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applied
sciences
Review
Application of the Extended Reality Technology for Teaching
New Languages: A Systematic Review
Noura Tegoan *, Santoso Wibowo and Srimannarayana Grandhi
Citation: Tegoan, N.; Wibowo, S.;
Grandhi, S. Application of the
Extended Reality Technology for
Teaching New Languages: A
Systematic Review. Appl. Sci. 2021,11,
11360. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app112311360
Academic Editor: Pentti Nieminen
Received: 12 October 2021
Accepted: 26 November 2021
Published: 1 December 2021
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School of Engineering & Technology, CQUniversity, Melbourne 3000, Australia; s.wibowo1@cqu.edu.au (S.W.);
s.grandhi@cqu.edu.au (S.G.)
*Correspondence: n.tegoan@cqu.edu.au
Abstract:
Much attention has been given to the use of extended reality (XR) technology in educational
institutions due to its flexibility, effectiveness, and attractiveness. However, there is a limited study
of the application of XR technology for teaching and learning languages in schools. Thus, this paper
presents a systematic review to identify the potential benefits and challenges of using XR technology
for teaching new languages. This review provides a basis for adopting XR technology for teaching
languages in schools. This research also provides recommendations to successfully implement the XR
technology and ways to improve motivation, engagement, and enhanced accessibility of learning and
teaching resources on both students and teachers. To fulfil the aims of this research, previous studies
from 2011 to 2021 are collected from various academic databases. This study finds that there is still a
need to develop appropriate strategies for the development and implementation of XR technology
for teaching new languages to school students.
Keywords:
extended reality technology; technology adoption; language teaching; benefits and challenges
1. Introduction
Learning a new language is often found to be complicated [
1
]. Hossain [
2
] and Kanwal
and Khurshid [
3
] point out that there are challenges with teaching a new language. They
state that some students show a lack of motivation in learning a new language. Meanwhile,
Mohd et al. [
1
] observed that plenty of students found it difficult to grasp the language,
while other students were not able to relate to the context and found the traditional learning
process to be boring. A study on identifying the issues with teaching English language
in Indian undergraduate colleges found that students are not usually motivated in the
learning process [
4
]. Kanwal and Khurshid [
3
] believe that students are not motivated to
learn a new language seriously, because they are not satisfied with the teaching programs.
For example, Rababah [
5
] highlights that teachers find students were not interested in
learning the English language, because these students faced many issues including the lack
of suitable teaching methodologies. Prior studies investigating the issues associated with
teaching the Arabic language noted that students were unable to grasp the concepts well
due to insufficient teaching resources [6,7].
In recent years, mixed reality (MR) technology has gained popularity in the education
sector. Canada and China are among the list of countries exploring the possibility of
embedding MR technology into the learning and teaching processes [
1
,
8
]. MR technology
is a combination of both digital and physical worlds to present a new visual experience. It
combines the aspects of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR), and allows users
to interact with a virtual environment [8].
Integrating technology in the education system has enhanced the accessibility of learn-
ing and teaching resources for improving language learning and teaching experience [
9
].
Burden and Kearney [
10
] believe that proper adoption of technology in learning and teach-
ing will positively result in improving teaching quality, motivating teachers, and increasing
their fluency and engagement in learning and teaching languages. Wibowo et al. [
11
]
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360. https://doi.org/10.3390/app112311360 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 2 of 16
explain that the use of technology in the educational system has grown remarkably because
of its flexibility, availability, and effectiveness. The proper adoption of technological equip-
ment in the learning and teaching process can positively result in the best improvements
and development of the quality of teaching, motivation of the students, and solve some stu-
dents’ learning problems [
1
,
10
–
12
]. Wekke and Hammid [
12
] highlight the effect of using
MR technology for improving authenticity, personalization, and collaboration. Meanwhile,
Lin and Lan [
13
] believe that most students in higher education become more interested in
using new MR technology for learning a language. In addition, Mohd et al. [
1
] point out
that the use of technology is very beneficial for improving the teaching quality, supporting
students’ motivation and solving students’ challenges. Bonner and Reinders [
14
] believe
that teachers’ attitudes change, becoming a facilitator, counsellor, and resource person
more than a decision-maker after the adoption of MR technology. The new role of teachers
in the classroom is not only to transmit new information and knowledge, but also to teach
learners the way to acquire the data and value electronically. On the contrary, if teachers
have negative and pessimistic attitudes toward using technology in education, they will
have negative cultural perspectives [
15
]. It is noticed that many Arabic teachers still need
to take more courses and workshops in learning new technological programs to achieve
success [
16
]. Consequently, Na [
17
] clarifies that teachers who have deep consciousness
and awareness of using technological devices will have successful and positive attitudes
towards the adoption of technology in the educational system [16–18].
Al-Busaidi et al. [
19
] found that the abilities of some Omani schools’ students in
learning Arabic exhibited notable improvements, particularly in analysis, comprehension
and dialogue skills when learning or teaching is supported by software technology. Cheng
et al. [
20
] believe that most higher education students developed a greater interest in lan-
guage learning with the support of MR technology. They believe that using MR technology
is very beneficial for improving the teaching quality, supporting students’ motivation,
improving students’ concentration, increasing students’ intention, and solving students’
challenges. Al-Busaidi et al. [
19
] also argue that the use of immersive educational games
with pictures and sounds in learning Arabic helps to increase students’ engagement, gener-
ate higher learning outcomes, and support effective learning. Ismail et al. [
21
] found that
Arabic teachers positively employ more modern technologies in classrooms if they have
higher degrees of computer self-efficacy. Albirini [
16
] point out that technical knowledge is
an essential requirement for improving and developing teachers’ attitudes and awareness,
and teachers’ knowledge of the cultural non-neutrality of information and technology may
have a substantial influence on their attitudes and teaching approach. Cheng et al. [
20
]
state that the use of technology for achieving a high level of computer experience in the
education system can improve the teacher’s teaching behaviors, attitudes, performance,
confidence, and skills. The authors also state that virtual e-activities help to develop teach-
ers’ level of knowledge, grammar competence, writing skills, discourse competence and
confidence in teaching a second language. Al-Busaidi et al. [
19
] notice that students who
spend more time using e-learning are more likely to have higher satisfaction with the
technology experience. However, if a student is dissatisfied with the technology, they are
more inclined to enroll in another study program with a different institution.
With the COVID-19 pandemic, online teaching has become the norm across most
schools and universities around the world. While it has created opportunities to continue
providing education to students, teachers are required to undergo training programs to
learn ways to deal with online educational programs and how to run new educational
activities. A study conducted by Baran and Alzoubi [
22
] on digital learning program for
preservice teachers at Midwestern University shows that teachers need to effectively man-
age technology in classrooms, have efficient leadership around technology, and evaluate
technology equipment suitable for learning and teaching activities. The above studies
have also shown that XR technology can have a significant positive impact in learning
and teaching languages. Thus, it is critical for teachers to focus on the effective use of XR
technology to motivate students in their learning process.
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 3 of 16
Based on a review of existing literature, this study has identified two research gaps.
Firstly, prior studies have explored the challenges associated with teaching a new language,
but there is limited literature on the use of technologies to enhance students learning experi-
ence. XR technology is being used in various sectors including engineering, entertainment,
and healthcare as it enables users to interact with virtual objects. Literature sheds light
on the use of innovative technologies for teaching. While there are opportunities with
using XR technology in the education sector, there is a shortage of studies investigating
the applicability of XR technology in teaching the Arabic language, let alone in schools.
Secondly, this study considers the challenges associated with teaching the Arabic language
to school students in Australia for understanding the challenges faced by the Australian
students. In addition, studying the potential benefits of using XR technology in teaching
the Arabic language can help school teachers to enhance students learning experience.
Therefore, this study aims to conduct a systematic review to identify the potential benefits
and challenges of using XR technology for teaching a new language to school students in
Australia. In line with the aim, two research questions are presented:
-
What are the benefits and challenges faced by language teachers in teaching languages
in schools?
-
What recommendations can be made to support the adoption of XR technology for
teaching languages in schools?
This paper consists of six sections. Section two outlines the systematic review method
this study uses. Section three presents the results on the development of XR technology for
teaching languages. Section four presents the discussion on the adoption of XR technology
in schools. Section five presents the key findings and future research opportunities. Finally,
section six presents the recommendations.
2. Systematic Review Method
This section followed the preferred reporting items for systematic review and presents
a review on the potential application of the XR technology for learning and teaching. This
review provides an opportunity to gain an insight into the benefits of using XR technology
for teaching purposes. For this research project, relevant journal articles are selected
from ERIC, JSTOR, Science Direct, Emerald, Web of Science and IEEE databases by using
keywords including ‘Arabic language’, ‘learning technologies’, ‘virtual reality’, ‘extended
reality’ and ‘teaching language’. To ensure relevancy and to access up-to-date knowledge,
articles published between the years 2011 and 2021 were selected.
2.1. Search Strategy
A systematic search for journal articles was performed in academic databases includ-
ing Science Direct, Web of Science, Emerald, JSTOR, IEEE and ERIC. Initially, Science Direct
and Web of Science databases were searched. The search was conducted using the terms:
XR technology or Arabic language or learning technology or teaching language or teachers
or learning a second language or education environment or virtuality or language learning
or online learning or challenges in learning. The search results included journal articles on
technology, science, and teaching language. The search was limited to articles published
from 2011 until 2021. Moreover, the reference lists of the articles chosen for inclusion from
the database search were checked to distinguish any missed articles because of several
keywords. The database search yielded 242 articles from the Science Direct database,
12 articles from the Web of Science database, 429 articles from JSTOR, 333 articles from
Emerald, 8 articles from IEEE and 22 articles from ERIC.
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria, and Selection of Studies
In this systematic review, it is aimed to characterize the current adoption of XR
technology in education. For this purpose, it has been set specific inclusion and exclusion
criteria to identify documents that describe XR technology and teaching language from
articles. All journal articles on XR technology and teaching language must meet the
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 4 of 16
following criteria: all articles were tested for inclusion or exclusion criteria, for example the
following exclusion criteria for articles published before 2011 and with no full text available.
In addition, articles not published in English language, posters, reports, abstracts only
and not published in a peer-reviewed paper, were excluded. Documents falling outside
‘learning technologies’, ‘XR technology’, and ‘teaching and learning language’ have been
excluded.
Selected studies were identified through the search were imported from the database.
In line with the standard PRISMA flowchart, the literature which emerged from the
databases has been screened in two steps to ensure relevancy and review quality [
9
].
In the first step, a review of article titles and abstracts was conducted to see if they are
relevant to the study and meet the inclusion criteria. Then, in the next step, the articles
with full-text were retrieved, and the articles not related to XR technology or related to
language learning were removed. The approach adopted for screening the articles is shown
in Figure 1.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria, and Selection of Studies
In this systematic review, it is aimed to characterize the current adoption of XR
technology in education. For this purpose, it has been set specific inclusion and exclusion
criteria to identify documents that describe XR technology and teaching language from
articles. All journal articles on XR technology and teaching language must meet the
following criteria: all articles were tested for inclusion or exclusion criteria, for example
the following exclusion criteria for articles published before 2011 and with no full text
available. In addition, articles not published in English language, posters, reports,
abstracts only and not published in a peer-reviewed paper, were excluded. Documents
falling outside ‘learning technologies’, ‘XR technology’, and ‘teaching and learning
language’ have been excluded.
Selected studies were identified through the search were imported from the database.
In line with the standard PRISMA flowchart, the literature which emerged from the
databases has been screened in two steps to ensure relevancy and review quality [9]. In
the first step, a review of article titles and abstracts was conducted to see if they are
relevant to the study and meet the inclusion criteria. Then, in the next step, the articles
with full-text were retrieved, and the articles not related to XR technology or related to
language learning were removed. The approach adopted for screening the articles is
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The PRISMA flowchart.
2.3. Data Analysis and Synthesis
Based on the search outcomes, 21 articles were selected for further analysis and
review. In this systematic review, data were collected, analyzed, identified, and reported.
To identify the recurrent themes a six-step process was followed. In the first step, thematic
analysis was conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of the data. Then, initial codes
Figure 1. The PRISMA flowchart.
2.3. Data Analysis and Synthesis
Based on the search outcomes, 21 articles were selected for further analysis and review.
In this systematic review, data were collected, analyzed, identified, and reported. To
identify the recurrent themes a six-step process was followed. In the first step, thematic
analysis was conducted to gain an in-depth understanding of the data. Then, initial codes
were developed. In the third and fourth steps, sub-themes were identified and reviewed
the sub-themes. In the fifth step, relevant concepts were compiled. In the final step, the
data were checked to ensure their relevance to the goals of this study [9].
This review is aimed to provide an overview of the pedagogical usage of XR tech-
nology in teaching the Arabic language in Australian schools. The research papers that
emerged from the databases have been screened in two stages. Firstly, a review of abstracts
and titles of the retrieved literature is conducted to see if they meet minimum inclusion
criteria [
23
]. Secondly, the full text of the included articles was reviewed and retrieved
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 5 of 16
using the CQUniversity database tool. A total of 1059 articles were retrieved from the
databases. This was reduced to 803 articles after screening and deleting duplicates and
inappropriate articles. Then, 125 articles were obtained after the eligibility evaluation
process. In the last step, the remaining articles that were not related to MR technology,
language learning, or having poor methodology were excluded from the study. Thus, a
total of 21 articles were used for this study as shown in Figure 1. However, it is found
that there was no study on the use of XR technology for teaching Arabic language, which
further justifies the need for this study. Figure 2shows the distribution of published articles
from 2011–2021. Results indicate that majority of the papers were published from 2018
onwards and the research on technology use for teaching new languages increased in 2020
as compared to previous years.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17
were developed. In the third and fourth steps, sub-themes were identified and reviewed
the sub-themes. In the fifth step, relevant concepts were compiled. In the final step, the
data were checked to ensure their relevance to the goals of this study [9].
This review is aimed to provide an overview of the pedagogical usage of XR
technology in teaching the Arabic language in Australian schools. The research papers
that emerged from the databases have been screened in two stages. Firstly, a review of
abstracts and titles of the retrieved literature is conducted to see if they meet minimum
inclusion criteria [23]. Secondly, the full text of the included articles was reviewed and
retrieved using the CQUniversity database tool. A total of 1059 articles were retrieved
from the databases. This was reduced to 803 articles after screening and deleting
duplicates and inappropriate articles. Then, 125 articles were obtained after the eligibility
evaluation process. In the last step, the remaining articles that were not related to MR
technology, language learning, or having poor methodology were excluded from the
study. Thus, a total of 21 articles were used for this study as shown in Figure 1. However,
it is found that there was no study on the use of XR technology for teaching Arabic
language, which further justifies the need for this study. Figure 2 shows the distribution
of published articles from 2011–2021. Results indicate that majority of the papers were
published from 2018 onwards and the research on technology use for teaching new
languages increased in 2020 as compared to previous years.
Figure 2. Distribution of the selected papers by the year of publication.
3. Results
This section presents the results obtained from the selected articles. This study
identified three main themes from the articles in the use and benefits of XR technology in
education. These are (a) facilitating language learning, (b) increasing students’ fluency,
achievement and engagement, and (c) motivating students to learn a new language. In
addition, two challenges in relation to the implementation of XR technology were
identified. The challenges include the difficulties of using XR devices and applications,
and the limitations of the learning and teaching process.
3.1. Facilitating Language Learning
Eleven articles reported that MR technology has been a successful tool to facilitate
the process of learning amongst educational institutions [24–30]. Franciosi [26] states that
the use of computer game-based lessons positively impacts vocabulary acquisition,
vocabulary learning, vocabulary retention and writing tasks. Petrove and Atanasova [30]
explored the effects of MR technology on students’ learning performance and revealed
that MR technology has a notable positive effect on language learning and achievements
due to the nature of its flexibility, efficiency, and accessibility. Meanwhile, Dolgunsoz et
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Figure 2. Distribution of the selected papers by the year of publication.
3. Results
This section presents the results obtained from the selected articles. This study iden-
tified three main themes from the articles in the use and benefits of XR technology in
education. These are (a) facilitating language learning, (b) increasing students’ fluency,
achievement and engagement, and (c) motivating students to learn a new language. In
addition, two challenges in relation to the implementation of XR technology were identi-
fied. The challenges include the difficulties of using XR devices and applications, and the
limitations of the learning and teaching process.
3.1. Facilitating Language Learning
Eleven articles reported that MR technology has been a successful tool to facilitate the
process of learning amongst educational institutions [24–30]. Franciosi [26] states that the
use of computer game-based lessons positively impacts vocabulary acquisition, vocabulary
learning, vocabulary retention and writing tasks. Petrove and Atanasova [
30
] explored
the effects of MR technology on students’ learning performance and revealed that MR
technology has a notable positive effect on language learning and achievements due to
the nature of its flexibility, efficiency, and accessibility. Meanwhile, Dolgunsoz et al. [
31
]
showed that most students found MR technology enjoyable and effective, because it could
present a real appearance like learning in a class environment and created a feeling of
engagement. Garcia and Silva [
27
] believe that MR technology can facilitate collaborative
learning and increase students’ fluency in a language, leading to a better understanding
of the education materials. Furthermore, Lew et al. [
28
] claim that the MR technology
improves the quality of the learning experiences and supports students’ motivation and
creative self-sufficiency.
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 6 of 16
3.2. Increasing Learners’ Fluency, Achievement and Engagement
Prior studies [
25
,
27
,
32
] point out that MR technology can increase learners’ fluency
and engagement in learning a new language. Lin and Wang [
29
] assert that MR technology
can enhance collaborative learning, increase learners’ fluency in learning a language, help
understand education materials, improve the quality of the learning experiences, strengthen
the learning system, and support students’ motivation and creative self-efficiency [
27
,
30
].
Alfadil [
33
] states the impacts of applying the VR game ‘House of Languages’ on language
vocabulary acquisition revealing that students who used the game ‘House of Languages’
had better achievements in vocabulary acquisition than before. Dalim et al. [
34
] applied
AR educational games for learning a new language. Their study revealed that AR helps
students to improve their knowledge, language fluency, and finish certain tasks faster and
more easily. They found that AR empowers students to be self-directed, take ownership of
language learning, and participate in learning activities [35].
3.3. Motivating Students to Learn a New Language
Lin and Wang [
29
] examined the positive impacts of a VR creative project on English
language learners’ creative self-efficacy, inspiration, and motivation toward using VR
technology in teaching university students. They found that VR technology can motivate
students to participate in learning activities and it helped improve students’ writing per-
formance [
36
]. Studies point out that computer game-based lessons help with vocabulary
acquisition, vocabulary learning and memory, vocabulary retention, writing tasks, and
had a motivational effect on students’ attitudes [
26
]. Virtual multimodal teaching and
learning environments can invoke less proficient students’ attention and motivation, and
enhance collaboration and language performance [
37
]. Studies into the use of AR mobile
language learning tools suggest that an AR-based learning tool ‘Explorez’ can help bridge
the gap between gaming and education, making language learning more motivating and
exciting [38].
3.4. Difficulty with Using XR Devices and Applications
In the beginning, there was insufficient knowledge about using VR, which led to
problems in using the technology and achieving the expected outcomes [
29
]. A study by
Dalim et al. [
34
] on children’s experience in terms of knowledge gain and enjoyment when
learning through AR technology revealed that students had difficulties using a computer
mouse and speech recognition. This can be attributed to a lack of sufficient knowledge
about using VR technology. Technical limitations such as physical discomfort caused
by wearing VR goggles and low video resolution can limit its use. Besides the technical
limitations, social anxiety can limit the use of new technologies. For example, shyness
and fear of criticism may prevent learners from using VR devices [
27
]. Sometimes, too
much learning anxiety and difficulty with using AR educational games can lead to worse
performance and may adversely affect the students’ motivation and intention to use it [
39
].
3.5. Use of XR Technology in Learning and Teaching Processes
Over the years, new technologies have been adopted by the education sector for
learning and teaching. Although AR technology has been adopted in many educational
applications, most applications are still limited to learning a few subjects and limited
curricula [
40
]. Alfadil [
33
] highlights that there is limited research on teaching language vo-
cabulary through XR technology. This presents an opportunity to conduct further research
on the use of new technologies for learning a new language. Moreover, it is important to
create awareness among students and teachers that the use of new technologies such as MR
technology is an efficient vocabulary acquisition procedure in the learning and teaching
process to be engaged in all school stages. It will not only develop vocabulary acquisition,
but also support the degree of awareness and achievement [
33
]. Bonner and Reinders [
14
]
explain that there are limited MR training courses. Hence, providing both teachers and
students with an introductory training program on using new technologies such as AR
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 7 of 16
and VR will help students to exploit the full benefits of these technologies [
41
]. Table 1
provides details of the selected articles including authors names, the focus of the study,
study participants, challenges, influencing factors, methods, drivers, challenges, delivery
mechanism, and impacts.
Table 1. Study characteristics and summary of the factors associated with XR technology.
Categories Reflect Factors Affecting the XR Technology Adoption
Authors Focus of Study Approach Participants Delivery
Mechanism
Reported
Drivers and
Enablers
Reported
Challenges
or Barriers
Impacts
1Garcia and
Silva [27]
Analyzing the
virtual world of
Second Life for the
development of
English language
Mixed
method
72 third year
university
students
Virtual
environment
of second life
and Avatar
Virtual
environment
can increase
learners’
fluency and
engagement
in English
Shyness and
fear of
negative
criticism
Enhanced
collaborative
learning,
increasing
learners’ fluency
in English and
improved the
quality of the
learning
experience
2Bonner and
Reinders [
14
]
Providing teachers
with an
introduction of
using AR and VR
technologies in
teaching foreign
language
Review Teachers AR and VR
technologies
AR and VR
devices are
becoming
cheaper and
more flexible
and available
Expensive
price of
structures,
privacy
concerns and
practical
issues of
classroom
implementa-
tion.
AR and VR
technology can
encourage and
motivate
students to
participate
actively in
language
learning
environment
3Sanchez-
Gomez et al.
[41]
Exploring
pre-service
teachers’
perspectives
towards using wiki
software to
improve writing
skills in English
language
classrooms
Mixed
method
A total of 451
pre-service
teachers
Wiki
software and
virtual
environment
The
effectiveness
of wiki
program in
developing
pre-service
teachers’
writing skills
Teaching
flexibility
Effectiveness of
the technology
for improving
the confidence
and quality of
pre-service
teacher’s English
language
4Can et al.
[11]
Applying learning
applications on the
3D Second Life
Platform for
language teaching
Mixed
method
36 foreign
language
students
Three-
dimensional
virtual
learning
environment
and the
Second Life
Platform
Most
students
were very
highly
engaged in
using the
technology
Some
students
encountered
technical
problems
and culture
issues
Students have
shown high
participation in
the use of the
technology
5Li et al. [40]
Utilizing AR
technology to
integrate virtual 3D
objects into the real
learning
environment for
language learning
Qualitative
method
English
language
students
AR
technology
After imple-
menting AR
technology,
the
classroom
becomes
more joyful
and pleasant
Most AR
applications
are limited to
the
particular
learning
subjects and
curricula
Students are
enthusiastic
about the
technology
6Dolgunsoz
et al. [31]
Examining the
effect of VR
experience on
developing English
language writing
skills
Mixed
method
24 EFL
students VR
technology
Most EFL
students
thought that
VR
technologies
were
promising,
motivating
and
enjoyable
Issues
relating to
technical
limitations
such as
physical
discomfort
and low
video quality
Students had
positive
improvements
towards using
VR technology in
learning English
language
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 8 of 16
Table 1. Cont.
Categories Reflect Factors Affecting the XR Technology Adoption
Authors Focus of Study Approach Participants Delivery
Mechanism
Reported
Drivers and
Enablers
Reported
Challenges
or Barriers
Impacts
7Lew et al.
[28]
Applying MR
technology
classroom
simulations to
ESOL teacher
preparation
Qualitative
method
English
language
pre-service
teachers
MR
technology
in learning
language
Creation of a
safe
environment
and teaching
flexibility
Further de-
velopment
and improve-
ment in
interactional
scaffolding
for English
language
progress
The technology
is flexible and
creates a safe
environment
8Aljowaysir
et al. [32]
Applying MR
technology and
artificial
intelligence
technologies for
learning and
teaching
Qualitative
method
Non-native
English
students
Applying
MR
technology
and artificial
intelligence
technologies
in education
Unique
combination
of physical
and virtual
worlds
Working
with hearing
disabilities
and students
with
language-
based
learning
disabilities
makes
teaching
more
challenging
Students become
more engaged in
learning
language when
using new
technologies and
strategies
9Petrov and
Atanasov
[16]
Exploring the
effects of an AR
technology on
learners’ learning
performance
Quantitative
method
80 secondary
school
students
AR adoption
facilities for
a STEM
Enrichment
Program
Supporting
learning by
using a
combination
between the
AR and
physical
facilities for
a STEM
Enrichment
Program.
These
technologies
allow for col-
laboration
and
possibility to
run many
different
applications
Experts are
still trying to
study the
effects of AR
on student’s
learning
The effect of
biology learning
environment
mediated by AR
technology,
adopted to
support and
strengthen the
learning system
and
understanding of
the education
material
10 Lin and
Wang [29]
Examining the
impacts of a VR
technology on
English language
learners’ creative
self-efficacy,
inspiration and
motivation
Mixed
method
39 university
students
Virtual
technology
Motivating
students to
learn English
language by
using the VR
technology
In the
beginning,
there were
insufficient
knowledge
about using
VR led to
problems in
using the
technology
and
achieving
the expected
results
The technology
can be efficiently
integrated into
an English
language
classroom to
support
student’s
motivation and
creative
self-efficiency
11 Danaei et al.
[42]
Investigating the
influence of apply
AR storybook on
reading
comprehension of
students
Qualitative
method 34 school
students
Applying
augmented
storybook
Motivating
and
encouraging
students to
have better
retelling
story and
comprehen-
sion
Limited
number of
respondents
AR technology
motivates
students and
makes them
better in retelling
stories and
answering
comprehension
questions
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 9 of 16
Table 1. Cont.
Categories Reflect Factors Affecting the XR Technology Adoption
Authors Focus of Study Approach Participants Delivery
Mechanism
Reported
Drivers and
Enablers
Reported
Challenges
or Barriers
Impacts
12 Hsu [39]
Application of AR
educational games
for learning
English language
Quantitative
method A total of
38 students
AR
educational
game system
The students
had excellent
learning
effectiveness
and
achievement
Too much
learning
anxiety can
lead to worse
performance
and may
adversely
affect
student
motivation
and
intention
Students using
the self-directed
or task-based AR
educational
game system had
high learning
effectiveness
more than those
using the
self-directed
system
13 Dalim et al.
[34]
Investigating
students’
experience in terms
of knowledge gain
and enjoyment in
using AR
technology
Quantitative
method 120 school
children
Using AR,
VR
technologies
and speech
recognition
technologies
More
enjoyable
and easier
Young
students had
difficulty
with using a
computer
mouse and
speech
recognition
Increase in
knowledge gain
and enjoyment
and finishing the
certain task faster
and easier
14 Huang et al.
[36]
Using VR
technology to
develop students’
communication
skills
Mixed
method 45 school
students
VR
technology
VR
technology
can motivate
students in
the
classroom
and improve
students’
writing
performance
Technology
complexity
and
challenges
Improvement on
students’
progress and
performance
15 Alfadil [33]
Understanding the
impacts of VR on
learning English
language
vocabulary
Mixed
method
Intermediate
school
students
VR
technology
VR
technology
empowering
and
inspiring
students
The
limitation of
this work is
its gender-
limited
nature
Students had
better
achievement in
vocabulary
acquisition than
ever before
16 Franciosi
[26]
Exploring English
language classes at
a Japanese
university using
computer
game-based
lessons
Quantitative
method
First and
second year
students
enrolled in
four English
language
courses at a
university
level in
Japan
Virtual
computer
game-based
learning
Positive
impacts on
vocabulary
acquisition,
vocabulary
learning and
memory,
vocabulary
retention,
writing tasks
and
motivational
effect on
students
The
technology
does not
necessarily
work well
with other
demograph-
ics.
Positive
motivational
effect on
students and
their vocabulary
acquisition
17 Ho et al. [43]
Developing a
learning
instruction system
with Augment
Reality features to
improve the
performance of
English language
learning
Quantitative
method
90 college
students
Augmented
reality and
virtual
environment
Employing
AR
technology
positively
improve
students’
learning
performance
English
language
learners
mostly
confront
problems
when they
have to
speak
English in
real life
settings
Learning
strategies and
users’ cognitive
techniques
impact language
learning
performance
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 10 of 16
Table 1. Cont.
Categories Reflect Factors Affecting the XR Technology Adoption
Authors Focus of Study Approach Participants Delivery
Mechanism
Reported
Drivers and
Enablers
Reported
Challenges
or Barriers
Impacts
18 Lee and Kim
[37]
Showing the
positive learning
impact of
formulating
English language
sentences and
writing activities
via Social Network
Service in virtual
space.
Mixed
method
62 University
students
Virtual
multimodal
teaching and
learning
environment
Invoking less
proficient
students’
attention and
motivation
also
enhancing
their collabo-
ration and
language
performance
It is
important to
explore more
effective
methods of
applying
cutting-edge-
technology
for timid
learners with
less
voluntary
involvement
Virtual
multimodal
teaching and
learning
environment can
invoke less
proficient
students’
attention and
motivation also
enhancing their
collaboration and
language
performance
19 Ou Yang
et al. [35]
Use of a 3D
learning system to
provide students
with an authentic
setting to facilitate
communicative
ability
development
Mixed
method
72 students
in a high
school
VR
technology
Increasing
language
learning,
attention and
engagement
High cost of
the
equipment
Students were
empowered with
the ability to
self-direct
learning, thus
contributing to
increased
ownership of
language
learning,
attention and
engagement in
lower level of
anxiety
20 Yeh et al.
[24]
Use of a 3D VR
system to create a
story
Qualitative
method 65 students A 3D virtual
environment
Allow
students to
actively
interact with
learning
contexts,
decreasing
the anxiety
level of
learning, and
giving a
relatively
authentic
learning
experience
Age of the
participants
Teachers can
establish a
learning system
without much
intervention
during their
collaboration
21 Perry [38]
Assessing the use
of a mobile
language learning
tool
Mixed
method
First-year
University
French
students
MR
technology
and
quest-based
learning
Development
and improve-
ment of
students’
language
skills
Technical
difficulties.
Increased
student
motivation and
excitement to
learn
4. Discussion
The use of information technology (IT) for learning and teaching practices has been
increasing in the last decade, as it is flexible and presents opportunities to use different
instructional methods to facilitate learning [
44
]. For example, IT-enabled instructional
methods include simulated practical experiences, technology-assisted visual explanations,
and collaborative learning through the use of online discussion forums [45].
Scholars have investigated the role of IT to enhance learning and teaching methods.
Das [
46
] investigates the impact of multimedia and web technologies and developed
teaching methods to enhance students’ learning experience. Similarly, Shimba et al. [
47
]
adopted web-based course management tools to facilitate active learning and promote
paperless teaching. The results suggest that IT does not only help in teaching, but also
helps with monitoring students’ progress and providing feedback to students in real-time.
A study by Leung et al. [
48
] suggests that the use of gaming applications enhanced
student’s learning experiences and meeting of learning objectives. Lu et al. [
49
] highlights
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 11 of 16
the possibility of using technologies such as AR for teaching different subjects. Their
study found that AR technology helped retain students’ engagement. Prior studies [
47
–
49
]
suggest that AR, VR and XR technologies can be used not only for teaching a particular
language, but can also be used to teach various subjects and languages in different contexts.
Considering the potential of AR, VR, and XR technologies for teaching various subjects, the
possibility of adopting these technologies for teaching new languages and with a view to
adopt XR technology for teaching the Arabic language, this study reviewed the literature
on the use of AR, VR, and XR technologies for teaching language.
This study is considered one of the first systematic literature reviews investigating
and synthesizing the benefits and challenges of applying XR technology in learning and
teaching language in educational institutions.
A review of the selected articles presents valuable insights into the application of XR
technologies for teaching new languages. Prior studies mainly focused on applying new
technologies for language teaching. Based on the authors’ experience and knowledge in
teaching Arabic language in Australia, there is a scarcity of resources in relation to using
XR for teaching the Arabic language in Australian schools from a teacher’s perspective.
Thus, the selected papers present opportunities to understand how XR technology has been
applied in different contexts, challenges with adopting XR technology, and its impact on
teaching language. The knowledge gained from these papers can help develop strategies
to adopt XR for teaching the Arabic language in Australian schools.
This study identified that one of the benefits of using XR technology in educational
institutions is to facilitate learning and teaching new languages. Literature suggests
that adopting computer game-based lessons positively impacts vocabulary acquisition,
vocabulary learning, vocabulary retention, and writing tasks [
26
]. A study by Can et al. [
25
]
showed that learners presented positive improvements when using VR technology for
learning a new language. Several studies were conducted to test the use of technologies in
teaching languages. For example, the recent European AVATAR Project provides a chance
for students and teachers at the same time to take advantage of new technologies and gain
the necessary skills to revive the traditional classroom with a 21st-century environment.
Another project at Istanbul University involved employing a learning application on the
3D Second Life Platform for teaching language by preservice Turkish teachers [
25
]. Based
on the authors’ experience and knowledge in teaching Arabic language in Australia, a
similar technology like the Second Life Platform technology can help teachers improve the
learning experience of school students in Australia. While there are several benefits with
using XR technologies, prior works reported technical, cultural, and time-related issues
when using these technologies. Franciosi [
26
] noted that virtual computer games appeared
to be effective and efficient with a specific group and they may not work well with other
demographics due to cultural differences. Petrove and Atanasova [
30
] made a similar
observation during their study on the effect of AR technology to enhance learner’s learning
performance, strengthening the learning system, and understanding the education material.
They noted cultural limitations with using AR technology to improve students’ learning
process. These studies highlight that XR technology can help overcome the challenges
associated with teaching a new language. Based on the empirical evidence on the use of XR
technology for teaching language, it can be argued that XR technology is capable of aiding
language teachers in delivering and supporting students with learning new contents.
Recent studies outlined the use of new technologies for teaching school children and
the technical issues encountered while using these technologies. A study by Hsu [
39
]
explains that children who used and experienced augmented storybooks were much better
at retelling stories and answering the questions. They reported technical obstacles to using
AR educational game systems for learning and teaching purposes. The technical issues
encountered include slow system response, failures of tablet devices and breakdowns
of software. Dalim et al. [
34
] found that applying AR educational games for learning
language can improve knowledge and help complete certain tasks faster and more easily,
but the technical issues can limit the students’ ability to complete the tasks faster. They
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 12 of 16
also found that young students had difficulty with using the computer mouse and speech
recognition. To overcome these technical problems and system delays, every school should
have experienced technicians to solve any technical problems that may be faced by the
students or teachers.
Alfadil [
33
] points out that there is still limited research on teaching language vocab-
ulary through XR technology. Thus, it is important to create awareness among students
and teachers that the use of the new XR technology helps improve students’ language
vocabulary and keeps students engaged in the learning process. XR technologies such as
VR and MR will not only help with vocabulary acquisition but also support the degree of
awareness, progress, and achievement. For example, students using the VR game House
of Languages had higher language vocabulary acquisition and better achievements in vo-
cabulary learning than ever before. This shows that XR technology presents opportunities
for Arabic language teachers to improve their teaching delivery and students’ learning
experience. On the other hand, there are still many technological obstacles with employing
XR technology for learning and teaching purposes. To gain an in-depth understanding of
the technological obstacles, more studies on using XR technology for teaching languages
need to be conducted. This will help schools and teachers to (a) understand the key issues
concerning the use of XR technology and (b) develop appropriate strategies for the effective
use of XR technology in an Australian educational context.
XR technology increases learners’ fluency, achievement, and engagement. Some
studies in this systematic review suggest that XR technology and virtual environments
can increase learners’ fluency and engagement in learning a new language. As a result,
students are notably becoming very interested and engaged in learning a new language
after having a virtual classroom environment [
25
,
27
,
32
]. However, it can be seen that many
challenges such as misunderstandings and delayed responses can affect language learning
progress, such as working with disabled students that would make the teaching process
more challenging and slower. Hence, new techniques should be implemented to support
both learners and teachers in challenging environments.
VR technology empowered students with self-directed learning and contributed to
students taking ownership of language learning. Most importantly, it enhanced student
engagement and lowered anxiety levels when learning a new language [
35
]. It can be
seen that MR technology can have a positive impact on enhancing language learning and
achievements due to its flexibility, effectiveness and accessibility. However, it is noted that
MR technology still has expensive cost structures, privacy concerns, and practical issues in
classroom implementation [14].
While VR technology is proven to assist in learning and teaching, the high cost of the
devices makes it difficult to be widely applied in classroom settings regularly. As cloud-
based technologies are the new norm for delivering services via smart devices, combining
VR technology with applications on smart devices such as iPads will make VR-based learn-
ing more accessible and cheaper. Applying virtual environment can enhance collaborative
learning, increase learner’s fluency in learning new languages, learners’ understanding of the
education materials, improve the quality of the learning experiences, strengthen the learning
system, support student motivation, and improve self-efficacy [
27
,
29
,
30
]. Once MR technology
becomes more accessible, secure, cheaper, and easier to implement, AR classrooms may
become standard classrooms around the world for all students at all stages in the future [
24
].
The most important obstacles that prevent learners from using VR devices efficiently are
related to shyness, fear of negative criticism, and fear of insufficient knowledge that led to
difficulties in using the technology and achieving the expected results.
VR technology can motivate students in the classroom and improve students’ lan-
guage skills, knowledge, collaboration, communication competence, and writing perfor-
mance [
36
]. However, the impact is found to be dependent on the users’ skills to effectively
use the technology. For example, Lin and Wang [
29
] investigated English language learners’
creative self-efficacy, inspiration and motivation and their relevance to VR technology-
based teaching in universities. They found that insufficient knowledge on using VR
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 13 of 16
technology led to problems in achieving expected results. Lack of technical competence
may lead to poor outcomes [
36
]. If both learners and teachers are competent enough to
use the technology, then they would be able to overcome the minor technical issues. For
example, a new AR mobile language learning tool ‘Explorez’ was introduced to bridge the
gap between AR gaming and education to motivate learners. Despite the technical issues
with the AR interactive storytelling platform (ARIS), it is being used successfully [
25
]. Prior
studies [
14
] also encouraged providing all teachers and students with an introduction of
how to use AR and VR technologies in the teaching and learning process. Thus, it is crucial
to develop appropriate pre-training programs to help both language teachers and students
for exploiting the benefits of these technologies to their advantage.
Besides technical competence, system quality is critical to keep learners engaged and
motivated to use the technology. For example, Dolgunsoz et al. [
31
] tested the relevance
of VR technology features to students’ participation. They found that VR technology
students’ participation is impacted by the VR technology features such as system quality,
user-friendliness, ease of use, and portability. Considering the importance of system quality,
it is important to test the technology before implementing it in the learning and teaching
space [40,41].
Furthermore, the use of a 3D virtual environment like wikis, e-activities and discussion
boards can significantly improve pre-service teachers’ digital competence, knowledge
and writing skills. This also promotes student’s collaborative learning in a 3D learning
environment [
41
]. For example, Lin and Wang [
29
] believe that e-activities can help and
support students to be familiar with some traditions and the history of some countries.
This positively influences their level of understanding of the second language since they
considered that culture and history are part of the learning of the second language. Several
studies [
31
,
35
,
39
] have also indicated that there is a significant influence of the virtual
e-activities on the students’ level of knowledge, grammar competence, writing skills,
discourse competence, and confidence in learning a second language.
5. Conclusions
This systematic review explored the potential benefits and challenges of using XR tech-
nology in learning and teaching languages. At the same time, integrating XR technology in
the education system has enhanced accessibility of learning and teaching resources and
improved language learning and teaching process. The use of XR technology can improve
teachers’ digital competence, knowledge, writing skills and promote their collaborative
learning in the learning environment. Most teachers considered that XR technology and
3D virtual activities provided adequate practices to notably improve and develop writing
skills, grammar, and vocabulary related to the topics developed. Results of the analysis
show that the benefits of using the XR technology include increased motivation, improved
learning, and support. Meanwhile, there are several challenges associated with teaching
and learning language when using XR technology. Some of the challenges include technical
problems, expensive price structures or services, and a lack of technical competence to use
the technology. Thus, there is a need to develop proper strategies for the development and
implementation of XR technology for teaching new languages in schools. The outcome of
this systematic review provides critical information for using XR technology for learning
and teaching new languages.
5.1. Theoretical and Practical Implications
From a theoretical point of view, the review has presented an in-depth understanding
of the challenges and benefits associated with the application of extended technology in
teaching and learning languages that can form a basis for the adoption of XR technology
for teaching new languages. This review provided an avenue to conduct further studies
that would help improve teaching languages and students’ learning experience through
the adoption of XR technology.
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 14 of 16
Practically, this study gave insights into the challenges associated with using XR
technology for teaching new languages. Prior to adopting technologies such as XR for
teaching languages, it is important to develop training programs to exploit the benefits
of XR technology. Second, this study presented the implications of XR technology for
language teaching. The study results can be used by education providers and policymakers
to develop appropriate mechanisms for the successful adoption of XR technology. The
results can be used by language teachers to understand the challenges of using new
technologies, and gives appropriate strategies to adopt to enhance students’ learning
experiences.
5.2. Limitations and Future Research Opportunities
One of the shortcomings of this study is that the information and analysis of previous
studies are limited to the Arabic language only. The other limitation is that the study
limited to reviewing the literature from the years between 2011 and 2021. Future research
should include the use of other technologies for improving the delivery of teaching. It can
also be expanded into the use of such technologies for teaching different languages.
The study noted that there are limited studies on the use of VR, AR and XR technolo-
gies for teaching new languages in middle schools. Future studies into the use of new
technologies for teaching languages in middle schools will help reveal the relevance of
students’ age to the impact of new technologies on enhancing students’ learning experience.
This study is limited to reviewing XR technology used for teaching language in middle
schools. However, future studies into the issues of motivation and language acquisition and
how they differ by age, gender and class will help develop appropriate teaching practices
to support both language teachers and students.
6. Recommendations
This study has investigated the use of XR technology in educational institutions. The
following recommendations are provided for teaching the Arabic language in middle
schools:
-
This study identified technical issues such as slow system response and frequent
software crashes with using XR technologies. To overcome these issues, it is important
to consult the information technology team about the potential issues prior to adopting
XR technologies for learning and teaching.
-
Provide awareness among students and teachers to enable them to employ MR
technology efficiently in learning and teaching the Arabic language.
-
Further studies are needed to create more XR applications and equipment that can be
connected with smart devices to make it more available, accessible, secure, cheaper, and
easier to use in teaching and learning the Arabic language in educational institutions.
-
There is a need to develop a framework for the adoption of XR technology for language
teaching, in order to ensure that educational activities more effective and accessible.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, N.T.; methodology, N.T.; writing—original draft prepara-
tion, N.T., S.W. and S.G.; writing—review and editing, S.W. and S.G.; supervision, S.W. and S.G. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2021,11, 11360 15 of 16
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