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In the decade since the publication of the first edition of The Cambridge Handbook of Forensic Psychology, the field has expanded into areas such as social work and education, while maintaining the interest of criminal justice researchers and policy makers. This new edition provides cutting-edge and comprehensive coverage of the key theoretical perspectives, assessment methods, and interventions in forensic psychology. The chapters address substantive topics such as acquisitive crime, domestic violence, mass murder, and sexual violence, while also exploring emerging areas of research such as the expansion of cybercrime, particularly child sexual exploitation, as well as aspects of terrorism and radicalisation. Reflecting the global reach of forensic psychology and its wide range of perspectives, the international team of contributors emphasise diversity and cross-reference between adults, adolescents, and children to deliver a contemporary picture of the discipline.

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A. Holtzworth-Munroe and G. L. Stuart (1994) proposed that 3 subtypes (family only [FO], borderline–dysphoric [BD], and generally violent–antisocial [GVA]) would be identified using 3 descriptive dimensions (i.e., severity of marital violence, generality of violence, psychopathology) and would differ on distal and proximal correlates of violence. Maritally violent men (n = 102) and their wives were recruited from the community, as were 2 comparison groups of nonviolent couples (i.e., maritally distressed and nondistressed). Four clusters of violent men were identified. Three resembled the predicted subtypes and generally differed in the manner predicted (e.g., FO men resembled nonviolent groups; BD men scored highest on measures of dependency and jealousy; GVA men had the most involvement with delinquent peers, substance abuse, and criminal behavior; and both BD and GVA men were impulsive, accepted violence, were hostile toward women, and lacked social skills). The 4th cluster (i.e., low-level antisocial) fell between the FO and GVA clusters on many measures.
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Previous typologies of male batterers, including typologies developed by means of rational–deductive and empirical–inductive strategies, are reviewed. On the basis of this review, 3 descriptive dimensions (i.e., severity of marital violence, generality of the violence [toward the wife or toward others], and psychopathology/personality disorders) that consistently have been found to distinguish among subtypes of batterers are identified. These dimensions are used to propose a typology consisting of 3 subtypes of batterers (i.e., family only, dysphoric/borderline, and generally violent/antisocial). A developmental model of marital violence is then presented, and the previous literature is reviewed to examine how each batterer subtype might differ on variables of theoretical interest. Finally, some of the methodological limitations of previous typology research are reviewed, and suggestions for future work are offered.
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Stalking cases have long presented challenges for the criminal justice system. The end result has been low conviction rates for stalking offenses and frustration for stalking victims. To date, little is known regarding the perspectives of criminal justice and community advocacy agencies in working with stalking perpetrators and victims and how these could inform practice and future research. We conducted interviews with individuals in the different agencies involved in the Cuyahoga County, Ohio criminal justice system and well as the victim service organizations that work with stalking victims in the county. We collected information about their perceptions of stalking victims, what obstacles exist to addressing their needs, what changes are needed to increase the charging and prosecution rates for stalking cases, and how different system players draw distinctions between stalking and domestic violence offenders. Key findings include the significant discrepancy perceived between the public’s view of stalking and actual stalking behavior, the varied views of what constitutes a typical stalking victim, the wide range of needs of stalking victims, the challenges to charging and prosecuting stalking cases, and the burden placed on victims in these cases. We conclude by discussing obstacles that exist for victims seeking help from the criminal justice system for stalking behavior and provide suggestions for education and training that could lead to more effective stalking policy and practice. The study concludes with recommendations for future research on stalking.
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This 2020 report describes the key findings of a cross- national survey into image-based sexual abuse. This is a follow-up study to our 2016 Australian survey and extends the research to New Zealand and the United Kingdom. It provides data on respondents’ experiences of image- based sexual abuse victimisation as well as self-disclosed perpetration behaviours. At the time of writing, this research is the first cross-national survey into victimisation and perpetration of image-based sexual abuse.
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Stalking is a particular type of interpersonal aggression that is difficult to define because it incorporates a range of unwanted behaviours over a protracted period of time that often appear routine and harmless when considered on an incident-by-incident basis. Defining stalking is further complicated because people’s perceptions are integral to determining whether a particular course of conduct constitutes stalking, whether victims identify their own experiences as stalking, and whether support networks and law officials identify other people’s experiences as stalking. This chapter outlines the difficulties associated with defining and legislating against stalking, and reviews literature examining the influence of various personal and situational characteristics on perceptions of stalking. It then considers how perceptions differ from reality and why these differences matter.
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The staggering rate at which incidents of child pornography (CP) are increasing highlights the need for proactive approaches to this problem. Improving the efficacy and accessibility of interventions designed for individuals who view CP provides one means of addressing this growing concern. This article explores the self-identified motivations underlying the onset and maintenance of viewing Internet based CP among a sample of 20 men receiving treatment for this behavior. Our findings suggest two primary motivational pathways, namely a desire to achieve sexual gratification and/or an attempt to avoid emotional pain. We propose a behavioral facilitation process, initiated by extensive exposure to Internet pornography, to explain the use of CP in men without a sexual interest in children. We also discuss factors that appeared to facilitate the maintenance of this behavior. Our findings indicate that social skills deficits, maladaptive coping strategies, and a lack of sexual education require further investigation regarding their role in promoting or precluding desistance from viewing CP.
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Introduction Despite the high prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration by men who use substances, limited evidence exists about how best to reduce IPV among this group. Method A systematic narrative review with meta-analysis determined the effectiveness of interventions to reduce IPV by men who use substances. Inclusion criteria were randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials; adult heterosexual male IPV perpetrators where at least 60% of participants were alcohol and/or drug users; the intervention targeted IPV with or without targeting substance use (SU); outcomes included perpetrator and/or victim reports of IPV, SU, or both. Methodological quality was assessed. Results Nine trials ( n = 1,014 men) were identified. Interventions were grouped into (1) integrated IPV and SU interventions ( n = 5), (2) IPV interventions with adjunct SU interventions ( n = 2), and (3) stand-alone IPV interventions ( n = 2). Cognitive behavioral and motivational interviewing therapies were the most common approaches. Data from individual trials showed a reduction in SU outcomes in the short term (≤3months; n = 2 trials) and IPV perpetration at different time points ( n = 3 trials) for interventions compared with treatment as usual (TAU). Meta-analysis with integrated IPV and SU interventions showed no difference in SU ( n = 3 trials) or IPV outcomes ( n = 4 trials) versus SU TAU. Conclusions Little evidence exists for effective interventions for male IPV perpetrators who use substances. Outcomes in integrated interventions were not superior to TAU in meta-analysis. Future trials should consider the nature of the relationship between IPV and SU in intervention design, duration of intervention, and type and timing of outcome measures.
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Abstract In this paper we question Farrell and Birks’ assertion of the emergence of cybercrime as an invalid explanation for the crime drop. Alternatively to the “cybercrime hypothesis”, we propose two non-exclusive hypotheses that highlight the essential role of cyberspace as an environment that has shifted criminal opportunities from physical to virtual space, which reflects on crime trends. The first hypothesis posits that the more time spent at home by many young people due to video games and online leisure activities, among other factors, could have had an impact on the juvenile crime drop. The second hypothesis states that the appearance of cyberspace has led to a shift in opportunities from physical space to cyberspace. This could have led to an increase in property-related criminal activity connected to the Internet to the detriment of physical crime which would not be reflected in the statistics. Both premises are supported by empirical evidence.
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Aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of different batterer intervention programs in reducing violence for male IPV perpetrators. The Cochrane Handbook for Systemic Reviews of Interventions guidelines for the process of conducting systematic reviews and meta-analysis were followed. Pooled together, overall these various intervention programs are effective in reducing violence for male perpetrators of IPV comparing post to pre-intervention [(pooled estimate = -0.85; 95% Confidence Interval (CI) (-1.02 to -0.69)]. Exploratory subgroup analysis revealed that incorporating substance abuse or trauma components to the interventions yielded better results (substance abuse: CI = -3.20 to -1.08 and trauma: CI = -2.63 to -0.30) as compared to programs that did not have these components. Gender-role based batterer intervention programs yielded mixed results. Analysis of the three controlled studies with 223 participants comparing batterer programs to a minimal control group showed mixed effects. In conclusion, treatment strategies that are addressing highly comorbid issues such as substance abuse and trauma issues may work more effectively in preventing violence.
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Tools designed to measure the cognitions of individuals who engage in sexual activities with children over the Internet are either based on knowledge about men who had committed contact sexual offenses or cognitive phenomena not specifically associated to offending behaviors. Thus, there is no validated tool specifically designed to assess the offense-supportive cognitions of men who use the Internet to sexually offend children. This study developed and validated the Cognitions of Internet Sexual Offending (C-ISO) scale. A sample of 241 men with online and contact sexual as well as with nonsexual offenses completed the C-ISO scale and its psychometric properties, and latent structure was analyzed using both Classical Test Theory (CTT) and Item Response Theory (IRT), resulting in a final version containing 31 items. The analyses indicate that the C-ISO has excellent psychometric properties and discriminates men with online sexual offenses from those with contact sexual and nonsexual offenses. Implications of the findings for clinical practice and future research are discussed.
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The practice of creating and sharing sexual images via technological devices, known as sexting, has received crescent attention in the past years, especially due to the increase of adolescent engagement in this behavior. Although consensual sexting is not prima facie a crime, as some research has shown, it has the potential to be a risky behavior, and a threshold to get exposure to dangerous kinds of victimization as sextortion, online grooming or cyberbullying. In this context, teenagers represent a vulnerable group due to their limited ability of self-regulation, their high susceptibility to peer pressure, their technophilia, and their growing sexual curiosity. The present paper aims to review the scientific literature to analyze the relationship between mental health and sexting as a potentially risky behavior and its association with online victimization. The results and implications will be discussed.
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A meta-analysis was conducted to examine whether specialized psychological offense treatments were associated with reductions in offense specific and non-offense specific recidivism. Staff and treatment program moderators were also explored. The review examined 70 studies and 55,604 individuals who had offended. Three specialized treatments were examined: sexual offense, domestic violence, and general violence programs. Across all programs, offense specific recidivism was 13.4% for treated individuals and 19.4% for untreated comparisons over an average follow up of 66.1 months. Relative reductions in offense specific recidivism were 32.6% for sexual offense programs, 36.0% for domestic violence programs, and 24.3% for general violence programs. All programs were also associated with significant reductions in non-offense specific recidivism. Overall, treatment effectiveness appeared improved when programs received consistent hands-on input from a qualified registered psychologist and facilitating staff were provided with clinical supervision. Numerous program variables appeared important for optimizing the effectiveness of specialized psychological offense programs (e.g., arousal reconditioning for sexual offense programs, treatment approach for domestic violence programs). The findings show that such treatments are associated with robust reductions in offense specific and non-offense specific recidivism. We urge treatment providers to pay particular attention to staffing and program implementation variables for optimal recidivism reductions.
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Book
Stalking is now a major social and legal issue, as well as a clinical problem for mental health professionals. This absorbing and informative book draws on the authors' extensive experience of working with stalkers and their victims in the clinical setting. Topics covered include: • The growing recognition of stalking as an issue of public, legal and scientific concern • The definition, classification and epidemiology of stalking • The impact on victims, and how this may be reduced • Same-gender stalking, stalking by proxy, workplace stalking, and the stalking of professionals, such as doctors and teachers • The association of stalking with physical and sexual assault • Anti-stalking laws internationally • Support and practical advice for victims • Assessing and managing the stalker With many case histories, and an approach that is at once scholarly and highly practical, this will be the definitive guide and reference for anyone with a professional or academic interest in this complex behaviour.
Article
Stalking can be defined as a pattern of repeated, unwanted behaviours by one person to another. These behaviours may take the form of communicative intrusion, third-party contact and physical or sexual assault. The individual stalking behaviours experienced by victims have been found to differ in every case, specifically dependent on their stalker-victim relationship. Recent tragedies have shown that the police force generally underestimates the risk of ex-intimate stalking and harassment behaviours. This study aims to identify patterns of stalking behaviours from a victim’s perspective, specifically, whether there are any patterns of behaviour among the ex-intimate stalkers, in comparison to acquaintance or stranger stalkers. Information from the accounts of individuals who had reported unwanted experiences as a result of one of three stalker-victim relationships (ex-intimate, acquaintance or stranger) was extracted from the National Stalking Helpline database. Analyses were conducted on a sample of 1626 victims’ reports. One-way ANOVA and multiple logistic regressions were conducted to establish any common patterns of behaviour among the subgroups of stalkers and to ascertain which behaviours increased the odds of being categorised as an ex-intimate stalker. Results indicated that ex-intimate stalkers presented considerably more behaviours than acquaintance or stranger stalkers; some of which included third-party contact, criminal damage, physical and sexual assault. Results also indicated that ex-intimate stalkers presented more severe behaviours than the other subgroups. The majority of stalking behaviours were found to produce a statistically significant predictive contribution to being classed as an ex-intimate stalker. The findings in this study highlight that common misconception surrounding ex-intimate stalking still exists at every level of the Criminal Justice System. Results and implications for future research are discussed.
Preprint
Interest in the political economy of crime goes back to sociology’s founding fathers, but the nature of the relationship between restrictive social security systems and crime rates remains contested. This paper exploits exogenous variation in the introduction of Universal Credit to local areas across England and Wales to address this question. We first use fixed effects models, with a range of controls, to show that as Universal Credit enrolments increase in a given area, so does the crime rate. We then use interrupted time series analysis to show that, despite Universal Credit being rolled out at different times in different places, its introduction in each local area coincides with a positive shift in the trend in crime. Finally, we show that these patterns seem to apply beyond directly acquisitive property crimes. Borrowing from General Strain Theory and Routine Activities Theory, we suggest that changes to the pool of motivated offenders may help to explain these correlations.
Article
The literature examining gender differences in the aetiology and course of firesetting is limited. This study used a sample of 32 female firesetters and 64 male firesetter-controls, matched for age, to explore (dis)similarities across 45 variables. Multidimensional scaling and Chi-square tests showed that most female firesetting fit within a ‘Dysregulated Type’, wherein the firesetting arose in the context of personality disorder, most likely borderline personality disorder, self-harm, and mood dysregulation, and was associated with the motive to relieve or express frustration. Conversely, firesetting for revenge in the context of intimate partner violence, and firesetting to illegally profit financially, was indicated as more attributable to male firesetters. Increased psychopathology and the self-regulating function of firesetting among women diagnosed with borderline personality disorder were highlighted. The implications for formulating female firesetting were also discussed.
Article
The aim of this review was to analyse and synthesize the results of prior research into the cognitive distortions present in online child sexual exploitation material (CSEM) consumers. A systematic search of databases containing peer reviewed articles as well as grey literature was conducted for prior studies involving the cognitions of CSEM offenders using the SPIDER methodology. Twenty articles were identified for inclusion following a full text review and a Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) quality analysis. The instruments used were reviewed and summarized, and the level of endorsement present in the measured characteristics was analysed. The study's findings show that overall endorsement of cognitive distortions traditionally associated with contact sex offenders by CSEM offenders was low, and that existing sex offender instruments are largely ineffective tools for use with CSEM offenders. Newer assessment instruments built specifically for online offenders show promise, with overall moderate endorsements present in tools such as the Cognitions on Internet Sexual Offending scale (CISO), but additional research is needed to validate this approach.
Chapter
Psychopathy, the dark triad and related personality disorders may have negative consequences within organisations, individuals and society. There may, however, be positive benefits in terms of creativity and reaction to stressful circumstances and extreme environments. The developing body of research is beginning to address some elements of the paradoxes related to psychopathy. In this chapter, the focus is on both concluding the key themes emerging in the field and moreover, providing guidance for addressing and minimising the exposure to organisational, societal and individual threats that can easily become toxic to those caught in the psychopathic “tangled web”.
Article
Over the past two decades in the United States, a dramatic increase in access to the Internet has facilitated an increase in the production, viewing, and distribution of child pornography. In this context, forensic mental health professionals may be called on to estimate the risk of future violence, especially of contact sexual offenses, among individuals charged with online sexual offenses. We summarize demographic and clinical characteristics that differentiate online from contact and "mixed" offenders (those who commit both online and contact offenses), offending histories of these three groups, and the current state of knowledge regarding risk of progression from online-only to contact offending. Multiple studies suggest that online, contact, and mixed offenders demonstrate distinct profiles, and wide variations exist in the offense histories of online-offending groups. Longitudinal studies of individuals charged with online offenses are few in number and are mostly limited to detection of formal charges. Nevertheless, available studies suggest that most individuals who are charged with online offenses and who do not have histories of contact offenses are unlikely to engage in future contact offenses. Within the limitations of the current literature, we suggest guidance for the evaluation and treatment of online offenders.
Article
Background: The majority of studies investigating child pornography have focused on conceptualizing the problem and the harm of the crime, evaluating the risk for child pornography offending, or discuss preventive measures. Little is known about survivors of this type of crime. Objective: This research explores the relationship between child pornography victimization and psychopathology in adulthood. Specifically, we examined the contribution of emotional reactions at the time of the crime and shortly after (guilt, embarrassment and avoidance) on psychopathology among adult survivors of child pornography. Participants and setting: The study was conducted among 107 child pornography adult survivors, aged 18-63 (M = 39.48, SD = 12.31). All participants were sexually molested during the crime. Methods: An online survey was completed by a convenience sample of adult survivors of child pornography. Results: Findings indicate survivor's current age predicted current psychopathology symptoms. Survivor's emotional reactions of guilt and embarrassment at the time of the crime and shortly after were significantly associated with elevated psychopathology, above and beyond demographic characteristics and features of the crime. Conclusions: The present results suggest the way survivors of child pornography react to the crime might shape their mental health in the long term.
Book
This book provides a compelling account of the rigging of benchmarks during and after the financial crisis of 2007–08. Written in clear language accessible to the non-specialist, it provides the historical context necessary for understanding the benchmarks – Libor, Forex and the Gold and Silver Fixes – and shows how and why they have to be reformed in the face of rapid technological changes in markets. Though banks have been fined and a few traders have been jailed, justice will not be done until senior bankers are made responsible for their actions. Provocative and rigorously argued, this book makes concrete recommendations for improving the security of the financial services industry and holding bankers to account.
Conference Paper
Over the last decade, the illegal distribution of child sexual abuse imagery (CSAI) has transformed alongside the rise of online sharing platforms. In this paper, we present the first longitudinal measurement study of CSAI distribution online and the threat it poses to society's ability to combat child sexual abuse. Our results illustrate that CSAI has grown exponentially-to nearly 1 million detected events per month-exceeding the capabilities of independent clearinghouses and law enforcement to take action. In order to scale CSAI protections moving forward, we discuss techniques for automating detection and response by using recent advancements in machine learning.