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A survey of biological nitrogen fixation in adzuki beans, soybeans, and mung beans, three legumes in traditional Chinese medicine
Abstract
The adzuki bean (Vigna angularis) is a traditional legume crop that plays a crucial role in both the sustainability of agricultural systems and the supply of food protein. Having been used for thousands of years in China as traditional Chinese medicine and food, the adzuki bean has a great potential to be a drug candidate or functional food. Adzuki is a good source of essential fatty acids, fiber, minerals, and phytochemicals such as polyphenols and phytates. Legumes are nitrogen-fixing systems that have long been used for biological nitrogen fixation in agriculture. The biologically fixed nitrogen of adzuki beans can reduce the hazards of chemical fertilizers. Because of the increasing requests for plant production, especially protein and oils, and to decrease the economic and environmental pressure on agricultural ecosystems, grain legumes such as adzuki beans are expected to play a major role in future crop systems and sustainable agriculture. Legumes, especially those that have various medicinal effects, can help to restore organic matter to the soil and reduce pests and diseases problems, and they may lead to increased soil fertility. Adzuki beans have considerable potential globally to be a functional food for health promotion and disease prevention not only in Asian countries, but also in other parts of the world.
China is the home of the soybean. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a natural and organic healthcare system in which the body is viewed as a complex network of interconnected parts. The most important health benefits of soybeans are that they improve metabolic activity, promote healthy weight gain, have anticancer potential, boost heart health, relieve menopausal symptoms, boost digestion, improve bone health, prevent birth defects, improve circulation, control diabetes, and relieve sleep disorders. Soybeans can clear heat, detoxify, ease urination, lubricate the lungs and intestine, and serve as an excellent source of protein. In soybeans, atmospheric nitrogen (N2) fixation happens in the nodules, which grow in the roots and are produced by N2-fixing rhizobial bacteria. Most of these bacteria belong to the genera Bradyrhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Rhizobium, and Sinorhizobium. With the world’s increasing dependence on agriculture to feed its population, the use of reduced nitrogen derived from energy provided by fossil fuels is not likely to be sustainable. The key to future sustainable agriculture is to utilize the fundamental knowledge of the process of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in association with other agricultural practices to benefits an increasing world population. The food therapy of TCM aims to maintain balanced nutrition through diet.
Mung beans, also known as lu dou, are a traditional soy food consumed mainly in East Asia, especially China and Japan. It has been used both as nutritional food and herbal medicine. The two principal properties that make mung beans useful to agriculture are their high protein content and their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The factors determining the symbiotic process are the genetic constitution of the host plant and the bacteria, the environment, and technological inputs such as inocula, fertilizers, and pesticides. As a consequence of the persistent energy crises, which result in higher fertilizer costs, biological N2 fixation has become one of the most attractive strategies for the development of sustainable agricultural systems. Inoculation with Bradyrhizobium enhanced the nodulation, shoot biomass, and grain yield of mung beans. The legume residues can supply more mineral nitrogen to the succeeding crops than cereal residues can, owing to the relatively high nitrogen content of the legume residues. In traditional Chinese medicine, the mung bean clears heat, detoxifies, quenches thirst, promotes urination, reduces swelling, and reduces edema in the lower limbs. It is recommended for edema, conjunctivitis, diabetes, dysentery, summer heat, heatstroke, dehydration, and food poisoning from spoiled food. All in all, the most important health benefits of mung beans are antioxidant effects, antifungal and antimicrobial activity, antiinflammatory activity, and their antidiabetes, antihypertension, and anticancer effects. Mung beans are rich is easily digestible protein. They also contain vitamin A, iron, calcium, zinc, and folate. and are high in vitamins B1, B2, and C and niacin. Their antinutrients are phytic acid, tannins, hemagglutinins, and polyphenols. Nutrition therapy based on TCM is quite effective at treating common diseases.
... The plots treated with 15 kg ha -1 Zn in combination with 50 kg P ha -1 Resulted in higher number of plants m -2 , more branches plant -1 , maximum leaves plant -1 and maximum plant height (cm), higher number of pods plant -1 , more grains pod -1 ,extra nodules plant -1 and higher grain yield (kg ha -1 ). The possible explanation for these increments might due to the Zn promotes nodulation and nitrogen fixation in leguminous crops (Masood, et al., 2022;Shahrajabian et al., 2022;Gough et al., 2021). Furthermore Zn is important in the formation of auxin, which increases cell volume and increases plant height (Wang et al., 2016;Oguchi et al., 2004). ...
Mung bean is one of the important Kharif pulses in Pakistan and is grown mainly for its edible seeds; therefore, fertilizers management is an important factor for improving mungbean growth and yield. A field experiment was conducted during the summer of 2013 at Palato Farm of the University of Agriculture Peshawar, Amir Muhammad Khan Campus Mardan, to determine the effect of phosphorus (P) and Zinc (Zn) on the yield and yield component of mungbean. The experiment consisted of four levels of P (0, 25, 50, and 75 kg ha-1) and four levels of Zn (0, 5, 10, and 15 kg ha-1). Data associated with the number of leaves and plant height illustrated that the higher number of leaves plant-1 (8.8) by an average was observed when P was applied at the rate of 75 kg ha-1 followed by 0 kg phosphorous (P) ha-1 (8.7) and Zn (Zn) application at the rate of 10 kg ha-1produced a maximum number of leaves plant-1 (9) followed by 15 kg ha-1(8.8) where 0 kg ZN ha-1 resulted in (7.7). Similarly, Zn significantly affected plant height, while P and interaction between P and Zn levels were non-significant. The higher plant height (95.1 cm) was observed when P was applied at the rate of 75 kg ha-1, followed by 50 kg P ha-1 (93.6 cm). Higher plant height (95.8cm) was recorded when ZN was applied at the 5 kg ha-1 followed by 10 kg ha-1(95.1cm). Higher numbers of nodules (13.1) were observed with the application of 50 kg P ha-1 followed by 75 kg P ha-1 (12.3), while the lowest (10.6) nodules were observed in the control plot. P application at the rate of 25 kg ha-1 produced a higher grain yield than 75 and 50 kg ha-1 and Zn application at the rate of 5 kg ha-1 produced a higher grain yield than 10 and 15 kg ha-1. Therefore, a lower rate of P 25 kg ha-1 and Zn 5 kg ha-1 is recommended for a higher yield of mungbean in the agro-ecological condition of Mardan.
... The plots treated with 15 kg ha -1 Zn in combination with 50 kg P ha -1 Resulted in higher number of plants m -2 , more branches plant -1 , maximum leaves plant -1 and maximum plant height (cm), higher number of pods plant -1 , more grains pod -1 ,extra nodules plant -1 and higher grain yield (kg ha -1 ). The possible explanation for these increments might due to the Zn promotes nodulation and nitrogen fixation in leguminous crops (Masood, et al., 2022;Shahrajabian et al., 2022;Gough et al., 2021). Furthermore Zn is important in the formation of auxin, which increases cell volume and increases plant height (Wang et al., 2016;Oguchi et al., 2004). ...
Mung bean is one of the important Kharif pulses in Pakistan and is grown mainly for its edible seeds; therefore, fertilizers management is an important factor for improving mungbean growth and yield. A field experiment was conducted during the summer of 2013 at Palato Farm of the University of Agriculture Peshawar, Amir Muhammad Khan Campus Mardan, to determine the effect of phosphorus (P) and Zinc (Zn) on the yield and yield component of mungbean. The experiment consisted of four levels of P (0, 25, 50, and 75 kg ha-1) and four levels of Zn (0, 5, 10, and 15 kg ha-1). Data associated with the number of leaves and plant height illustrated that the higher number of leaves plant-1 (8.8) by an average was observed when P was applied at the rate of 75 kg ha-1 followed by 0 kg phosphorous (P) ha-1 (8.7) and Zn (Zn) application at the rate of 10 kg ha-1 produced a maximum number of leaves plant-1 (9) followed by 15 kg ha-1 (8.8) where 0 kg ZN ha-1 resulted in (7.7). Similarly, Zn significantly affected plant height, while P and interaction between P and Zn levels were non-significant. The higher plant height (95.1 cm) was observed when P was applied at the rate of 75 kg ha-1 , followed by 50 kg P ha-1 (93.6 cm). Higher plant height (95.8cm) was recorded when ZN was applied at the 5 kg ha-1 followed by 10 kg ha-1 (95.1cm). Higher numbers of nodules (13.1) were observed with the application of 50 kg P ha-1 followed by 75 kg P ha-1 (12.3), while the lowest (10.6) nodules were observed in the control plot. P application at the rate of 25 kg ha-1 produced a higher grain yield than 75 and 50 kg ha-1 and Zn application at the rate of 5 kg ha-1 produced a higher grain yield than 10 and 15 kg ha-1. Therefore, a lower rate of P 25 kg ha-1 and Zn 5 kg ha-1 is recommended for a higher yield of mungbean in the agro-ecological condition of Mardan.
Mung bean is one of the important Kharif pulses in Pakistan and is grown mainly for its edible seeds; therefore, fertilizers management is an important factor for improving mungbean growth and yield. A field experiment was conducted during the summer of 2013 at Palato Farm of the University of Agriculture Peshawar, Amir Muhammad Khan Campus Mardan, to determine the effect of phosphorus (P) and Zinc (Zn) on the yield and yield component of mungbean. The experiment consisted of four levels of P (0, 25, 50, and 75 kg ha ⁻¹ ) and four levels of Zn (0, 5, 10, and 15 kg ha ⁻¹ ). Data associated with the number of leaves and plant height illustrated that the higher number of leaves plant ⁻¹ (8.8) by an average was observed when P was applied at the rate of 75 kg ha ⁻¹ followed by 0 kg phosphorous (P) ha ⁻¹ (8.7) and Zn (Zn) application at the rate of 10 kg ha ⁻¹ produced a maximum number of leaves plant ⁻¹ (9) followed by 15 kg ha ⁻¹ (8.8) where 0 kg ZN ha ⁻¹ resulted in (7.7). Similarly, Zn significantly affected plant height, while P and interaction between P and Zn levels were non-significant. The higher plant height (95.1 cm) was observed when P was applied at the rate of 75 kg ha ⁻¹ , followed by 50 kg P ha ⁻¹ (93.6 cm). Higher plant height (95.8cm) was recorded when ZN was applied at the 5 kg ha ⁻¹ followed by 10 kg ha ⁻¹ (95.1cm). Higher numbers of nodules (13.1) were observed with the application of 50 kg P ha ⁻¹ followed by 75 kg P ha ⁻¹ (12.3), while the lowest (10.6) nodules were observed in the control plot. P application at the rate of 25 kg ha ⁻¹ produced a higher grain yield than 75 and 50 kg ha-1 and Zn application at the rate of 5 kg ha-1 produced a higher grain yield than 10 and 15 kg ha ⁻¹ . Therefore, a lower rate of P 25 kg ha ⁻¹ and Zn 5 kg ha ⁻¹ is recommended for a higher yield of mungbean in the agro-ecological condition of Mardan.
Astragalus is a medicinal herb which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for many years. Specifically, the root of the plant is made into many different forms of supplements, including liquid extracts, capsules, powders and teas. Its root contain many active plant compounds, which are believed to be responsible for its potential benefits. Saponins, polysaccharides, amino acids, flavonoids, organic acid, glycosides, alkaloid, and trace elements.In Traditional Chinese Medicine, Astragalus considers to used in the treatment of diabetes, mellitus, nephritis, leukemia, uterine cancer, besides its tonic agent and diuretic effects. Astragalus polysaccharide, the active component extracted from Astragali Radix which is the root of Astragalus membranaceus Bunge. Some uses of Astragalus are in kidney and urinary problems, digestion, liver problems, female reproductive system problems, muscular, skin problems, cardiovascular and blood, immune and lymphatic system, nervous system, respiratory system, and for some specific disease. It helps protect the body against various types of stress such as physical and emotional stress. Astragalus root including anti-aging properties, and also helping to prevent bone loss.It contains Astragalosides (antioxidants), which support the integrity of the respiratory tract. In addition, the polysaccharides found in Astragalus are known for their immune supporting properties. Astragalus herb also supports deep immune function by promoting normal levels of specific immune cells and aids in their function. Astragalus appears especially effective when immune function is stressed by environmental or endogenous challenges.In TCM, huang qi is never administered as a mono drug, but forms part of mixtures depending on the indications. Astragali Radix, the root of Astragalus membranaceus Bunge, has been reported to exert hepatoprotective effects, anti-oxidative effects, antiviral activity, anti-oxidative effects, anti-hypertensive effects, and immunostimulant properties; it has also been reported to strengthen superficial resistance, drainage action and new tissue growth. Although, TCM in China is partly integrating with western medicine science, researchers should learn more from TCM and carry out more studies.
Berseem clover (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) is one of the most important forage crop in Iran. In order to determine yield, yield components and qualitative characteristics of two cultivars of berseem clover in low input nitrogen farming in 2015 and 2016, two factors randomized complete block design with split plot combined analysis over years with four replications was used in Isfahan, Iran. Cultivars were Sacronomt and Multicut, and the nitrogen levels included 10, 40 and 70 kg ha-1. The higher values of plant height, total fresh yield, total dry yield, nitrate, protein, organic matter and ash was related to 2015 compare to 2016, however, the higher phosphorous, potassium, Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu was obtained in 2016. On the one hand, Sacromont cultivar had obtained the higher values of total fresh yield, total dry yield and Fe. On the other hand, the higher values of plant height, nitrate, protein, phosphorous, potassium, organic matter, ash, Mn, Zn and Cu was related to Multicut. Increasing the nitrogen fertilizer application rate from 10 to 70 kg N ha-1 resulted in numerically increased plant height, total fresh and dry yield. The maximum nitrate, protein, potassium, organic matter, ash and Zn was obtained in application of 70 kg N ha-1. Nitrate concentration in the crop increased with the addition of nitrogen fertilizer. While the highest values of phosphorous, Mn and Cu was achieved in application of 40 kg N ha-1. Nitrogen fertilizer management is one of the most important input in achieving high productivity World Scientific News 131 (2019) 197-206-198-and yield of berseem clover. The appropriate management of nitrogen is important in cropping systems and a balance between applied levels is essential for normal plant growth and human consumption. All in all, both forage crop production and quality is vital for successful animal production in sustainable agriculture systems. On the basis of the results of this study, it could be concluded that application of 70 kg N ha-1 is good for both cultivars.
Seed dormancy is one of the major problems in agricultural studies, especially for medicinal plants. Anise (Pimpinella anisum L.)is an important economic medicinal plant with dormant seeds and distributed only in its natural habitats. An experiment was conducted as a Factorial layout within a completely randomized design with four replications to evaluate the effects of some pretreatment factors on primary growth and germination characteristics of anise.Pre-chilling treatments were 0, 15, 30 and 45 days treatments and hormone treatments were GA3 (Gibberellic Acid), BA (benzyladenine), kinetin (Kinetinnetin), GA3+BA, GA3+kinetin BA+kinetin, GA3+BA+kinetin, KNO3, H2SO4 and distilled water as a control treatment.Prechilling treatment effects on coleoptile and radicle length, seedling length, germination percentage, mean time for germination, germination rate and seed vigor index showed significant differences (p<0.01) among them. Similarly,different hormone treatments also had significantly different influence on coleoptile and radicle length, seedling length, germination percentage, mean time germination, germination rate and seed vigor index. The highest germination percentage and germination rate was related to the usage of BA+ kinetin. The highest values for radicle length and uniformity of seed germination were achieved in BA and kinetin, respectively. Moreover, application of GA3+BA+kinetin had given the highest seed vigor index. It seems that application of exogenous GA3+KİNETİN and BA+kinetin concentration, which is provided mostly by chilling treatment, is the most effective factor for breaking the seed dormancy. On the basis of the results, usage of 45 days moist prechilling accompanied with application of GA3+kinetin and BA+kinetin in Esfahan cultivar was appropriate.
Ginseng is the most famous of the Chinese herbs throughout the world, and has been one of the most valued herb in China. Traditional Chinese medicine as an essential element of alternative and complementary medicine, advanced over thousands of years with its own distinctive arrangement of therapies, diagnostics theories and in Asian countries, particularly China. In most parts of the world, especially western countries, Ginseng has been largely employed in recent decades and has become renowned for its important function in treating and preventing so many diseases. Panax ginseng consisted of a number of active constituents, like ginsenosides, nitrogenous substances, carbohydrates, phytosterol, organic acids, essential oils, amino acids, peptidoglycans, it's repeated, nitrogen-containing compounds, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and other phenolic compounds. Ginsenosides are classified into two main groups known as protopanaxadiol (PPD) and protopanaxatriol (PPT). Pharmacological activities of ginseng extracts are effects on the central nervous system, antipsychotic action, tranquilizing effects, protection from stress ulcers, increase of gastrointestinal motility, anti-fatigue action, endocrinological effects, enhancement of sexual behaviour, acceleration of metabolism, or synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, RNA, and proteins. More clinical studies are necessary to uncover the numerous substances and their effects in ginseng that contribute to public health.
Allelopathy is the direct or indirect effect of plants through chemical compounds produced by the plants itself.. An experiment was conducted to study the allelopathic effect of plant organs extract (leaf, stem, root and total), and different rice extract densities (0%, 25%, 50% and 100%) on the germination and seedling growth of corn with four replications was used. Treatments included Different plant organ extract showed significant impact on germination rate, germination percentage, coleoptile weight, radicle weight, radicle length and coleoptile length of corn. Rice extract densities effect on germination percentage, coleoptiles weight, radicle weight, radicle length and coleoptiles length was significant. The interaction between rice extract and plant organs had significant effect on radicle weight and coleoptiles length. Control treatment (0% rice extract density) had obtained the highest germination rate, germination percentage, coleoptiles weight, radical weight, radical length and coleoptiles length. All experimental characteristics decreased with increase rice extract densities. The higher values for germination rate, germination percentage, coleoptile weight, radicle weight, radicle length and coleoptiles length was related to stem extract, followed by root, leaf and total extract. According to the results of this trial, it can be concluded that one of the reasons of the decrease of cultivated plants operation after rice, is the presence of allelopathic materials in herbaceous remains of this plant.
Sustainability is a long-term and wide-ranging concept that requires producers to look to the future as well as the present, and consider both global and local situations. Cultivation of Chinese medicinal herbs and usage of traditional Chinese medicine significantly helps to promote sustainable agricultural development via growing demand for organic and herbal products in different regions. Chinese medicinal plants, both endemic and widespread, must be preserved since these plants could be renewable source for new drugs. Some advantages of organic farming of medicinal plants are to produce material in optimal quality and sufficient quantity, to protect medicinal plants against pests and disease, to maintain the genetic diversity of medicinal plants, the enhance the biosynthesis of efficacious substances, to increase growth rate and biomass yield of medicinal plants. On the basis of economic prospects, organic farming may lead to increase more market opportunity, to maintain high market price, to achieve optimal quality and economic returns and to secure economic growth and social stability. Traditional Chinese medicine plays an important role in sustainable agriculture and food systems, it also offers a holistic approach to prevent diseases while making appropriate use of organic and herbal products especially growth by small-scale family farmers.
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) has been used as a spice and medicine for over 200 years in Traditional Chinese Medicine. It is an important plant with several medicinal, and nutritional values used in Asian and Chinese Tradition medicine. Ginger and its general compounds such as Fe, Mg, Ca, vitamin C, flavonoids, phenolic compounds (gingerdiol, gingerol, gingerdione and shogaols), sesquiterpenes, paradols has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat various symptoms including vomiting, pain, cold symptoms and it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-tumour activities, anti-pyretic, anti-platelet, anti-tumourigenic, anti-hyperglycaemic, antioxidant anti-diabetic, anti-clotting and analgesic properties, cardiotonic, cytotoxic. It has been widely used for arthritis,
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) as an important component of complementary and alternative medicine, evolved over thousands of years. Ginger and its general compounds such as Fe, Mg, Ca, vitamin C, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, sesquiterpenes, paradols has long been used as an herbal medicine to treat various symptoms including vomiting, pain, cold symptoms and it has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, anti-tumor activities, anti-pyretic, anti-platelet, anti-tumourigenic, anti-hyperglycaemic, antioxidant anti-diabetic, anti-clotting and analgesic properties, cardiotonic, cytotoxic. It has been widely used for arthritis, cramps, sprains, sore throats, rheumatism, muscular aches, pains, vomiting, constipation, indigestion, hypertension, dementia, fever and infectious diseases. Ginger leaves have also been used for food flavouring in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Pharmacological activities of ginseng extracts are effects on the central nervous system; antipsychotic action; tranquilizing effects; protection from stress ulcers; increase of gastrointestinal motility; anti-fatigue action; endocrinological effects; enhancement of sexual behaviour; acceleration of metabolism; or synthesis of carbohydrates, lipids, RNA and proteins. In Traditional Chinese Medicine, ginseng can help to maintain a healthy immune system. The obtained findings suggest potential of ginger extract as an additive in the food and pharmaceutical industries to have on organic life.
The use of biofertilizers is important for sustainable agriculture, and the use of nodule bacteria and endophytic actinomycetes is an attractive way to enhance plant growth and yield. This study tested the effects of a biofertilizer produced from Bradyrhizobium strains and Streptomyces griseoflavus on leguminous, cereal, and vegetable crops. Nitrogen fixation was measured using the acetylene reduction assay. Under N-limited or N-supplemented conditions, the biofertilizer significantly promoted the shoot and root growth of mung bean, cowpea, and soybean compared with the control. Therefore, the biofertilizer used in this study was effective in mung bean, cowpea, and soybean regardless of N application. In this study, significant increments in plant growth, nodulation, nitrogen fixation, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK) uptake, and seed yield were found in mung beans and soybeans. Therefore, Bradyrhizobium japonicum SAY3-7 plus Bradyrhizobium elkanii BLY3-8 and Streptomyces griseoflavus are effective bacteria that can be used together as biofertilizer for the production of economically important leguminous crops, especially soybean and mung bean. The biofertilizer produced from Bradyrhizobium and S. griseoflavus P4 will be useful for both soybean and mung bean production.
An appropriate sustainable agricultural technology system is an important technical support of the promotion of sustainable agricultural development. Properly management of residues can warrant the improvement of sustainability in crop productivity. The research was conducted in 2011 at Experimental Field of Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Isfahan, Iran. A strip layout randomized complete block design with three replications was used. The experiment was related to the effects of green manures of barley, rye, triticale and clover ,two levels of farm yard manure, namely, 30 and 60 t/ha and one treatment of chemical fertilizer as a control treatment were arranged in main strip and decomposition time of manures in two levels, one and four weeks after returning. Cover crop had significant influence on stem diameter, ear height, final plant height, leaf and stem fresh weights, stem and ear dry weights, fresh forage yield, nitrate leaf and protein content. Moreover, fresh forage yield, biological yield, of leaf nitrate, nitrate of stem, protein and ash were influenced by different managements. The highest plant height, leaf, stem fresh weight, ear and, stem and ear dry weight were related barley green manure treatment. The maximum stem diameter, plant height, ear fresh weight, leaf, stem and ear dry weights were obtained in the treatment of four weeks fo residue retention. The highest biological yield and fiber percentage of forage corn were observed in the treatment of residue retention for four weeks and crop residue incorporation, respectveily. Besides, there were no signfiicant differences for these both experimental characteristics between mentioned above treatments and residue burning. The highest fresh forage yield, protein and ash percentages were achieved in residue burning treatment. In conclusion, it seems that residue burning accompained with usage of triticale as a green manure was the best choice to achieve high quality, but for obtaining the highest fresh forage yield and biological yield of forage corn, triticale plantation can be replaced by barley.