 1796 references and the field ‘poetry’was
present in 38 files, with 1188 references (see Table 2). In the scientific literature analyzed,
transcreation is thus most frequently associated with translation and, in descending
order, with communication, advertising and poetry.
Type of publications
This review includes 45 journal articles (70.3%), 13 book chapters (20.3%), and 6 doctoral
theses (9.4%) dealing with the concept ‘transcreation’. All of them address the subject in
terms of its relationship to ‘translation’.
Publication frequency
After the first publication was released in 1995, the frequency of scientific works on tran-
screation increased steadily, with a notable peak between the years 2015 and 2019, when
35 works on transcreation were published. A summary of the frequency of publication is
available in Figure 1.
Author country affiliation
Papers from 20 different author country affiliations were identified. For works with more
than one author with different country affiliations, only the affiliation of the first author
has been considered. Notably, the country from which most researchers are producing
scientific knowledge on transcreation is the United States, followed by the United
Kingdom and Spain. A summary of the author country affiliations is included in
Figure 2.
Applied research methods
Scientific works included in the sample were classified according to applied research
methods. Three kinds of research were identified: theoretical discussion, qualitative
Figure 1. Publication frequency for scientific works on transcreation.
PERSPECTIVES 7
analysis and quantitative analysis. More than half of the works (33; 51.6%) were con-
ducted through qualitative analyses; approximately a third of the works (22; 34.4%)
were theoretical discussions, and, a small portion (9; 14.1%) involved research conducted
through quantitative analysis.
Thematic analysis
As mentioned in the Materials and Methods section, the analyzed papers were coded
around four main topics (AFC) connected to transcreation with the software NVivo.
Those topics are not mutually exclusive, as it is possible for a single paper to discuss
several topics and study the applications of transcreation in different professional and
academic fields. In fact, most of the analyzed studies were coded around several topics.
As shown in Figure 3, each work has been identified with a number and is connected
to the topic or topics it deals with. IDs are not necessarily correlative as the identification
was made in early stages of the sampling process. As represented in the image, most
papers are coded around two or three different topics and only a few were around one
single topic. This is, the majority of the analyzed scientific papers dealt with transcreation
related to several different professional and research fields.
Core concepts
When the papers included in the review were classified, a concept-centered search was
carried out in order to identify the core concepts present in the scientific works. This
search was conducted through a word frequency analysis in each of the four AFCs. A
list of the most frequent words was extracted for each code and were pinpointed as
the core concepts discussed in the papers coded around them.
For the works coded around ‘translation’, the main core concepts identified were:
‘translation’,‘culture’,‘text’, and ‘language’. These findings are not surprising given
that, as stated by previous literature, transcreation is a translation-related activity that
Figure 2. Number of works by author country affiliations.
8M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
considers elements such as language and culture in order to creatively re-interpret a text
to be received by an audience different from that originally intended (Benetello, 2018;
Gaballo, 2012; Katan, 2016; Pedersen, 2017). Thus, the core concepts present in the scien-
tific papers are in line with this vision of transcreation.
In the case of the code ‘communication’, the top five concepts in the word frequency
list were: ‘communication’,‘product’,‘culture’,‘appeal’and ‘health’. Interestingly, papers
connecting transcreation with communication seem to place a great importance on the
role of culture and appeal in the process. In addition, the concept ‘product’appears quite
frequently, which points to a product-oriented approach present in these works. The
presence of the ‘health’concept is connected to the use of transcreation strategies for
adapting health information materials that has been the subject of study in the recent
years by various authors (Díaz-Millón et al., 2020; Macario & Montealegre Boyte,
2008; Piñeiro et al., 2018; Ruvalcaba et al., 2019; Santoyo-Olsson et al., 2019; Simmons
et al., 2010). Critical analysis of the texts coded around communication also reveals
the importance of cultural inclusion and cultural relevance in the process of adaptation
Figure 3. Diagram of AFCs coding each paper.
PERSPECTIVES 9
for new communities of text receptors (Baltrusch, 2010; Chan, 2003; Chatterjee, 2002;
Theocharous, 2015). This perspective especially comes from conceptualizations associ-
ated with transcreation tradition in India.
For the code ‘advertising’, the main core concepts identified were: ‘advertising’,
‘product’,‘marketing’, and ‘culture’. The presence thereof is in line with the scientific lit-
erature on the role played by transcreation in the advertising industry. Transcreation has
usually been associated with the adaptation of marketing and advertising campaigns to
introduce products in new markets (Morón & Calvo, 2018; Pedersen, 2014,2017; Ray
& Kelly, 2010; TAUS, 2019). In this process, cultural characteristics of the intended audi-
ence are crucial to effectively adapt, or transcreate, such advertising texts. Therefore, the
core concepts present in the papers coded for advertising can confirm this previous
definition of transcreation.
Finally, for the code ‘poetry’, the five top concepts identified were: ‘voice’,‘poem’,
‘poetry’,‘work’and ‘text’. The concept of ‘voice’, related to the poetic voice expressed
in a text or work by an author and the transmission of this voice by the translator/tran-
screator, has been present in previous works dealing with the transcreation of poems or
poetic texts (Echauri Galván, 2019; Fausto & De Vienne, 2014).
Definitions of transcreation
Text search queries were carried out to discover how ‘transcreation’is defined in scien-
tific literature. Using the NVivo text search tool, the following query was introduced to
obtain exact matches: ‘transcreation is’.
A list of all the files including clearly stated definitions of transcreation was obtained
(see Table 3), as well as text references in which the term was defined. The text references
extracted were then synthesized and classified following a concept-centric approach
through a critical analysis of the content.
Table 3. Publications defining the concept of transcreation.
ID Reference
20 Neves, J. (2012). Multi-sensory approaches to (audio) describing the visual arts. MonTI. Monografías de Traducción e
Interpretación,4(4), 277–293.
24 Rike, S. M. (2013). Bilingual corporate websites-from translation to transcreation? The Journal of Specialised
Translation,20,68–85.
40 Pedersen, D. (2016). Transcreation in marketing and advertising: an ethnographic study [Aarhus University].
42 Risku, H., Pichler, T., & Wieser, V. (2017). Transcreation as a translation service: Process requirements and client
expectations. Across Languages and Cultures,18(1), 53–77.
48 O’Donnell-Smith, D. (2017). Vox Ex Machina: Towards a Digital Poetics of the Disembodied Voice. University of London.
53 Pedersen, D. (2017). Managing transcreation projects. Translation Spaces,6(1), 44–61
55 Nápoles, A. M., & Stewart, A. L. (2018). Transcreation: An implementation science framework for community-
engaged behavioral interventions to reduce health disparities. BMC Health Services Research,18(1), 710.
56 Vitra, L., & Queiroz, J. (2018). Intersemiotic translation: Transcreation and diagrams. In P. Chapman, G. Stapleton,
A. Moktefi, S. PerezKriz, et al. (Eds.), Diagrammatic Representation and Inference, Diagrams (pp. 825–828). Springer.
57 Malenkina, N., & Ivanov, S. (2018). A linguistic analysis of the official tourism websites of the seventeen Spanish
Autonomous Communities. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management,9, 204–233
60 Benetello, C. (2018). When translation is not enough: Transcreation as a convention-defying practice. A practitioner’s
perspective. The Journal of Specialised Translation,29,28–43.
61 Chaume, F. (2018). Is audiovisual translation putting the concept of translation up against the ropes? The Journal of
Specialised Translation,30,84–104.
69 Huertas Barros, E., & Vine, J. (2019). Training the trainers in embedding assessment literacy into module design: a
case study of a collaborative transcreation project. Interpreter and Translator Trainer,13(3), 271–291.
78 Al-Omar, N. (2020). Ideology in Advertising: Some Implications for Transcreation into Arabic. Hikma,19(1), 43–68.
10 M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
Thus, in the end four different definitions of transcreation were identified depending
on the professional and academic perspective from which it was outlined: translation,
communication, advertising or poetry.
First, the definitions dealing with transcreation as a translation-related activity focus
on the process of recreating a text in a different language. Here there are some examples:
a. Transcreation is used to make sure that the target text is the same as the source text
in every aspect: the message it conveys, style, the images and emotions it evokes and
its cultural background. (ID 20)
b. Transcreation is taking a text in one language and recreating it in another. (ID 24)
c. Transcreation is an intra-/interlingual re-interpretation of the original work suited
to the readers/audience of the target language which requires the translator to come
up with new conceptual, linguistic and cultural constructs to make up for the lack
(or inadequacy) of existing ones. (ID 40)
d. Transcreation is also seen to some extent as a reintroduction of the well-proven
notion of cultural adaptation. (ID 42)
e. Transcreation is the process of transferring a brand and/or message from one
culture to another. (ID 57)
f. Most definitions of transcreation seem to place great emphasis on cultural relevance
and fitness for purpose. (ID 60)
g. Transcreation comprises both the concept of faithful transmission as well as that of
creation. (ID 61)
h. Transcreation can be considered a form of user-centered translation. (ID 69)
Second, definitions of transcreation in the field of communication focus mainly on the
adaption of health information materials for communities of speakers who do not speak
the majority language. Some examples of communication-related definitions are:
a. Transcreation in the health arena has had a narrower scope, referring to the adap-
tation of health education materials for improved understanding and cultural rel-
evance to specific language and ethnic groups. (ID 55)
b. We define transcreation as the processes of planning and delivering interventions to
reduce health disparities so that they resonate with the targeted community, while
achieving intended health outcomes. (ID 55)
Third, papers defining transcreation in the advertising field connect it quite frequently
to marketing purposes. Most of them consider transcreation as a tool for adapting adver-
tising campaigns to reach customers in international markets. The idea of internationa-
lizing a product to enable it to reach local markets is present in most reviewed works.
Here there are some examples of transcreation in the advertising sector:
a. Online marketing and branding services (…) use the term to mean adapting a sales
or branding message from one language to another whilst retaining the style or tone
of the original copy. (ID 48)
b. In a marketing context, transcreation is usually concerned with the adaptation of
advertising material into several different languages or for different markets. (ID 53)
PERSPECTIVES 11
c. Transcreation is considered an indispensable linguistic tool for the internationaliza-
tion of the destinations. (ID 57)
d. Evidence suggests that transcreation is the only possible way to ‘translate’marketing
and advertising copy. (ID 60)
Papers discussing the role of transcreation in the translation of poetry place their main
perspective on the origin of the term. Also, authors seem to agree on the fact that, in
poetics, transcreation is intersemiotic translation. Some examples of these definitions are:
a. Transcreation is frequently perceived as intersemiotic translation in the Jakobsonian
sense. (ID 40)
b. Transcreation is a term invented by de Campos in reference to a poetics of trans-
lation based on Oswald de Andrade’sManifesto Antropófago from 1928. (ID 48)
c. We associate Jakobson’s concept of intersemiotic translation with De Campos’
notion of transcreation. (ID 56)
d. In the Indian tradition, transcreation is understood as the interpretation of the orig-
inal work to suit the TL audience in a particular time and space. (ID 78)
This wide variety of possible definitions confirm that transcreation is a concept with
blurred boundaries, so, it seems logical to offer different definitions depending on its field
of application. However, this study will endeavor to compile all the academic conceptu-
alizations of transcreation presented above. As such, a single definition of the concept
will be provided. The objective is to offer a broad definition, encompassing the distinct
characteristics that have been identified to date in the scientific literature. This is not to
offer a prescriptive definition as such, but rather to bring together the different perspec-
tives from which the term has been approached and synthesize them to create a single
definition that can be applied to the different areas in which this concept is used. The
aim of this definition is to add value to the debate surrounding transcreation, in
which, as can be seen in the definitions collected in this review, apparent contradictions
are present. Consequently, the following definition of transcreation is proposed.
Transcreation is a type of translation characterized by the intra-/interlingual adaptation or
re-interpretation of a message intended to suit a target audience, while conveying the same
message, style, tone, images and emotions from the source language to the target language,
paying special attention to the cultural characteristics of the target audience. This re-
interpretation of the message may imply adaptations that move away from the original
text to a greater or lesser extent to fit the original purpose, transmit the original message
and overcome cultural barriers. For such reasons, it is present in persuasive and communi-
cative contexts.
The implications of this definition will be further discussed in the sections below.
Discussion
Research on transcreation seems to be quite international, with authors from twenty
different countries of affiliation identified in this SLR. This accounts for the global inter-
est raised by this activity, which has given rise to multiple research projects and studies
12 M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
that have contributed to the definition and conceptualization of the concept within
Translation Studies.
Four main fields of application have been identified as the focus of discussion. These
are the principal domains or professional areas that transcreation is most related to
according to the literature analyzed. In order of frequency, these four areas are: trans-
lation, communication, advertising and poetry.
Among these fields, translation is the most transversal: all the analyzed works mention
it and address transcreation from this perspective. The premise present in the scientific
literature examined to date that transcreation is a translation-related activity, is therefore
confirmed, at least from an academic perspective. Multiple authors have pointed in this
direction in recent years (Benetello, 2018; Gaballo, 2012; Katan, 2016; Pedersen, 2017;
Rike, 2013; Risku et al., 2017). The works analyzed dealing with transcreation in relation
to the other identified fields always connect it to translation.
A large number of the articles included in this review associate transcreation with
communication. The papers that address this topic do so from the perspective of cultural
adaptation of texts to reach communities of speakers other than the original recipients.
Within this field, the subgenre of adaptation of health information products to include
speaker communities is included (Díaz-Millón et al., 2020). Especially in research
carried out in the United States, there are examples of the use of transcreation techniques
to adapt health information products (notably booklets, but also IT tools) to address
Spanish-speaking audiences and Latino communities (Nápoles & Stewart, 2018; Ruval-
caba et al., 2019). This may be due to the clear role played by cultural awareness and cul-
tural adaption mentioned frequently in academia when defining transcreation (Benetello,
2018; Malenkina & Ivanov, 2018; Risku et al., 2017).
Papers related to advertising discuss the adaptation of products (considering ‘product’
as any kind of text, including multimodal texts, that can or could be transcreated) aimed
at local markets to be used by audiences in other markets with different cultural charac-
teristics (Mavis Ho, 2021;O’Donnell-Smith, 2017). In fact, some authors consider it a
cornerstone in internationalization processes (Malenkina & Ivanov, 2018). Most works
emphasize the creativity needed to adapt marketing and advertising-related products,
and some of them even argue that transcreation is the only possible way to do this suc-
cessfully (Benetello, 2018). These data confirm what has been claimed so far about tran-
screation being present above all in the creative industries and especially in marketing
and advertising (Pedersen, 2016,2017) for its capacity to contribute to the localization
(making local) of products for local markets and to help the internationalization pro-
cesses (projection to international markets) of companies.
Poetry is the least common field. These papers address the adaptation of the author’s
‘voice’to be received by speakers of languages other than the original. These articles focus
more on the origin of transcreation, since it seems that it is in poetry where the birth of
this activity is found. Some authors (Al-Omar, 2020; Katan, 2016;O’Donnell-Smith,
2017; Vitra & Queiroz, 2018) point to its origins in India by P. Lal in the 1970s to
refer to his English translation of Sanskrit works, and its use by the Brazilian poet and
translator Haroldo de Campos in the second half of the twentieth century, whereas
other authors highlight the role of transcreation in literature as a tool for cultural vindi-
cation, especially of minority languages and cultures (Kadenge, 2012; Wakabayashi,
2012). Again, we find examples in scientific research of the relationship between
PERSPECTIVES 13
culture and transcreation. The works that connect poetry and transcreation coincide with
the presence of creativity as a central part of the transcreation process, which seems to be
closely linked to claims by previous authors.
The synthesized definition of transcreation offered in this study tries to overcome the
present contradictions in the debate around transcreation and add value to that very
same debate. Indeed, these apparent contradictions are to be expected if the wide
variety of applications of transcreation is considered. Even if this review corroborates
previous assertions placing transcreation within the creative industries (Pedersen,
2017), it also confirms the blurred boundaries of the concept. Moreover, what this
review shows is that ‘transcreation’, as an area of specialization, a professional practice
and a field of research, needs to be further conceptualized. In this sense, this study
aims at providing further understanding of the concept and contributing to academic
research on this new emergent area of specialization.
Limitations
Nevertheless, this work is not exempt from limitations. First, papers have been classified
according to an identification of the most frequent terms. Although this identification
has been made through a qualitative analysis software program, this classification in
typologies can limit the knowledge extracted from the analyzed works. Second, maintain-
ing a balance between an exhaustive review and achieving a manageable sample has led to
the application of filtering criteria. For example, the exclusion of works classified in Q3 or
Q4 from the SJR index may have led to the omission of works that would have provided
interesting perspectives to the study. Finally, some of the databases used (e.g., Sage Jour-
nals) offered a very limited number of results, which suggests that some relevant works
published in recent years may not have been included.
Conclusion
After processing all the information compiled in this study, the landscape of scientific
research on transcreation has been outlined. Throughout this work, 45 journal articles, 13
book chapters and 6 doctoral theses have been analyzed. This SLR revealed that research
on transcreation started around 1995 and that the U.S. stands out as the country where
most research has been developed, followed by the United Kingdom and Spain.
The research questions posed at the beginning of the work have been answered. First,
for the question ‘How is “transcreation”defined in the scientific literature?’, four perspec-
tives of transcreation according to the field of research from which it was defined have
been proposed. This leads to the second research question ‘To which fields can transcrea-
tion be applied?’, and, with the help of the NVivo qualitative analysis software, the
identification of keywords, led to the selection of the four research topics with which
transcreation was most frequently connected.
The third research question suggested was ‘What are the core concepts related to tran-
screation?’. Some of the most common key concepts are ‘culture’,‘text’, and ‘product’
and, together with other key concepts such as ‘language’,‘appeal’,‘health’or ‘voice’,
they seem to confirm and complete the above-mentioned definitions of transcreation
and help to improve the understanding of this concept.
14 M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
Finally, the question ‘What kind of studies about transcreation have been carried out
in the last decades?’was answered. In this review it has been concluded that most of the
papers published so far have been of a qualitative nature (33 papers, 51.6%) and theor-
etical reflections (22 papers, 34.4%). Quantitative studies are the least frequent among the
papers reviewed (9 papers, 14.1%). Thus, the review concludes that the least explored
lines so far have been the quantitative studies.
The transcreation research landscape offered by this SLR outlines four main lines of
research taken to explore transcreation. This opens the way towards studying transcrea-
tion by considering new perspectives and frameworks of research to continue producing
innovative investigations on this subject. This review has aimed to delimit the broad
concept of ‘transcreation’, which will lead in future studies to expand on the knowledge
obtained about it thus far.
This review reveals how transcreation has been conceptualized in the last two decades
in scientific literature since its first appearance in 1995. It accounts for its transdisciplin-
ary character and, for this reason, for its potential in translation research. The steady
increase of scientific research and the peak identified between the years 2015 and 2019
indicate a rising interest in recent years, and suggest that transcreation is a field to be
further explored in forthcoming years.
As identified in this review, most studies carried out on transcreation have been of a
qualitative or theoretical nature. The scarcity of quantitative studies may be due to the
difficulty of systematically measuring or evaluating an activity that has, as defined by
the analyzed research, an important creativity/creation component. This lack of quanti-
tative knowledge may bias the existing vision of transcreation. However, it also opens the
door to conducting more quantitative studies in future lines of research.
In conclusion, the information collected throughout the review may be useful for
researchers and practitioners and for guiding future research on transcreation.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Funding
This work has been supported by the project RTI2018.093348.B.100, funded by MCIN/AEI/
10.13039/501100011033/ FEDER “Una manera de hacer Europa”; and by the Training Program
for University Teaching StaffFPU18/02698 (MICIU).
Notes on contributors
Mar Díaz-Millón is a predoctoral researcher, Department of Translation and Interpreting, Uni-
versity of Granada. Her main lines of research are: new technologies applied to translation, web
localization, transcreation, web transcreation, translation didactics. She collaborates with the R
+D+i project ‘Website Transcreation for the Dissemination of Corporate Information of
Health Care Spanish SMEs (TRANSCREAWEB)’. She received a FPU (Training Program for
University Teaching Staff), granted by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Univer-
sities. She is currently working on her PhD at the University of Granada and has several scientific
publications.
PERSPECTIVES 15
María-Dolores Olvera-Lobo is a Doctor in Documentation, Full Professor at the Department of
Information and Communication Sciences at the University of Granada (Spain). She is the prin-
cipal investigator of the HUM466 Research Group ‘Scientific Information: Access and Evaluation’,
PI in national R&D&I projects financed by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Com-
petitiveness, and in numerous teaching innovation projects at the University of Granada. Her
research lines focus on information retrieval, advanced systems in information retrieval, special-
ized documentation, Web 2.0, translators training and information resources for translators.
ORCID
Mar Díaz-Millón http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8897-9887
María Dolores Olvera-Lobo http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0489-7674
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Appendix. Summary of descriptive analysis
Data collected Translation Communication Advertising Poetry
Number of works 64 48 45 38
Publication type Journal articles (45),
Book chapters (13),
Doctoral thesis (6)
Journal articles (40), Book
chapters (4), Doctoral
thesis (4)
Journal articles (34),
Book chapters (6),
Doctoral thesis (5)
Journal articles (29),
Book chapters (4),
Doctoral thesis (5)
Year 1995 (1), 2002 (1),
2003 (1), 2005 (1),
2006 (1), 2008 (2),
2009 (1), 2010 (4),
2011 (2), 2012 (3),
2013 (4), 2014 (3),
2015 (3), 2016 (5),
2017 (8), 2018 (11),
2019 (8), 2020 (5)
2002 (1), 2003 (1), 2005
(1), 2006 (1), 2008 (1),
2009 (1), 2010 (1), 2011
(2), 2012 (3), 2013 (4),
2014 (2), 2015 (3), 2016
(4), 2017 (5), 2018 (8),
2019 (8), 2020 (3)
2002 (1), 2003 (1),
2005 (1), 2006 (1),
2008 (1), 2009 (1),
2010 (2), 2011 (2),
2012 (1), 2013 (4),
2014 (1), 2015 (3),
2016 (3), 2017 (4),
2018 (10), 2019 (6),
2020 (3)
1995 (1), 2002 (1),
2003 (1), 2005 (1),
2006 (1), 2008 (1),
2009 (1), 2010 (2),
2012 (2), 2013 (4),
2014 (1), 2015 (3),
2016 (2), 2017 (4),
2018 (7), 2019 (5),
2020 (1)
Author country
affiliation
United States (18),
United Kingdom (9),
Spain (6), Italy (5),
India (4), Australia
(3), Brazil (3),
Denmark (3),
Portugal (2),
Republic of South
Africa (1), Norway
(1), Austria (1),
Finland (1), France
(1), Indonesia (1),
Bulgaria (1), Sweden
(1), Israel (1), Jordan
(1), Poland (1)
United States (15), United
Kingdom (6), Spain (5),
Italy (5), India (1),
Australia (2), Brazil (3),
Denmark (2), Portugal
(2), Republic of South
Africa (1), Norway (1),
Austria (1), Finland (1),
Bulgaria (1), Israel (1),
Jordan (1)
United States (10),
United Kingdom (8),
Spain (5), Italy (5),
India (1), Australia
(2), Brazil (3),
Denmark (3),
Portugal (1), Norway
(1), Austria (1),
Indonesia (1),
Bulgaria (1), Sweden
(1), Israel (1), Jordan
(1)
United States (8),
United Kingdom
(5), Spain (4), Italy
(5), India (2),
Australia (2), Brazil
(3), Denmark (2),
Portugal (1),
Norway (1), Austria
(1), France (1),
Bulgaria (1), Israel
(1), Poland (1)
18 M. DÍAZ-MILLÓN AND M. D. OLVERA-LOBO
