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WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 1
A Cognitive Science Honors Thesis
THE COGNITIVE, PSYCHOLOGICAL, AND PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF WIM HOF’S
BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
Oliver J. Krentzman
University of California, Berkeley
December 1st, 2021
Advisor & First Reader: David E. Presti
Second Reader: Dacher Keltner
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 2
DEDICATION 3
ABSTRACT 4
INTRODUCTION 5
Background on Wim Hof 5
Wim Hof Breathing Method (WHBM) 6
Neuroendocrinology of WHBM 7
WHBM and Mitochondrial Function 9
Breathing Patterns and Emotion 11
WHMB Potentiates Shifts in Consciousness 12
ALTERNATIVE BREATHING PRACTICES 13
Anapanasati 14
Pranayama 14
Box Breathing 15
Holotropic Breathwork 16
METHODS 17
Motivation 17
Participants 18
Study Design 19
Data Analysis & Coding 20
RESULTS 22
Physical Sensations 22
Changes In Emotional States 23
Visions 24
Awe and Astonishment 24
Heightened Senses of Awareness 26
Feelings of Connection to the World 27
Future Applications for WHBM 28
DISCUSSION 29
Limitations 30
Future Research 31
Acknowledgments 31
Supplemental Video Presentation 32
REFERENCES 33
APPENDIX 40
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 3
DEDICATION
To Wim Hof
For being an inspiration to me and countless others.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 4
ABSTRACT
“Breath is the bridge which connects life to consciousness, which unites your body to your
thoughts.” Thich Nhat Hanh
The connection between changes in mental states and physical sensations mediated by
breathing is the topic of interest for this paper. Exerting control over breathing patterns is known
to potentiate shifts in biological and cognitive processes. The present study aims to investigate
one particular kind of breathing technique: Wim Hof Breathing Method (WHBM) to better
understand how this breathing technique influences cognitive, psychological, and physical states
relative to a paced breathing intervention (PBI) control group. Additionally, this study sought to
generate hypotheses for future researchers interested in the translational applications of breathing
exercises. Consequently, 10 participants (n = 10) were recruited for this randomized pilot study.
Several major differences between the WHBM group and PBI group were found, namely that
WHBM induced a heightened sense of awareness, a greater percentage of reported experiences
of awe, and higher levels of perceived physical buzzing or tingling compared to the PBI group.
Interestingly, the PBI group reported more shifts in emotional states and higher reports of feeling
relaxed/calm were observed. Based on responses from the participants, WHBM could be useful
in situations where people experience stress or anxiety as well as prior to meditation or physical
activity. Further research is needed to understand how breathing exercises such as WHBM could
best be used as self-administered tools for processing psychological challenges.
Key Words: Wim Hof Method (WHM), Wim Hof Breathing Method (WHBM), breathing
exercise, introspection, awe, conscious awareness, physical sensations, respiratory alkalosis,
neuroendocrinology, HPA axis, nervous system.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 5
INTRODUCTION
Background on Wim Hof
Wim Hof, also known as the Iceman, is a Dutch extreme athlete who is best known for
his ability to withstand freezing temperatures. Wim has set 20+ world records for physical
endurance activities such as swimming 60 meters underneath ice, running a half marathon
barefoot north of the Arctic Circle, and climbing mount Kilimanjaro in nothing but shorts (Hof,
2021a). Wim attributes his achievements to his Wim Hof Method (WHM) which consists
primarily of a combination of cold exposure and breathing exercises (Hof, 2021b). The WHM
allegedly has many physical and mental benefits such as boosting the immune system, improving
sleep, improving athletic performance, improving metabolic function, and providing the body
with more energy among other benefits (Hof, 2021c). However, not all of these claims have been
tested in peer reviewed studies. The present study focused on one aspect of the WHM - the
breathing portion, here referred to as Wim Hof Breathing Method (WHBM). Anecdotal evidence
supports the idea that WHMB can induce shifts in conscious awareness, emotional states,
cognition, and may even potentiate transcendent experiences. A transcendent experience could
be defined as an experience that “takes you out of yourself and convinces you of a larger life or
existence; in this sense, it means something close to ‘spiritual’" (Merriam-Webster, 2021.).
However, virtually no empirical research has been conducted to test such a hypothesis. This
exploratory study seeks to better understand a few of the cognitive, psychological, and physical
dimensions that WHBM may influence.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 6
Wim Hof Breathing Method (WHBM)
WHBM is characterized as cyclic hyperventilation followed by breath retention (Kox, et
al.). Engaging in WHBM stimulates the cardiovascular system and can induce respiratory
alkalosis resulting in a temporary state of hypoxemia (Kox, et al., 2014), (Citherlet, et al.).
Respiratory alkalosis is a biological condition that is defined when the body’s pH is elevated to
greater than 7.45 (Brinkman & Sharma, 2021). The pH scale is a quantitative measure of the
acidity or basicity of a liquid solution. Normal human physiological pH of the blood is between
7.35 and 7.45. The aforementioned peer-reviewed studies found that engaging in WHBM alters
the body’s normal pH to a more basic pH value of approximately 7.45 or higher. These findings
suggest that WHBM has the ability to make pH levels in the blood more basic.
WHBM consists of 30 deep inhalations and relaxed exhalations followed by a full
exhalation and a breath-hold (retention) for around one to three minutes. During the breath-hold,
an interesting biological phenomenon emerges: without air in the lungs, the breather does not
feel the urge to breathe for a prolonged period of time. This has been referred to as a paradox of
respiratory control known as hyperoxic hyperventilation (J. Dean et al.). It is a paradoxical
phenomenon because the brain wants the body to breathe but the body does not have to breathe
because the blood has been oxygenated and basified from WHBM. Once the need to breathe
arises, the breather is prompted to take a deep breath and hold that breath for 10–15 seconds.
That process is considered one round of WHBM. Wim Hof recommends people do at least three
rounds of this breathing exercise in one sitting in order to reap all the benefits that the method
has to offer (W. Hof, 2021d).
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 7
Neuroendocrinology of WHBM
The mammalian nervous system comprises two branches: the central nervous system
(CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS can be further divided into efferent
motor neurons which carry signals away from the CNS to initiate motor movement and afferent
sensory neurons which signal from the periphery back to the CNS (M. Catala & N. Kubis,
2013). In this way, the PNS is responsible for mediating the relationship between the
environment and oneself. In this section, I will discuss how WHBM has the potential to initiate
biological signaling cascades that can influence the autonomic nervous system effectively
activating the sympathetic nervous system.
Breathing is a function of the autonomic nervous system. Inspiration and respiration are
multilevel biological processes taking place within the reptilian complex of the brain,
specifically within the Medulla Oblongata, Pons, lower brainstem, and spinal cord (K. Ikeda et
al., 2016). Interestingly, other neural systems such as the limbic system and cortex also serve to
modulate breathing patterns via activation of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
responses (Homma & Masaoka, 2008).
During the breath-hold portion of WHBM, the Pontine and Medullary areas recognize
that the body has stopped breathing and that there is no air in the lungs. This biological stressor
to the brain results in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system (Kox, et al., 2014). The
specific mechanisms by which WHBM activates the sympathetic nervous system are described
here. During the breath-hold portion of WHBM, neural structures responsible for regulating
breathing alert the hypothalamus that the body is not breathing and has no air in the lungs. The
hypothalamus is a unique structure located deep within the diencephalon of the brain and is the
primary brain structure responsible for initiating hormonal cascades throughout the body (Z.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 8
Shahid et al., 2021). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is an endocrine pathway that
connects the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and adrenal glands. When activated in the case of
WHBM, hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) neurons secrete corticotropin-releasing
hormone (CRH) into the anterior pituitary, one of the central regulators of the endocrine system.
CRH binds to cognate receptors on corticotropes in the anterior pituitary which leads to the
secretion of adrenocorticotropic releasing hormone (ACTH) (J.P. Herman, et al., 2016). ACTH
travels to the adrenal cortex where it binds to melanocortin 2 receptors (MC2R) in the zona
fasciculata (M.E. Hadley& C Haskell-Luevano, 1999). Once ACTH binds, MC2 receptors
stimulate glucocorticoid production within adrenal zona fasciculata cells of the adrenal cortex.
At the same time, specialized catecholaminergic cells in the adrenal medulla called chromaffin
cells synthesize and release epinephrine (R.L.Perlman & M. Chalfie, 1997).
These are the molecular signaling pathways by which WHBM invokes the release of
cortisol and epinephrine respectively. The steroid hormones and catecholamines released in
response to WHBM have a wide range of effects on the body. However, they are primarily
responsible for influencing the autonomic nervous system to activate the sympathetic nervous
system (J. Sheng et al., 2021). A 2014 study conducted in the Netherlands found that epinephrine
levels in individuals trained in WHM were higher than the levels observed in first-time bungee
jumpers (Kox, et al., 2014), (D.J. van Westerloo, et al., 2011). This is one of the most prominent
pieces of evidence to support the idea that WHBM can significantly impact chemical processes
in the brain and body.
Epinephrine released by the adrenal glands tends not to cross the blood-brain barrier.
However, its release in the body ends up having a significant impact on chemical
neurotransmission in the brain. The biological cascade through which this happens is as follows:
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 9
epinephrine released by the adrenal medulla has binding affinity to adrenergic receptors located
on the Vagus Nerve (C.C. Chen & C.L. Williams, 2012). Epinephrine binds to receptors on the
vagus nerve which causes a signal to be sent up into the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) in the
brain. The NTS projects to a structure in the brain known as the locus coeruleus (LC) (C.C. Chen
& C.L. Williams, 2012). Axonal projections from LC neurons release norepinephrine (Schwarz
& Luo, 2015). The neurons in the locus coeruleus project to the basolateral amygdala (BLA)
where they secrete norepinephrine (J.G. McCall, et al., 2017). This results in a multitude of
neurochemical and cognitive implications including increased arousal, increased focus, and
strengthening of memory due to the fact that BLA sends projections to the hippocampus, the
brain's primary memory center.
It is clear that epinephrine released in the body has a direct impact on neurochemistry and
ultimately cognitive function. Since WHBM has the ability to stimulate the autonomic nervous
system by way of HPA axis activation, the preceding paragraphs clarify the biological basis for
the changes in mental states that are commonly experienced during WHMB.
WHBM and Mitochondrial Function
Once the air is inhaled into the lungs, oxygen is extracted and passed into the
bloodstream where it is carried throughout the body to support cellular functions. In one breath,
the lungs remove carbon dioxide from the bloodstream and release it during exhalation in a
process known as gas exchange (J.P. Butler & A. Tsuda, 2011). Once inhaled, oxygen is diffused
into specialized structures in the lungs called alveoli. Oxygen is transported through the alveoli
into the blood where it binds to hemoglobin proteins on red blood cells. Red blood cells then
carry oxygen throughout the body where it is needed for metabolic processes. Furthermore,
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 10
oxygen is essential for the production of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the mitochondria
within cells. In this section, I will discuss the role of mitochondria in cellular respiration and how
WHBM influences ATP generation within the mitochondria.
Mitochondria are cellular organelles that produce energy for biological processes.
Mitochondria are “ancient bacterial symbionts with their own mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA),
RNA, and protein synthesizing systems” (D. Wallace, 2006). The endosymbiotic theory states
that complex life forms have had mitochondria ever since the merging of archaea and bacteria
around 2 billion years ago (G.M. Cooper, 2000). Mitochondria can be likened to the “engines” of
the cell. This is in large part because mitochondria are responsible for producing adenosine
triphosphate (ATP), the body’s main energetic currency. ATP is responsible for supplying the
body’s cells with the energy they need to function properly. ATP is also responsible for
generating signals in the nervous system.
Mitochondria are double membraned organelles, meaning they have an outer membrane
and an inner membrane. Their smooth outer membrane is highly permeable to different types of
molecules going in and out, whereas the inner membrane, known as the cristae, is less permeable
than the outer membrane (G.M. Cooper, 2000). The inside of the mitochondria is called the
mitochondrial matrix. The mitochondrial matrix is the site of many metabolic reactions and is
where the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is located (H.S. Sherratt, 1991). ATP synthesis occurs
within the electron transport chain of the mitochondria. This transport chain is made up of a
series of enzymes whose role is to pass electrons along the chain. As electrons are passed from
one enzyme to the next, positively charged protons are pumped out of the mitochondrial matrix
and into the inter-membrane space (IMS). The IMS consists of the space between the inner and
outer membranes. These positively charged protons accumulating in the IMS will eventually
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 11
create a proton gradient and will want to diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix where there
is a lower concentration (LD Osellame, et al., 2012). These protons go on to diffuse into the
intercellular space through ATP synthase which acts as a rotary molecular motor. This
mechanism is known as the stator. As protons move through the stator, the rotor, rod, and
catalytic knobs begin to spin causing conformational changes that combine ADP and phosphate
to form ATP (LD Osellame, et al., 2012).
The amount of oxygen we breathe has an impact on the amount of ATP production
possible within the cells. Thus cyclic hyperventilation and or hyperoxygenation exercises such as
WHBM will lead to greater O2 availability for the mitochondria which may lead to higher levels
of ATP production.
Breathing Patterns and Emotion
Without conscious thought or intervention, breathing will assume a pattern depending on
the levels of physical arousal, metabolic needs, and environmental factors. It is known that
breathing patterns are correlated with experienced emotions (F.A. Boiten, et al., 1994), (Homma
& Masaoka, 2008). According to researchers from Showa University School of Medicine in
Tokyo Japan, “Autonomic breathing is not only controlled by metabolic demands but also
constantly responds to changes in emotions, such as sadness, happiness, anxiety, and fear.”
(Homma & Masaoka, 2008). The relationship between breathing and emotions on the level of the
brain consists of a complex interaction between the cerebral cortex, limbic system, medullary
and pontine areas (Y Masaoka, et al., 2014) (K. Ikeda et al., 2016).
In a 2017 Mini review, Dr. Anjali Sarkar explains that certain emotional states will elicit
a particular breathing pattern. Similarly, adopting a particular breathing pattern can also
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 12
influence emotional states. This intricate bi-directional psychosomatic connection between the
breath and emotion “is essential to synchronize metabolism, energetic and other physiological
parameters of homeostasis with changes in the environment” (A.A Sarkar, 2017). In this way, we
see that emotions and physical arousal have the ability to alter breathing patterns. Similarly,
consciously altering breathing patterns will affect perceived emotions and physical arousal. The
way that this manifests is that people experiencing emotions with negative valence tend to
naturally fall into a pattern of shallow breathing. On the other hand, people experiencing
emotions with positive valence tend to take deeper breaths. The relationship between breathing
and emotional states is an exciting area of research that would benefit from further investigation.
WHMB Potentiates Shifts in Consciousness
Here I define consciousness as “the fact of awareness by the mind of itself and the
world”. The concept of consciousness has long been a topic of interest to scientists, writers, and
philosophers alike. In neuroscience, there is much debate about which regions of the brain give
rise to consciousness. The current scientific consensus is that the cerebral cortex is deeply tied to
consciousness (E. Sohn, 2019), (C. Koch, 2018). Yet there is not a clear agreement as to the parts
of the brain that give rise to consciousness. I am particularly fascinated with a region in the brain
known as the reticular activating system (RAS). The RAS is part of the reticular formation which
is found in the mammalian vertebrate brainstem. The RAS is involved in the coordination of the
sleep-wake cycle and wakefulness (J.H. Arguinchona & P. Tadi, 2021). Due to its role in
regulating wakefulness and sleep, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the RAS may be a key
region that gives rise to consciousness.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 13
Although there is still much unknown about the neurobiological correlates that give rise
to consciousness, it is well understood that there is a connection between consciousness and
breathing. Simply put, without the biological process of respiration, humans could not sustain
life. Not only is breathing responsible for supporting life but it has also been regarded as the
bridge of synchrony between the mind and body.
The connection between breath and consciousness has psychological, physiological,
religious, and spiritual implications. Throughout ancient and modern history cultures all around
the world have placed symbolic significance on the breath. The Ancient Egyptians wrote the
“Books of Breathing” which were fundamentally a funerary text that purported to enable the
deceased to continue existing in the afterlife. Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism
have placed great emphasis on the value of breathing practices and often couple breathing with
things such as yoga, tantra, and meditation.
Contemporary western scientific research has primarily focused on the physiological
effects of breathing. Little research has been done exploring the psychological impacts of
altering breathing patterns. Thus, this exploratory study sought to gain insight into the cognitive,
psychological, and physical effects of WHBM.
ALTERNATIVE BREATHING PRACTICES
Some of the most well-known breathing techniques practiced today include Anapanasati,
Pranayama breathing, Box Breathing, Holotropic Breathwork, and of course, Wim Hof’s
Breathing Method. In this section, I explore some popular breathing practices beyond WHBM.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 14
Anapanasati
Anapanasati is a form of mindfulness breathing initially taught by Gautama Buddha. This
meditative breathing is largely focused on cultivating a full awareness of the physical sensations
the breath causes in the body during meditation. Traditionally Anapanasati is practiced while
sitting in a lotus position and with the spine upright. During meditation and upon inhalation, the
breather directs their attention to the in-breath, paying close attention to the physical sensation of
the air coming into the body. Upon exhalation, the breather directs attention to the out-breath and
becomes aware of the sensations of air leaving their lungs.
At its core, Anapanasati is about developing a focused awareness of the physical
sensations caused by breathing. Furthermore, a central goal of practicing Anapanasati is to train
the mind to focus on one thing at a time. There are many proposed benefits to this kind of
breathing practice such as improved focus, internal calmness, reduced anxiety, and overall
improved mental health.
In 2019, researchers in India conducted a study to determine the effect of Anapanasati
meditation on individuals with moderate anxiety. They had a total of 112 participants who were
split into two groups: one group practiced Anapanasati for one hour a day for 6 months while the
control group did not perform any type of meditation. The researchers found that after six
months of practicing Anapanasati, participants significantly decreased their scores on the
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) which is a survey to measure levels of anxiety. The control
group did not have significant differences in STAI scores. (B. Sivaramappa, et al., 2019).
Pranayama
Eastern mystics and spiritual teachers have long discussed the profound connection
between consciousness and breathing. Pranayama is one form of breathing that is regarded as
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 15
having beneficial implications for the body and mind (P. Sengupta, 2012), (R. Jayawardena, et al.
2020). The origins of this ancient Vedic practice of Yogic breathing can be traced back to the
Maitrayaniya Upanishad written during the 1st millennium BCE (P. Sengupta, 2012).
In Sanskrit, Prana means life force and Yama means mastery or control. Together they
could be understood as the praxis of controlling life force through breathing. Pranayama has
been an integral part of the yogic tradition for thousands of years and was referenced in the
Bhagavad Gita and in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali (P. Sengupta, 2012). There are many different
kinds of Pranayama breathing techniques, some of the most popular include: Dirga ‘Three-Part
Breath’, Nadi Shodhana ‘Alternate Nostril Breathing’, Shitali ‘Cooling Breath’, Ujjayi ‘Ocean
Breath’, Bhramari ‘Humming Bee Breath’, Bhastrika ‘Bellows Breath’, Viloma ‘Against The
Wave’, Kapalabhati ‘Skull Shining Breath’ & ‘Breath Of Fire’. Each of these Pranayama
techniques has specific purposes and is used with intention in specific situations. With that said,
all Pranayama breathing techniques share the foundation of inhalation, retention, and exhalation.
Box Breathing
Box Breathing, also known as square breathing, is a technique that has been popularized
by former Navy SEAL Mark Divine. Box breathing is a fairly simple breathing technique that is
used by members of the military, athletes, and mindfulness practitioners alike. This breathing
technique is said to improve focus and bring a sense of groundedness to the practitioner. The
technique itself consists of 4 parts all of which are done rhythmically: inhalation, hold,
exhalation, hold, and this pattern repeats. The standard is for each of these phases to last 4
seconds. In other words, inhale for a count of 4, hold for a count of 4, exhale for a count of 4,
hold for a count of 4, and repeat. Box Breathing can be done for longer than 4 seconds as well.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 16
Some prefer doing 10-second box breathing. The important thing is to stay consistent with the
in-breath, out-breath, and holding times. This breathing technique is alleged to be especially
useful when in stressful situations where mental calmness is necessary. However, more research
is needed to better understand the benefits of Box Breathing.
Holotropic Breathwork
Another kind of deep breathing is known as Holotropic Breathwork, this breathing
practice was developed by Czech psychiatrist Stanislav Grof, M.D., Ph.D. and wife Christina
Grof Ph.D. as a way to induce therapeutic, non-ordinary states of consciousness (N. Crowley,
2005), (MAPS, 2014). From the late 1970s to the mid-1990s, Stan and Christina traveled the
world facilitating Holotropic Breathwork workshops and training programs for more than 25,000
people (MAPS, 2014). Holotropic breathing offered a new means of self-exploration in the
domain of psychotherapy. This breathing technique utilizes deep rhythmic breathing and music.
The Grofs created Holotropic breathing as a way to access transpersonal knowledge while
simultaneously tapping into the deepest parts of the human psyche.
Transpersonal Psychology is a branch of psychology supporting ideas that were first put
forth by William James, Carl Jung, Roberto Assagioli, and Abraham Maslow among others.
According to Dr. Stan Grof, Transpersonal Psychology “recognizes and accepts spirituality as an
important dimension of the human psyche and of the universal scheme of things. It also studies
and honors the entire spectrum of human experience, including various levels and realms of the
psyche that become manifest in non-ordinary states of consciousness”(S. Grof, 2007).
Holotropic Breathwork is typically done in a 12-hour workshop and consists of 3-hour
breathing sessions. However, it is also possible to do Holotropic breathing in a shorter window of
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 17
time. During a breathing session, it is common to experience a range of emotions and physical
sensations as well as visual hallucinations.
This breathing technique holds massive psychological healing potential if done correctly;
it can also be dangerous if done incorrectly. Holotropic Breathwork is traditionally done with a
trained facilitator and in the context of the proper set and setting (S. Grof, nd).
METHODS
Motivation
During challenging times in life, I have found that breathing is one of the only things we
can consistently rely on. Our breath is like a bridge connecting the physical body with the mind
and spirit. Practicing breathwork has been an integral part of my life. I am constantly learning
and experimenting with different kinds of breathwork. I have enjoyed teaching my friends and
family breathing techniques. I have received a lot of positive feedback on the ways that these
breathing techniques have significant benefits when done in times of stress and or anxiety. More
concretely the breathing techniques seem to be helpful by improving people’s ability to navigate
difficult psychological terrain by offering the breather a sense of emotional detachment.
Around this time in my life, I was taking Dr. David E. Presti’s class Brain, Mind, and
Behavior at the University of California, Berkeley. I spoke with Dr. Presti about my interest in
breathing exercises and how I’ve been experimenting with different forms of breathing
techniques and thought they may have real clinical utility and practical translational applications.
After several discussions during office hours, the idea emerged to design an experiment to
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 18
explore the effect of a breathing technique on cognition, psychology, and physical sensations of
individuals.
Among all the breathing techniques that I have learned, there were two which stood out
to me the most for this experiment: Holotropic Breathwork and Wim Hof’s Breathing Method. I
felt that Holotropic Breathwork would be fascinating to study since it is known to dramatically
alter states of consciousness. However, this breathing technique is so profound that it is meant to
be done with the support of a facilitator who has gone through Grof Transpersonal Training.
I decided to use WHBM for my study because it was one of the most accessible
techniques that people could do at home during the COVID-19 pandemic. Additionally, it is a
profound breathing technique with the potential to significantly alter mental states. After
deciding on WHBM I searched for the most effective and easy-to-follow video tutorials on
Youtube. I came across a video titled Guided Wim Hof Method Breathing, this video was posted
by Wim Hof himself. I reached out to the Hof family and they kindly granted me permission to
use their video for my study.
Participants
This study received Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval from The UC Berkeley
Committee for Protection of Human Subjects (OPHS) protocol #2021-01-13983. Participants
were college students between the ages of 18 and 24. Participants were recruited through word of
mouth and Slack announcements. Although I originally set out to recruit breathwork naive
participants, five of the ten participants had some prior experience with breathing exercises.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 19
Study Design
Once recruited for the study, participants were directed to a Berkeley Qualtrics form
where they were asked to answer questions (and self-exclude if they met exclusion criteria).
Exclusion criteria were for all persons who are suffering from or have had a history of
cardiovascular disease. Additionally, any persons currently sick with COVID-19 or other
illnesses were asked to self-exclude. Although neither of these conditions poses any significant
health risks while doing the breathing intervention; I felt it would be best to keep the sample to
healthy college students to mitigate any possible risks.
Once on the Qualtrics form, participants read information about the identity and
affiliation of the researchers, a description of the study procedures and how the data collected
will be used, a statement about how research participation is voluntary, contact information for
any questions the participants may have, and lastly the CPHS protocol ID number. Participants
needed to agree to the terms of the study in order to click through to the next page and begin the
survey.
After completing the first set of questions, participants clicked through to the next page
where they will be randomly assigned via Qualtrics random generator to one of two groups: the
WHBM group or the PBI control group. Both groups had the same set of questions, the only
difference was the video to which they were assigned. The intervention video (Youtube, W. Hof,
2019) prompted participants to follow along in Wim Hof’s guided breathing practice. The PBI
control video (Youtube, K. Jacobowski, 2020) prompted participants to follow along to a paced
breathing video. Written approval to use both of these videos was received from the respective
owners.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 20
After completion of the guided breathing exercises, participants were presented with a
second set of questions which I created in an effort to better understand how these breathing
interventions changed the participants' cognitive, psychological, and physical states.
Additionally, participants were asked how they think the breathing exercises could be used
translationally.
Figure 1: Experiment Design
Data Analysis & Coding
Upon completion of the experiment, after all the data was collected, I analyzed all
responses from the participants and coded their responses using inductive and deductive
methods. With the goal of finding common themes and recurrences among their responses. The
specific coding categories I used are displayed below in Figure 2. My main goal with creating
these coding categories was to be able to identify instances where WHBM outcomes differed
from the PBI control group’s outcomes. In this way, I was able to see specifically how these two
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 21
groups’ cognitive, psychological, and physical outcomes differed from each other. Using this
coding technique as a method of data analysis was helpful in that it allowed me to visually
differentiate between the responses of participants.
I took the information obtained from coding the data and created bar charts to represent
the various dimensions observed. Using Google Sheets, I created charts for the respective
dimensions and plotted the data. These charts were helpful in understanding the main
conclusions of this study.
Figure 2: Inductive and Deductive Codes Used to Analyze Data
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 22
RESULTS
All data collected was from college-aged participants who volunteered to take part in the
study. Participants were told that the study was to learn more about how breathing techniques
affect mental states. Some of the participants had previous experience doing breathing exercises
while others did not. Participants’ data were analyzed using inductive and deductive coding
techniques. See Figure 2 for codes. After inductive and deductive themes were established, the
data was organized into Google sheets for graph creation and data visualization. I originally
hypothesized that there would be several differences between the two groups with regard to the
physical sensations, changes in emotional states, visions, experiences of awe, and subjective
feelings of heightened awareness. The findings are as follows.
Physical Sensations
Physical sensations such as tingling in the hands and feet may be felt when doing deep
breathing exercises (W. Hof, 2021d). My original hypothesis was that participants in the Wim
Hof group would report more perceived physical sensations compared to the control group. This
hypothesis was confirmed within the “tingly/buzzing” dimension as three of the four participants
in the WHBM group reported these sensations. Interestingly 100% of participants in the control
group reported feeling more relaxed after the paced breathing intervention. One participant in the
PBI control group reported the breathing made them feel “slightly tingly”. The main conclusions
to be drawn from this portion of the study are that WHBM appeared to have a stimulatory effect
on the body. This finding is in line with other evidence that states WHBM influences the
autonomic nervous system to stimulate a sympathetic nervous system response. The PBI control
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 23
group appeared to have a sedating effect on the body, possibly by activating a parasympathetic
nervous system response.
Figures 3 & 4: Reported physical sensations in WHMB group and PBI control group
Changes In Emotional States
My original hypothesis was that WHBM would shift participants' focus away from their
thoughts and into the physical sensations of their bodies thus enabling participants to distance
themselves from their emotions. Three of the four participants assigned to the WHBM group
reported a shift in their emotional state as a result of the breathing technique. Interestingly, five
out of the six participants (83%) in the control group reported that the breathing intervention
changed their emotional state. It is clear that focusing on breathing, whether in the case of
WHBM or paced breathing, has the ability to shift perceived emotional states. Due to the
limitations of the sample size, more research is needed to draw further conclusions on the
significance of breathwork-mediated changes in emotional states.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 24
Figure 5: Changes in Emotional States
Visions
I hypothesized that participants in the WHBM group may experience mild visual
hallucinations as a result of the breathing technique. This hypothesis was drawn from the fact
that visual hallucinations are frequently reported in Holotropic Breathwork. The hypothesis that
WHBM may induce some form of visual hallucinations was not supported by the data. No
participant in either group reported experiencing visions as a result of their respective breathing
intervention.
Awe and Astonishment
Awe can be understood as “an emotional response to perceptually vast stimuli that
transcend current frames of reference” (Stancato & Keltner, 2021). With this definition in mind, I
hypothesized that the participants in the WHBM group would experience higher levels of
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 25
self-reported awe relative to the control group. I drew this inference based on my own experience
and the reports of others who have done WHBM. The results from the experiment revealed that
two of the four participants in the WHBM group reported experiencing a sense of awe or
astonishment as a result of the breathing intervention. Whereas five of the six participants in the
PBI control group reported no sense of awe or astonishment and one participant reported:
“Maybe/Not Sure”.
This is a significant finding when it comes to better understanding awe and how it can be
induced. Although only half of the participants in the Wim Hof group experienced awe or
astonishment, this was a pilot study with a small sample size. Future research is warranted for
further investigation into the reliability of the WHBM to induce a sense of awe.
Figure 6: Reported experiences of astonishment or awe following breathing interventions
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 26
Heightened Senses of Awareness
A heightened sense of awareness refers to greater alertness of one’s body, environment,
and thoughts. I hypothesized that the participants in the WHBM group would experience greater
levels of self-reported heightened senses of awareness relative to the PBI control group. This
hypothesis was drawn from personal experiences with WHBM as well as reports from family
and friends. This is perhaps the most significant findings of the study: Four of the four (100%) of
participants in the WHBM group reported experiencing heightened levels of awareness. Whereas
in the PBI control group only two of the six (33.3%) participants reported experiencing
heightened levels of awareness.
This is a significant finding since one of the exploratory purposes of this study is to
determine where WHBM may have translational applications. Given that 100% of the
participants in the Wim Hof group reported experiencing a heightened sense of awareness, I
conclude that WHBM would be useful in times of stress when a greater awareness of oneself is
beneficial. Alternatively, WHBM-induced heightened awareness may be useful in situations
where focused concentration is required such as prior to an exam. Further research into the
translational applications of Wim Hof’s breathing technique would be valuable.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 27
Figure 7: Reports of heightened senses of awareness following breathing interventions
Feelings of Connection to the World
Anecdotal evidence led me to the hypothesis that WHBM may lead people to feel more
connected with the world around them. I created a metric on the post-intervention survey to test
this hypothesis. The results revealed that some people in both groups experienced feeling a deep
connection to the world around them as a result of the breathing exercises. Interestingly, in the
WHBM group, 50% of participants responded “Yes” to feeling a deep sense of connection to the
world around them. Whereas only 16% of participants in the control group responded yes to the
same question.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 28
Figure 8: Reports of feeling connected to the world as a result of breathing interventions.
Future Applications for WHBM
One of the central purposes behind this study was to search for potential translational
applications of WHBM. The results revealed that one such application may be to use WHBM as
a self-administered coping intervention for individuals experiencing negative affect. Prior
research has shown that breathing-based interventions have clinical utility as an alternative to
assist those suffering from mood disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD) and
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (A. Sharma, et al., 2017).
Based on the responses collected, participants in the WHBM group unanimously reported
that the breathing technique could be used as a behavioral intervention for de-stressing,
deepening relaxation, and coping with anxiety. This is an interesting conclusion when contrasted
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 29
with the fact that WHBM seems to induce a stimulatory response as opposed to a relaxation
response (See Figures 3 & 4). Participants in the WHBM group also suggested that this breathing
technique could be useful prior to meditation or prior to exercise. Participants in the control
group reported that their paced-breathing intervention could be useful for dealing with anxiety as
well as for relaxation. These conclusions are supported by the data.
This study has shown that breathing practices are a powerful intervention for altering
subjective experiences of conscious awareness. WHBM was shown to have stimulatory effects
on the body. Whereas the PBI was shown to have relaxing effects on the body. Finally, both
breathing techniques share one quality in common which is their potential to de-stress the
individual however the way that these techniques go about reducing stress appears to be vastly
different.
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to explore how WHBM alters cognitive, psychological,
and physical states. Collectively, these qualitative variables have the ability to alter an
individual's conscious awareness. Additionally, this study crowd-sourced ideas for future
researchers interested in studying the translational applications of WHBM. Ten participants (n =
10) were recruited for this empirical pilot study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of
two groups: WHBM group or PBI group. Both groups followed an identical experimental
protocol with the exception of the video to which they were assigned. The WHBM group was
assigned to a guided Wim Hof breathing video (Youtube, W. Hof, 2019) and the control group
was assigned to a slow-paced breathing video with subtle background music (Youtube, K.
Jacobowski, 2020). Both videos were approximately the same duration (~10 minutes).
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 30
The biggest conclusion of this pilot study was that WHBM appears to induce a
heightened sense of conscious awareness compared to the slow-paced rhythmic breathing
presented to the PBI control group. Stated another way, participants in the WHBM reported
feeling more cognitively aware of their thoughts and physical sensations relative to the PBI
control group. This finding is in line with the original hypothesis that WHBM would increase
conscious awareness. Interestingly, the PBI control group reported higher levels of emotional
shifts as a result of their assigned breathing video. This conclusion ties back to the research
discussed earlier in this paper in the section titled Breathing Patterns and Emotions which states
that emotions and breathing patterns are intimately intertwined.
Here for the first time, I conclude that WHBM could be used in situations where an
individual would like to deepen their awareness. Examples of these situations may include, prior
to a test or exam, prior to meditation, and prior to exercise. Additionally, the data from this study
supports the idea that WHBM has translational utility as an emotion-distancing strategy due to
the fact that it can deepen awareness of one’s internal landscape. WHBM may help an individual
to separate emotions and facts from any given unpleasant situation they may be experiencing.
Furthermore, the results from this study remain uncertain as to the large-scale potential for
WHBM to induce states of awe. However, it was confirmed that the control breathing video was
not sufficient to induce awe. Lastly, neither breathing intervention produced altered states
sufficient to induce visual hallucinations.
Limitations
There were several limitations to this study. The first of which was the sample size. Since
this was a “pilot study” I only recruited 10 participants. Future researchers may want to have a
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 31
much larger sample size, around 50 + participants would yield more data and ultimately more
reliable conclusions. Another limitation to this study was that the control video had music
playing in the background - something that the WHBM video did not have. Lastly, I originally
sought to recruit breathwork naive individuals, however half of the participants had some
previous experience with breathing exercises.
Future Research
The last question that participants were asked was pertaining to their thoughts of how
breathwork could have translational and or clinical applications. Participants’ responses ranged
from things such as “Stressed people” to “Prior to exercise” to “Prior to meditation.”. However,
the common theme among the WHBM group was that the breathwork could be best used as a
relaxation technique for de-stressing. Similarly, the participants in the PBI control group
concluded that their breathing video would have the most utility if used as a means to deal with
stress and anxiety. Interestingly both groups reported that their respective breathing technique
could be used as a means to relax and destress. However, the means by which the two breathing
techniques induce less stress appear to be vastly different. The WHBM group was unique in that
the participants experienced higher levels of perceived awareness as well as higher levels of
perceived awe relative to the PBI control group. Lastly, both groups experienced a shift in their
emotional state as a result of the breathing techniques. Future researchers may be interested in
studying the qualitative aspects of breathwork-induced shifts in emotional states.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. David E. Presti for guiding me and
supporting me throughout the process of writing my first thesis. I would also like to express my
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 32
gratitude to Dr. Dacher Keltner for his advice and support with this project. Additionally, I would
like to thank Wim Hof and Isabelle Hof for giving me permission to use their Youtube video for
my study. I would also like to thank Katie Jacobowski, LCPC (@mindfulnesswithkatie) for
giving me permission to use her guided breathing Youtube video as the video for the PBI control
group for my study. Lastly, I would like to thank all the participants of the study for their time
and interest in exploring alternative breathing techniques.
Supplemental Video Presentation
On November 10th, 2021 at the University of California, Berkeley, I presented my
research on Wim Hof Breathing Method to a group of friends and fellow students. In this
presentation, I talk a bit about the nervous system and then go into the specific research I
conducted for my Honors Thesis project.
Link to video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0abVjZXmOw
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 33
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WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 40
APPENDIX
Questionnaire used for the experiment
Qualitative Cognitive and Psychological Implications of the Wim Hof Breathing Method
CPHS Protocol Number: 2021-01-13983
Overview
You are being invited to participate in a research study.
This study seeks to better understand how Wim Hof's breathing method impacts the quality of
mental states.
This survey will take around 30 minutes to complete. Please complete this survey all in one
sitting without breaks.
Introduction and Purpose
My name is Oliver Krentzman, I am an undergraduate student at the University of California,
Berkeley. This year I have been working on an Honors thesis project within the undergraduate
Cognitive Science program. My faculty advisors are Dr. David E. Presti in the department of
Molecular & Cellular Biology and Dr. Dacher Keltner in the department of Psychology.
Together, we have designed this study in an effort to better understand the changes in mental
states produced through Wim Hof's breathing method.
Procedure
If you agree to participate in my research study, you will be randomly assigned to one of two
groups: the intervention group or the control group. You will be asked to answer several
questions, then watch and participate in a guided breathing video. You will be randomly assigned
to a Wim Hof breathing video or a paced breathing video. For the Wim Hof group, you will be
shown how to complete the breathing exercises which consist of 3 rounds of 30 breaths followed
by exhalation and hold. For the control group, you will be asked to sit quietly and breathe
normally for 10 minutes while following along to a guided video. After completing the breathing
video, you will be asked to answer several open-ended questions about your experience which
will help us gain clarity about any perceived changes in mood and psychological states.
Additional Information
We recommend that you do the breathing exercises on an empty stomach, sitting comfortably,
and in a place where you will not be distracted. We kindly ask that you focus exclusively on your
breathing for the duration of the video. Please do not check your phone, or engage in anything
that will distract you from breathing.
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 41
Exclusion criteria
All persons who are suffering from or have had a history of cardiovascular disease will be asked
to self-exclude from this study. Additionally, any persons currently sick with COVID-19 or any
other illness will be asked to self-exclude. Although neither of these conditions pose any
significant health risks with regards to the breathing intervention, we would like to keep the
sample as healthy college age students to avoid any potential risks.
Risks
The potential physical effects associated with the breathing technique are mild dizziness, tingling
in the hands and feet, changes in perceived body temperature, and possible discomfort. These are
non-harmful effects of the breathing technique that you may or may not experience and which
will subside shortly after returning the breath to its normal pace. It is also important to note most
participants will most likely not experience any discomfort and may find the biological
sensations produced by the breathing exercises to be pleasant.
In the event of an inadvertent release of data, participants will not be at any risk of harm due to
the fact that this study is not collecting any compromising personal information. There is no risk
of participants becoming compromised by civil or criminal information since this study is not
collecting such data. Additionally, there is no risk that a breach in the information collected for
this study would negatively impact participants' financial standing, employment, or reputation
since we are simply gathering information about how the breathing intervention impacts mental
states.
Agreement
By clicking through to the next page you acknowledge that you have read the above information
about potential risks and exclusion criteria and still wish to continue with the study.
First and Last Name: ___________________________
Date (month/date/year): ________________________
What's your age range?
●18 - 24
●25 - 34
●35 - 44
●45 - 54
●55 - 64
●60 or older
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 42
How often do you meditate?
●Multiple times a day
●Once a day
●A few times a week
●Once in a while
●Never
How relaxed do you feel right now?
●Extremely relaxed
●Somewhat relaxed
●Not relaxed
Have you ever attempted Wim Hof breathing exercises or any other breathing exercises?
●Yes
●No
*Qualtrics Randomizer Assigns Participants to either:
Wim Hof Breathing Method Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tybOi4hjZFQ
Paced Breathing Control Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1V0UqB01nlk
Which breathing video did you get assigned to?
●10 Minute Breathing Timer
●Wim Hof Breathing Method
How relaxed do you feel now?
●Extremely relaxed
●Somewhat relaxed
●Not relaxed
Did you feel a heightened sense of awareness while doing the breathing exercise?
●Yes
●No
●Maybe / Not sure
Did you experience a feeling of deep connection to the world around you?
●Yes
WIM HOF BREATHING METHOD: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY 43
●No
●Maybe / Not sure
Did you experience a sense of astonishment or awe while doing the breathing exercise?
●Yes
●No
●Maybe / Not sure
Open-ended free-response questions: For these next questions please answer with as much detail
as possible.
How did the breathing intervention make you feel physically?
_____________________________________________________
Do you feel like the breathing exercise changed your emotional state? If so how?
_______________________________________________________
Did you experience any visions while doing the breathing exercise? If so please describe them.
_________________________________________________________
What do you think this breathing exercise could be used for? (i.e., helping to deal with life stress,
prior to exercise, prior to meditation, etc)
_________________________________________________________
