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Development of a fixed list of terms for qualitative behavioural assessment of brown bear (Ursus arctos) in Sanctuaries
Abstract
Behavioural observation is an essential part of routine welfare assessment protocols for captive wild animals and Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) can be included as measure of their emotional state. This study aims to develop a QBA Fixed List (FL) for brown bears (Ursus arctos), to test its reliability and to investigate the potential effect of the individual characteristics of the bears and season on the QBA outcomes. Observations and/or video-recordings were performed on 24 brown bears kept in three FOUR PAWS (FP) Sanctuaries. A list of 20 terms was created based on preliminary observations and assessments. Reliability between four observers was tested by calculating the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) of the four main Principal Components (PC) and each QBA term scored on 20 two-minute videos, after online training sessions. The correlation between direct versus video observations was investigated through Spearman rank correlations calculated on the first two PC of QBA performed by one observer on 32 twenty-minute observations. Finally, the effect of sex, age, time since rescue (Length of Stay -LoS-), and season was investigated using non-parametric analysis on QBA PC performed by the same observer on 41 twenty-minute videos.
Results showed a good sampling adequacy. The agreement between observers was met in all four PC with ICC values from 0.63 to 0.95 and in most terms with ICC values from excellent (> 0.90) to moderate (0.50-0.75), except for Apathetic and Bored. Data from direct and video observations showed a significant correlation among each PC (Rs=0.69 for PC1, p<0.001; Rs=0.67 for PC2; p<0.001). The four main PC on QBA performed on the 41 twenty-minute videos, used to test the effects of sex, age, LoS, and season, explained 74.5% of variance. Positive and negative mood descriptors loaded on PC1, PC2 described activity levels, PC3 dealt with emotions of joy and suffering and PC4 with frustration. Sex affected PC2, females were more Positively occupied and Inquisitive. Older bears (>20 years) were more Bored and In pain than younger bears. Newly arrived bears (<6 months) expressed more negative emotions than bears in FP Sanctuaries for ≥4 years. Bears showed more positive mood during spring and more negative during summer.
Results of the study encourage the application of the developed FL in routine welfare assessments in FP Sanctuaries to monitor bear welfare throughout the seasons, their adaptation process from rescue onwards and to promptly identify changes due to the aging of the animals.
... The generated scores may explain the beforementioned dimensions of mood (Mendl et al., 2010), providing insights into the dimensional axes of arousal and valence, where the latter often is translated into emotional state. To date, QBA has been developed for various species including horses (Equus caballus) (Minero et al., 2018), donkeys (Equus asinus) , goats (Capra hircus) (Grosso et al., 2016), dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) (Arena et al., 2017), cats (Felis catus) (Travnik and Sant'Anna, 2021), sheep (Ovis aries) (Phythian et al., 2013), buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) (Napolitano et al., 2012), elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) (Yon et al., 2019), giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) (Patel et al., 2019), dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) (Delfour et al., 2020), Anseriformes (Rose and O'brien, 2020) and recently for brown bears (Ursus arctos) in sanctuaries (Stagni et al., 2022). QBA is furthermore an established part of the Welfare Quality® (WQ) on-farm welfare assessment scheme for for cattle (Bos taurus), pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) and poultry (Gallus gallus domesticus) (Wemelsfelder et al., 2009a(Wemelsfelder et al., , 2009bWemelsfelder and Millard, 2009). ...
... All QBAs were performed at the site of the enclosure, except from one institution where QBA was recorded on video (with an Olympus Stylus Tough TG-4 camera) by another researcher, which later was analysed by the QBA assessor. The position of the camera and the recorded shot imitated the type of view and sensitivity to details obtained by the direct observations (direct and video data have previously been shown to produce similar results in brown bears; Stagni et al., 2022). The assessor was at all times dressed in non-zoo clothing and assessments were performed at the visitor area, with the exception of one wildlife park where off-exhibit areas had to be accessed to view the bears. ...
... We found variation in the dimensionality of individual bears' loadings, which is a prerequisite for QBA to reflect diverse mood states. Considering that the study population likely represented bears of various emotional states, owing to variation in factors such as age, sex, background (shown to affect brown bear QBA; Stagni et al., 2022), and in resources and management practices, this indicates known-group validity and sensitivity of the QBA (Yon et al., 2019). Investigation into the effects of various resource, management and bear factors on PC scores would however be beneficial, to further ascertain other aspects of validity (e.g. ...
Contemporary zoos house polar bears (Ursus maritimus) to serve the conservation efforts of these institutions.
However, evidence of behavioural problems in captivity has highlighted the need for methods to assess polar
bear welfare, why valid and feasible animal-based welfare indicators are a prerequisite. Qualitative Behaviour
Assessment (QBA) has been used to assess emotional state in various species. This study therefore aimed to assess
the ability of QBA to discern emotional state in zoo-housed polar bears, and further to investigate its validity
through associations to behavioural and health-related indicators, as well as intra- and inter-day consistency of
QBA scores. A list of 24 terms was developed by reviewing the literature and on-site assessments. Reliability of
the list was tested through Kendall’s W between two assessors (Inter-OR), as well as over time (Intra-OR), based
on videos. QBAs and behavioural observations were collected on 22 polar bears from nine zoos in four European
countries, repeated within days (three times) and across days (four days). Behavioural observations were summarized
as percentage of time spent in the respective categories, whereas behavioural diversity was expressed by
the Shannon Index. Health-related indicators were expressed as an overall dichotomous value (presence/
absence). Principal component analysis revealed two main components categorised as valence (PC1, 29.5%) and
arousal (PC2, 15.1%). Reliability was met for both PCs, with a W of 0.82 for PC1 and 0.68 for PC2 for Inter-OR,
and 0.92 for PC1 and 0.89 for PC2 for Intra-OR. PC1 was significantly positively associated with behavioural
diversity (p = 0.006), environmental interaction (p = 0.006) and rest (p = 0.005), and inversely with stereotypic
behaviour (p < 0.001) and general activity level (p = 0.003). PC2 was significantly positively associated with
stereotypic behaviour (p < 0.001), environmental interaction (p = 0.040) and general activity level (p < 0.001),
and inversely with awake inactivity (p = 0.002). Valence scores revealed no significant effect of time of day nor
day, however a significant effect was found between early to mid-day on arousal scores (p = 0.015). The results
provide evidence of sensitivity and some evidence of validity by associations of QBA with other welfare indicators.
QBA may therefore potentially serve to assess emotional state in polar bears, needing only to be carried
out once in the short term. Although the proposed list may benefit from additional validation and reliability
testing, this study takes the first step towards a standardised QBA for polar bears.
... It is an "integrative welfare assessment tool" (Wemelsfelder et al. 2001) in which the observer unconsciously integrates information from the animal's behavior (Wemelsfelder 1997). It has been used so far to assess the welfare of mammals (Wickham et al. 2015, Gutmann et al. 2015, Stagni et al. 2022, Warner et al. 2022, birds (Muri et al. 2019), and fish (Jarvis et al. 2005). ...
... Despite still being limited, the application of QBA in nondomesticated species is growing, especially in zoo and sanctuary settings (Patel et al. 2019;Pollastri et al. 2021;Stagni et al. 2022;Warner et al. 2022;Skovlund et al. 2023). Primates have thus far been underrepresented (Gartland et al. 2022) despite the need for quick and reliable animal-, rather than resource-based, welfare assessments in this taxon. ...
Human evaluation of animal emotional expressivity can inform animal welfare. Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) has been applied to domesticated and some non-domesticated animals, but its use in primates is limited despite their emotional expressivity. We aimed to develop and apply a QBA for bonobos (Pan paniscus) through two consecutive studies. We applied Free Choice Profiling (FCP) and the Fixed List methodology, respectively, in Study 1 and 2, and invited students and bonobo experts to rate video clips of zoo-living bonobos of different sexes and age classes, and before and after moving to a new enclosure. In Study 1, students described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'angry/active' and dimension 2 from 'sad/ anxious' to 'happy/loving'. Experts described dimension 1 ranging from 'quiet/relaxed' to 'nervous/alert' and dimension 2 from 'nervous/bored' to 'playful/happy'. Using a fixed list of descriptors, informed by findings from Study 1, students in Study 2 described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'agitated/frustrated', and dimension 2 from 'sad/stressed' to 'happy/ positively engaged'. Experts described dimension 1 as ranging from 'quiet/calm' to 'active/ excited', and dimension 2 from 'sad/bored' to 'happy/positively engaged'. Students scored adults as more 'calm/quiet' and experts scored subadults as more 'happy/positively engaged'. Additionally , experts in Study 2 rated bonobos as more 'active/excited' in their new enclosure. Reliability was moderate to good for the dimensions. Additionally, animal-directed empathy of observers influenced QBA scores. This is the first time, FCP has been successfully used as a method to study primate emotional expressivity. Our findings show the promise of employing QBA in primate studies and in industry, with validation of additional metrics to enable its use for welfare-monitoring purposes.
... In general, QBA scoring is based on a list of species-relevant terms related to the different dimensions of emotion. The term list can either be generated ad hoc by individual observers based on observations (free choice profiling, see Clarke et al. [154]), or as a fixed-term list that may be constructed by expert or stakeholder consultation and/or by scanning the relevant literature [155,156]. ...
Ensuring high standards of animal welfare is not only an ethical duty for zoos and aquariums, but it is also essential to achieve their conservation, education, and research goals. While for some species, animal welfare assessment frameworks are already in place, little has been done for marine animals under human care. Responding to this demand, the welfare committee of the European Association for Aquatic Mammals (EAAM) set up a group of experts on welfare science, cetacean biology, and zoo animal medicine across Europe. Their objective was to develop a comprehensive tool to evaluate the welfare of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), named Dolphin-WET. The tool encompasses 49 indicators that were either validated through peer review or management-based expertise. The first of its kind, the Dolphin-WET is a species-specific welfare assessment tool that provides a holistic approach to evaluating dolphin welfare. Inspired by Mellor’s Five Domains Model and the Welfare Quality®, its hierarchical structure allows for detailed assessments from overall welfare down to specific indicators. Through combining 37 animal-based and 12 resource-based indicators that are evaluated based on a two- or three-level scoring, the protocol offers a detailed evaluation of individual dolphins. This approach allows for regular internal monitoring and targeted welfare management, enabling caretakers to address specific welfare concerns effectively.
A complete assessment of animal welfare requires not just an understanding of negative emotional states, such as fear and anxiety, but also of positive states, such as calmness and happiness. However, few studies have identified accurate and reliable indicators of positive emotional states in dogs. This study aimed to identify parameters that may serve as indicators of short-term emotional states in dogs. Using a cross-over design, 60 dogs living at a research facility were exposed to six different 10-min scenarios expected to elicit responses varying in emotional valence and arousal. A range of behavioural and physiological parameters were collected and their relationship to anticipated emotional valence and arousal was analysed using linear and logistic mixed models. Cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone, heart rate variability, panting, whining, and body shake all demonstrated significant differences based on arousal levels, but only within negative valence scenarios. Scores from a qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) were associated with both emotional valence and arousal and were considered the best indicator of positive valence. Activity, ear temperature, and sitting were associated with positive high arousal, although this may have been influenced by differing levels of movement induced during these scenarios. Meanwhile, heart rate, secretory immunoglobulin A, standing and lying all showed similar changes associated with arousal for both positive and negative valence scenarios. This study provides a critical first step towards identifying evidence-based indicators of short-term emotional states in dogs, while highlighting considerations that should be made when employing these parameters, including the influence of coder bias, food provision, exercise, and external temperature. Overall, it is recommended future dog emotion and welfare research use a combination of parameters including indicators of both emotional valence and arousal.
This study aimed to investigate how three groups of people of differing ages, and with differing knowledge of the species, perceived the emotional state of African elephants (Loxodonta africana) managed in captive and semi-captive environments. Fifteen video-clips of 18 elephants, observed during three different daily routines (release from and return to the night boma; interactions with visitors), were used for a free choice profiling assessment (FCP) and then analyzed with quantitative methods. A general Procrustes analysis identified two main descriptive dimensions of elephant behavioral expression explaining 27% and 19% of the variability in the children group, 19% and 23.7% in adults, and 21.8% and 17% in the expert group. All the descriptors the observers came up with showed a low level of correlation on the identified dimensions. All three observers’ groups showed a degree of separation between captive and semi-captive management. Spearman analyses showed that stereotypic “trunk swirling” behavior correlated negatively with first dimension (free/friendly versus sad/bored) in the children’s group; second dimension (agitated/confident versus angry/bored) amongst the adults; and first dimension (active/excited versus agitated/bored) amongst the experts. More studies are needed to investigate other potential differences in assessing elephants’ emotional states by visitors of different ages and backgrounds.
Welfare assessment is a tool to both identify welfare challenges and to evidence where current husbandry practices support positive welfare outcomes. Such tools are becoming more available and can be amended based on the nature of the facility and needs of taxonomic groups. Currently, welfare assessment has a strong mammalian theme, and some behavioural measures of welfare commonly applied to mammals do not translate well for other taxa. This paper provides a method for welfare assessment of Anseriformes; widely housed, diverse bird species kept under a range of management styles. A mixture of resource-based (i.e., determination of aspects of the physical environment or the bird’s physical appearance or activity) and animal-based (i.e., observations that equate to a bird’s feelings or personality characteristics) measures are integrated to enable a full review of potential predictors of welfare. The method provides a rapid and valid way for all personnel to collect information that evaluates quality-of-life experiences of the Anseriformes under their care. Explanations of key terminology are provided to enable repeatable and reliable assessment for all persons using the tool. Suggestions for follow-up actions are provided to emphasise why the welfare assessment process needs to be one of continual re-evaluation of animal care.
Zoological institutions have come a long way over the past 20 years in their measurement and evaluation of animal behaviour and welfare. Environments that enable the performance of biologically relevant activity patterns, which increase behavioural diversity and ensure appetitive behaviours can be completed in full, are commonplace in zoos globally. The use of species-specific environmental enrichment (EE) techniques, where the effect of EE is evaluated and refined, further enhance the opportunities for species to experience positive welfare in zoos. What is still required is evaluation of the lasting effect of such husbandry and housing changes that provide meaningful long-term welfare improvements. To provide evidence for best practice management, benchmarks at a species-specific level are required that are comparable across husbandry and management regimes, as well as across environmental conditions in which captive populations occur. One such method for addressing individual-level welfare state is Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA), an approach increasingly used in domestic animal industries to measure the individual's perception of the situation it finds itself within. This paper provides an outline of the relevance of QBA to those working in the field of zoo animal husbandry to show how valid and objective measurements of welfare state can be taken of individuals living in zoos in a range of different situations. An evaluation of the current literature shows the depth and breadth of QBA application and the paper provides suggestions for future areas of research investigation and a practical usage in the zoo. It is shown how QBA can be used to target the application of EE to meet specific husbandry needs or promote key welfare-positive behaviour. The paper evaluates the relevance of positive challenge "eustress" to captive species and identifies areas for the wider application of QBA across captive population and institutions to further support the key aims of the modern zoo. The paper provides coverage of literature on QBA in the domestic animal field and attempts to apply these methods to a zoo-based example. The paper concludes by evaluating why zoos need to consider the results of qualitative, multi-institution studies and how the results of this can be utilised to improve husbandry and animal experiences in the zoo.
Elephants are charismatic, cognitively highly-developed animals, whose management conditions can vary along a “wild–captive continuum.” Several protocols have been proposed for the assessment of zoo elephants’ welfare. It is important to investigate the possible limitations, if any, of extending findings from zoo elephants to conspecifics in a different dynamic in said “wild–captive continuum.” In this paper, findings regarding two issues will be discussed: those regarding the external validity and those regarding the acceptability of management procedures as applied to semi-captive (i.e., able to roam freely for part of the day) elephants involved in visitor-interaction programs in South Africa. In a questionnaire-based survey, half of the responding experts stated that at least some of the welfare issues they ranked as the five most important in captive elephants’ management had a different relevance for semi-captive individuals, resulting in 23.6% of the issues being rated differently. Moreover, there was no agreement among the experts on the ethical acceptability of any of the investigated procedures used in the management of semi-captive elephants involved in visitor-interaction programs. Caution is thus needed when exporting findings from one subpopulation of animals to another kept in different conditions and more scientific and ethical research is needed on the topic.
The shelter environment may have a severe impact on the dogs’ quality of life, and there is thus a need to develop valid tools to assess their welfare. These tools should be sensitive not only to the animals’ physical health but also to their mental health, including the assessment of positive and negative emotions. Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) is a ‘whole animal’ measure that captures the expressive quality of an animal’s demeanour, using descriptive terms such as ‘relaxed’, ‘anxious’, and ‘playful’. In this study, for the first time, we developed and tested a fixed-list of qualitative QBA terms for application to kennelled dogs. A list of 20 QBA terms was developed based on literature search and an expert opinion survey. Inter-observer reliability was investigated by asking 11 observers to use these terms to score 13 video clips of kennelled dogs. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to extract four main dimensions explaining 70.9% of the total variation between clips. PC1 characterised curious/playful/excitable/sociable demeanour, PC2 ranged from comfortable/relaxed to anxious/nervous/stressed expression, PC3 described fearful demeanour, and PC4 characterised bored/depressed demeanour. Observers’ agreement on the ranking of video clips on these four expressive dimensions was good (Kendall’s W: 0.60–0.80). ANOVA showed a significant effect of observer on mean clip score on all PCs (p<0.05), due to few observers scoring differently from the rest of the group. Results indicate the potential of the proposed list of QBA terms for sheltered dogs to serve, in alignment with other measures, as a non-invasive assessment tool. However, the observer effect on mean PC scores points towards the need for adequate observer training, particularly in live scoring conditions. The QBA scoring tool can be integrated with existing welfare assessment protocols for shelter dogs and strengthen the power of those protocols to evaluate the animals’ experience in shelters.
Assessing emotional states of dairy calves is an essential part of welfare assessment, but standardized protocols are absent. The present study aims at assessing the emotional states of dairy calves and establishing a reliable standard procedure with Qualitative Behavioral Assessment (QBA) and 20 defined terms. Video material was used to compare multiple observer results. Further, live observations were performed on 49 dairy herds in Denmark and Italy. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) identified observer agreement and QBA dimensions (PC). For achieving overall welfare judgment, PC1-scores were turned into the Welfare Quality (WQ) criterion ‘Positive Emotional State’. Finally, farm factors’ influence on the WQ criterion was evaluated by mixed linear models. PCA summarized QBA descriptors as PC1 ‘Valence’ and PC2 ‘Arousal’ (explained variation 40.3% and 13.3%). The highest positive descriptor loadings on PC1 was Happy (0.92) and Nervous (0.72) on PC2. The WQ-criterion score (WQ-C12) was on average 51.1 ± 9.0 points (0: worst to 100: excellent state) and ‘Number of calves’, ‘Farming style’, and ‘Breed’ explained 18% of the variability of it. We conclude that the 20 terms achieved a high portion of explained variation providing a differentiated view on the emotional state of calves. The defined term list proved to need good training for observer agreement.
This study tested the reliability of a Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) protocol developed for the Norwegian Sheep House (FåreBygg) project. The aim was to verify whether QBA scores were consistent between different observers, i.e., inter-observer reliability, and between scorings of the same observers on different time points, i.e., intra-observer reliability. Six trained observers, including two veterinary students, two animal welfare inspectors and two sheep farmers observed sheep in 16 videos, and independently scored 14 pre-defined behavioural descriptors on visual analogue scales (VAS). The procedure was repeated one week after the first scoring session. QBA scores were analysed using Principal Component Analysis. Inter- and intra-observer agreement was assessed using Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (W). Principal component 1 (PC 1) and 2 (PC 2) combined explained >60% of the total variation in the QBA scores in both scoring sessions. PC 1 (44.5% in sessions 1 and 2) ranged from the positive descriptors calm, content, relaxed and friendly to the negative descriptors uneasy, vigilant and fearful, and was therefore labelled mood. PC 2 (18% in session 1, 16.6% in session 2) ranged from bright to dejected and apathetic, and was therefore labelled arousal. Kendall’s coefficient of concordance of PC 1 for all observers was high in the two scoring sessions (W = 0.87 and 0.85, respectively), indicating good inter-observer reliability. For PC 2, the agreement for all observers was moderate in both video sessions (W = 0.45 and 0.65). The intra-observer agreement was very high for all observers for PC 1 (W > 0.9) except for one, where the agreement was considered to be high (W = 0.89). For PC 2, Kendall’s coefficient was very high for the veterinary students and interpreted as moderate for the two farmers and welfare inspectors. This study indicates that the QBA approach and the terms included in the Fårebygg protocol were reliable for assessing video recordings of sheep behaviour when applied by trained observers, regardless of whether they were a veterinary student, animal welfare inspector or sheep farmer. Further work is needed to examine the reliability of the QBA protocol when tested on-farms for sheep managed under Norwegian housing systems.
Human-animal relationships (HAR) in zoos develop from repeated interactions between animals and their caretakers. HAR have been shown to affect health and welfare in farm animals, but limited zoobased studies exist. This study investigates the association between qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) of emotional expression in giraffes and keeper action score in four types of keeper animal interaction (KAI). Three giraffes were filmed during these KAI events generating 38 clips. QBA, using a Free Choice Profiling methodology, was applied instructing 18 observers to assess giraffe expressions shown in these clips. QBA scores were analysed using Generalized Procrustes Analysis. Keeper actions during each KAI event were rated by an independent marker, resulting in cumulative scores for keeper action quality. The association between QBA and keeper action was analyzed using Spearman's rank correlations. Two main QBA dimensions were identified explaining 59% of the variation between clips. There were significant effects of giraffe and KAI type on QBA dimension 2 (inquisitive/impatient-calm/distracted), and significant positive associations between keeper action quality rating and QBA dimensions 1 and 2, indicating that within the limited scope of this study, positive keeper actions resulted in calm and confident giraffes with a willingness to interact. This is the first application of QBA to empirically addressing HARs in zoos, however given the small sample size of giraffes in this study, it can be regarded as a pilot study only, and further research is needed to validate the use of QBA in this context.
There has been much concern in recent years about the welfare of elephants in zoos across North America and Europe. While some previous studies have assessed captive elephant welfare at a particular point in time, there has been little work to develop methods which could be used for regular, routine welfare assessment. Such assessment is important in order to track changes in welfare over time. A welfare assessment tool should be rapid, reliable, and simple to complete, without requiring specialist training and facilities; welfare assessments based on behavioural observations are well suited to this purpose. This report describes the development of a new elephant behavioural welfare assessment tool designed for routine use by elephant keepers. Tool development involved: (i) identification of behavioural indicators of welfare from the literature and from focus groups with relevant stakeholders; (ii) development of a prototype tool; (iii) testing of the tool at five UK zoological institutions, involving 29 elephants (representing 46% of the total UK captive elephant population of 63 animals); (iv) assessment of feasibility and reliability of aspects of the prototype tool; (v) assessment of the validity of each element of the tool to reflect the relevant behaviour by comparing detailed behavioural observations with data from the prototype tool; (vi) assessment of known-groups criterion validity by comparing prototype tool scores in individuals with demographics associated with better or worse welfare; (vii) development of a finalised tool which incorporated all elements of the tool which met the criteria set for validity and reliability. Elements of the tool requiring further consideration are discussed, as are considerations for appropriate application and interpretation of scores. This novel behavioural welfare assessment tool can be used by elephant-holding facilities for routine behavioural welfare monitoring, which can inform adjustments to individual welfare plans for each elephant in their collection, to help facilities further assess and improve captive elephant welfare. This study provides an example of how an evidence-based behavioural welfare assessment tool for use by animal caretakers can be developed within the constraints of zoo-based research, which could be applied to a range of captive species.
Land transport is an unavoidable experience for most livestock, yet there is limited research comparing animal welfare under different conditions. We video recorded sheep responses during short (2 h) commercial road transport journeys. Using Qualitative Behavioural Assessment, observers (blinded to the treatments) scored the behavioural expression of sheep and reached significant consensus in their scoring patterns (p < 0.001). There were also significant effects of vehicle crate design (sheep transported in a ‘standard’ crate were more calm/relaxed than those transported in a ‘convertible’ crate), deck position (sheep on upper decks were more curious/alert than those on lower decks), and sheep breed (fat-tail sheep were more agitated/distressed than merino sheep) on observer scores. We only found marginal differences for sheep originating from feedlot or saleyard. Significant effects of vehicle driver (included as a random factor in all but one of our analyses) suggest driving patterns contributed to demeanour of the sheep. Finally, the fourteen drivers who participated in the study were asked their opinions on livestock transport; none of the factors we tested were identified by drivers as important for sheep welfare during transport. This study supports the use of qualitative measures in transport and revealed differences that could inform truck design.
This research investigated whether using qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) with a fixed list of descriptors may be related to quantitative animal- (ABM) and resource-based (RBM) measures included in the AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) welfare assessment prototype protocol for goats, tested in 60 farms. A principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted on QBA descriptors; then PCs were correlated to some ABMs and RBMs. Subsequently, a combined PCA merged QBA scores, ABMs and RBMs. The study confirms that QBA can identify the differences in goats' emotions, but only few significant correlations were found with ABMs and RBMs. In addition, the combined PCA revealed that goats with a normal hair coat were scored as more relaxed and sociable. A high farm workload was related to bored and suffering goats, probably because farmers that can devote less time to animals may fail to recognise important signals from them. Goats were scored as sociable, but also alert, in response to the presence of an outdoor run, probably because when outdoors they received more stimuli than indoors and were more attentive to the surroundings. Notwithstanding these results, the holistic approach of QBA may allow to register animals' welfare from a different perspective and be complementary to other measures.
We aimed to verify whether Continuous Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (10 observers used a list of six qualitative descriptors) paired with Temporal Dominant Behavioural Expression (the same observers were asked to select the dominant descriptor and to score its intensity level) was able to monitor fluctuations of animal behaviour expression over time. We applied these techniques to three groups of juvenile goats either weaned (group C), or un-weaned (groups WOM and WM). Each animal was separated from its group, moved to group C and tested for 30 min either while their mothers were at pasture, or while their mothers were in an adjacent pen (group WOM and WM, respectively). Animals from group C were separated from their group and immediately reintroduced to it. TDBE duration and score of each descriptor of behavioural expression were able to detect differences among groups but were unable to describe how the behaviour of the goats changed as the time progressed. TDBE curves described the evolution of each behavioural expression of each animal over time but were unable to detect differences among groups. The χ² test conducted on peaks of dominance, albeit displaying the variations of the behavioural expression over time and allowing the assessment of differences among groups, focussed on occurrences of higher agreement between observers while neglecting most of the information concerning the descriptors above the level of significance. Conversely, based on mixed analysis of variance with the fixed effects of group, test interval and group x test interval (animal nested into group and observer were considered to be random), most of the descriptors were able to discriminate the three experimental groups while preserving the information on the fluctuations of the behavioural expression of the animals during the test.
Cognitive bias tests are frequently used to assess affective state in nonhumans. We adapted the ambiguous-cue paradigm to assess affective states and to compare learning of reward associations in two distantly related species, an American black bear and three Western lowland gorillas. Subjects were presented with three training stimuli: one that was always rewarded (P), one that was never rewarded (N) and one that was ambiguous (A) because its reward association depended on whether it had been paired with P (PA pairing) or N (NA pairing). Differential learning of NA and PA pairs provided insight into affective state as the bear and one gorilla learned NA pairs more readily, indicating that they focused on cues of reinforcement more than cues of non-reinforcement, whereas the opposite was true of one gorilla. A third gorilla did not learn either pairings at above chance levels. Although all subjects experienced difficulty learning the pairings, we were able to assess responses to A during probe trials in the bear and one gorilla. Both responded optimistically, but it was difficult to determine whether their responses were a true reflection of affective state or were due to preferences for specific stimuli.
Three brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos) individuals and two sloth bear (Melursus ursinus inornatus) individuals were observed in captivity to produce behavioural profiles for each individual. Data collected through behavioural observations were used to produce activity budgets, and to identify space usage and certain aspects of social behavior. Behaviour monitoring allowed the researchers to evaluate the welfare of the animals by identifying the occurrence of stereotypic behaviours, which are sometimes associated with stress. Behavioural profiles were created using data obtained through behavioural observations (coding) and keeper questionnaires (rating). The behavioural observations indicated a number of stereotypic behaviours in sloth bears but not in brown bears. The uniformity of zone usage was calculated to investigate if the enclosure size and features were adequate for use, and a social aspect of otherwise solitary animals was also identified. The behavioural profiles generated through coding and rating were compared to determine the reliability between these two methods in Ursids. Profiles were not compared between individuals since this study is not a comparison between different personality types but rather an effort (one of the few ones existing in literature) to select a valid and reproducible methodology capable of assessing personality in bears.
Qualitative methods of behavioural assessment use observer rating scales to score the overall demeanour or body language of animals. Establishing the reliability of such holistic approaches requires test and validation of the methods used. Here, we compare two methodologies used in Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA): Fixed-Lists (FL) and Free-Choice Profiling (FCP). A laboratory class of 27 students was separated into two groups of 17 and 10 students (FL and FCP respectively). The FL group were given a list of 20 descriptive terms (used by the European Union’s Welfare Quality® program), shown videos of group-housed sows, and as a group discussed how they would apply the descriptive terms in an assessment. The FCP group were shown the same footage but individually generated their own descriptive terms to describe body language of the animals. Both groups were then shown 18 video clips of group-housed sows and scored each clip using a visual analogue scale (VAS) system. We analysed the VAS scores using Generalised Procrustes Analysis (GPA) for each observer group separately, which indicated high inter-observer reliability for both groups (FL: 71.1% of scoring variation explained, and FCP: 63.5%). There were significant correlations between FL and FCP scores (GPA dimension 1: r16 = 0.946, P < 0.001, GPA dimension 2: r16 = 0.477, P = 0.045). Additional analysis of the raw VAS scores for the FL group by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) produced four factors; PC1 scores were correlated with GPA1 (r16 = 0.984, P < 0.001) and PC3 scores correlated with GPA2 (r16 = 0.880, P < 0.001). Kendall’s coefficient of concordance (a measure of observer agreement) of the VAS scores indicated statistically significant agreement in use of the 20 descriptive terms (W range 0.37–0.64; all significant at P<0.001, although a value of W >0.7 is usually accepted to show strong agreement). This study demonstrates that, regardless of whether they are given their terms or are allowed to generate their own, observers score sow body language in a similar way. Strengths and weaknesses within the two methods were identified, which highlight the importance of providing thorough and consistent training of observers, including providing good quality training footage so that the full repertoire of demeanours can be identified.
The welfare of captive bears became a big issue of concern in Poland when a case of a bear being ill-treated became a high-profile case in the media. This case created a challenge to verify, study, and understand the main problems associated with bear keeping so that zoos could significantly improve the conditions in which they keep bears or ensure they keep bears at the minimum required standards. The results presented here are from 1 of the few countrywide studies of captive bear conditions conducted in all the captive institutions in Poland that keep bears. Thirteen institutions kept bears at the time of the study (2007-2009), including 54 individuals of 5 species. Major welfare problems were identified, and the results have been used to challenge zoos to address the changes required and focus the government's attention on areas that require legislative improvement.
Maślak R., Sergiel A., Bowles D., Paśko Ł. (2016): The Welfare of Bears in Zoos: A Case Study of Poland. Journal Of Applied Animal Welfare Science 19/1: 24-36.
Studying diet is fundamental to animal ecology and scat analysis, a widespread approach, is considered a reliable dietary proxy. Nonetheless, this method has weaknesses such as non-random sampling of habitats and individuals, inaccurate evaluation of excretion date, and lack of assessment of inter-individual dietary variability. We coupled GPS telemetry and scat analyses of black bears Ursus americanus Pallas to relate diet to individual characteristics and habitat use patterns while foraging. We captured 20 black bears (6 males and 14 females) and fitted them with GPS/Argos collars. We then surveyed GPS locations shortly after individual bear visits and collected 139 feces in 71 different locations. Fecal content (relative dry matter biomass of ingested items) was subsequently linked to individual characteristics (sex, age, reproductive status) and to habitats visited during foraging bouts using Brownian bridges based on GPS locations prior to feces excretion. At the population level, diet composition was similar to what was previously described in studies on black bears. However, our individual-based method allowed us to highlight different intra-population patterns, showing that sex and female reproductive status had significant influence on individual diet. For example, in the same habitats, females with cubs did not use the same food sources as lone bears. Linking fecal content (i.e., food sources) to habitat previously visited by different individuals, we demonstrated a potential differential use of similar habitats dependent on individual characteristics. Females with cubs-of-the-year tended to use old forest clearcuts (6-20 years old) to feed on bunchberry, whereas females with yearling foraged for blueberry and lone bears for ants. Coupling GPS telemetry and scat analyses allows for efficient detection of inter-individual or inter-group variations in foraging strategies and of linkages between previous habitat use and food consumption, even for cryptic species. This approach could have interesting ecological implications, such as supporting the identification of habitats types abundant in important food sources for endangered species targeted by conservation measures or for management actions for depredating animals.
The U.S. is one of the last countries allowing invasive research on chimpanzees. Biomedical research on chimpanzees commonly involves maternal deprivation, social isolation, intensive confinement, and repetitive invasive procedures. These physically harmful and psychologically traumatic experiences cause many chimpanzees to develop symptoms of psychopathology that persist even after relocation from laboratories to sanctuaries. Through semi-structured interviews with chimpanzee caregivers, direct behavioral observations, and consultation of laboratory records, we were interested in qualitatively analyzing symptoms of psychological distress in a sample of 253 chimpanzees rescued from biomedical research now residing at an accredited chimpanzee sanctuary. We present the results of this analysis and include an illustrative case study of one rescued chimpanzee who engages in self-injurious behaviors and meets modified DSM-IV criteria for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. We discuss our results in light of recent policy changes regarding the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research in the U.S. and their implications for those involved in the rescue and rehabilitation of chimpanzees from biomedical research.
Qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) is based on observers’ ability to capture the dynamic complexity of an animal’s demeanour as it interacts with the environment, in terms such as tense, anxious or relaxed. Sensitivity to context is part of QBA’s integrative capacity and discriminatory power; however, when not properly managed it can also be a source of undesirable variability and bias. This study investigated the sensitivity of QBA to variations in the visual or verbal information provided to observers, using free-choice profiling (FCP) methodology. FCP allows observers to generate their own descriptive terms for animal demeanour, against which each animal’s expressions are quantified on a visual analogue scale. The resulting scores were analysed with Generalised Procrustes Analysis (GPA), generating two or more multi-variate dimensions of animal expression. Study 1 examined how 63 observers rated the same video clips of individual sheep during land transport, when these clips were interspersed with two different sets of video footage. Scores attributed to the sheep in the two viewing sessions correlated significantly (GPA dimension 1: rs=0.95, P
The decision to perform euthanasia in geriatric zoo mammals is usually a highly complex procedure involving ethical, medical, emotional and sometimes political factors. However, subsequent necropsies show that the pathological changes of organs and/or the musculoskeletal system are often already advanced. Therefore, we hypothesise that euthanasia is often delayed to the detriment of the animal's welfare. The purpose of this study was to facilitate and establish an initial, objective, decision-making framework for the euthanasia of geriatric zoo mammals. A scoring-system to assess the physical condition and quality of life in ageing zoo mammals is presented, based on retrospective and prospective investigation of 70 geriatric zoo mammals in five European zoos. Medical records and necropsy reports were studied in retrospective cases. Symptoms were monitored and recorded in prospective cases. Radiographic investigations under general anesthesia or at necropsy were performed additionally. A significant association between symptoms and pathological findings revealed that 36.9% (n = 24/65) of examined animals (n = 41/65) had pathological alterations to the musculoskeletal system and 26.2% (n = 17/65) suffered from neoplasia. Based on the individual reports, 28 veterinarians from different fields of veterinary medicine concluded that these animals had mild to severe pain, discomfort and a significantly reduced quality of life, thus strongly reducing welfare. The proposed scoring system includes all of these factors and offers a simple and reliable tool to support decision-making for euthanasia in geriatric zoo mammals.
Cognitive bias tasks purport to assess affective states via responses to ambiguous stimuli. We hypothesized that a novel cognitive bias task based on positive reinforcement using quantity differences would detect changes in affect in captive grizzly bears (Ursus arctos horribilis). We trained bears (n = 8) to respond differently (nose or paw touch) to two stimuli (light or dark gray cue cards), with responses counterbalanced across bears. The two cues signaled a small or large food reward, respectively. Responses to ambiguous probe stimuli (i.e., shades of gray) intermediate to the trained stimuli were classified as either 'optimistic,' appropriate for the larger reward, or 'pessimistic,' appropriate for the smaller reward. In Experiment 1, we explored the contrast in reward size necessary to detect a change in response across probe stimuli (large reward, 3 or 6 apple slices: small reward, 1 slice). We observed a change in response across probe stimuli, with no difference in response between reward-value groups, indicating that a contrast of 3:1 apple slices was sufficient to affect responses. In Experiment 2, we investigated cognitive bias after 2.1 h of exposure to enrichment items varying in attractiveness. Results were unaffected by enrichment type or time spent interacting with enrichments, indicating that the task failed to demonstrate criterion validity for comparing mood following exposure to different enrichment items. However, greater time spent pacing prior to testing was associated with 'optimistic' judgments. The data provide some support for use of cognitive bias tasks based on quantity differences in animal welfare assessments involving captive wildlife.
Challenges are there to be overcome – seen usually as problems to avoid rather than as opportunities to enjoy. However, for humans a life without challenge would be likely to be dull and boring, lacking the enthusiasm and satisfaction that come with individual development. Could this also be true for animals? This chapter looks at the positive value of engaging with environmental challenges for animal welfare, proposing that this value lies in an animal’s expression of agency and the enhanced functional competence that it gains through this. It explores the different facets of agency, and provides more detailed discussion of key elements such as problem solving, exploration and play, as well as discussing responses to challenge and how an animal’s welfare affected if it is prevented from performing behaviours of this kind. The final sections of the chapter consider how monotonous, predictable, captive environments may lead to apathy and boredom, and
prevent animals from experiencing a positive quality of life. Agency should be regarded as an integrative capacity that works across specific modules of organization and, as such, forms an important condition for an animal’s overal well-being and health.
Visitors are normally a prominent and constant feature in a zoo animals’ environment with more than 700 million people visiting zoos and aquariums worldwide, annually. Animal-visitor interactions can be enriching and stimulating and are now considered within the Five Domains of animal welfare assessment. Zoo closures as a result of COVID-19 provided a unique opportunity to monitor the impact of abrupt and prolonged removal of visitors on two popular zoo species. Data were collected at four facilities (n = 3 slender-tailed meerkats, n = 1 African penguin) during COVID-19 zoo closures and up to one month following reopening to the public. Meerkats showed increased positive social interactions, increased alert behaviours, and reduced environmental interactions in the first month post-opening, as compared to closure periods. They also used more of their enclosures during periods of closure and spent longer than would be expected in zones furthest from visitor viewing areas when facilities reopened. African penguins showed no behavioural change between open and closure periods. Enclosure usage during both observation periods was relatively even and no differences were observed in enclosure use between open and closure periods. These results will enable an advanced understanding of the impact that people have on the behaviour of zoo animals, which has ramifications for animals used in close encounters and other ‘visitor experiences’ in the future. Understanding relationships between animals and people is applicable in all managed animal settings. The results from this study are of practical use in managing visitor access to animals moving forwards, including enclosure location and design, to ensure a positive visitor experience that does not negatively impact animal behaviour.
The presence of domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) in natural areas can generate several environmental problems, such as competition with other species, disease transmission, and predation. Male cats generally tend to be more territorial than female cats. Male cats also tend to have larger home ranges than female cats. In this study, we used radio-telemetry monitoring to demonstrate the significant effect of the castration of males in reducing the home range of cats living in semi-domiciliary conditions that have access to natural areas. The home range was calculated based on the minimum convex polygon method (we use 100% of the location points collected in each period: before and after castration), and the kernel method fixed points (95% of the locations in each period). We also determine the size of the activity centers for each individual using the fixed kernel method (including 25 or 50% of each animal's location points collected in each period). As a consequence of this reduced home range (by 79.32%), a reduction in the overlap between domiciliary and natural areas was also observed. The male cats’ activity patterns also decreased significantly (28.72%). Thus, the castration procedure, in addition to its potential effects on population control, may be a possible strategy for wildlife conservation.
Discussions on the welfare of nonhuman animals in zoos tend to focus on incremental improvements without addressing the underlying problem of captivity. But alterations to the conditions of zoo captivity are irrelevant for animals. Real zoo reform will involve working to completely change the landscape. We offer six necessary reforms to bring zoos into a more ethical future: (1) Shut down bad zoos, now; (2) stop exhibiting animals who cannot and never will do well in captivity; (3) stop killing healthy animals; (4) stop captive breeding; (5) stop moving animals around from one zoo to another; and (6) use the science of animal cognition and emotion on behalf on animals.
Asiatic black bears face chronic stress in bile farms while Animals Asia rescues black bears from bile farms and rehabilitates them into sanctuaries that are supported with environmental enrichment and veterinary care to improve animal welfare. In this study, we investigated whether bile farmed bears show significantly high levels of stress at rescue and whether stress levels reduce over time in the bear sanctuary. We measured stress hormone levels using faecal cortisol metabolites (FCM) in 16 Asiatic black bears freshly rescued from bile farms in Vietnam. Fresh faeces were collected from each bear on the rescue truck and on a weekly basis for 22-week study period at a bear Sanctuary in Vietnam. Results showed that individual FCM levels of all 16 rescued bears, except one, from truck samples were above mean baseline FCMs of bears previously rehabilitated to a bear sanctuary. This result suggested that the majority of the rescued bears were still capable of showing a stress endocrine response during the rescue operation despite being exposed to conditions causing chronic stress in bears on bile farms. Results showed that mean FCM levels of the rescued bears were significantly different between time periods (higher at the rescue (on truck samples) compared to week 22 samples) and mean FCM levels showed an overall declining pattern over the first 22 weeks after they arrived at the bear sanctuary. The bears also demonstrated acute FCM stress responses to management interventions at the sanctuary such as veterinary health checks and transportation. In conclusion, rescued bears tend to modulate their stress endocrine response after rehoming at the bear sanctuary. This is an important result indicating that the rescue effort and rehabilitation of bile farm bears is effective. Whether this also coincides with behavioural adjustments in rehabilitating bears (e.g. lessening of stereotypic behaviour) warrants further investigation.
Mastitis and associated pain have been identified as a major health and welfare problem affecting dairy cows, however little is known about how cows emotionally experience this illness. Qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) is a ‘whole animal’ methodology for assessing animal emotion, through description and quantification of the expressive qualities of an animal's dynamic style of behaving (eg as relaxed, anxious). The aim of this study was to use QBA to investigate whether emotional expression in dairy cows is affected by an experimental intra-mammary challenge (mastitis) with Escherichia coli, and to investigate the relationship of QBA scores with nine other clinical, physiological and behavioural welfare indicators. Six Holstein-Friesian cows were inoculated with E. coli in one healthy quarter. Evolution of the disease was assessed using bacteriological growth and somatic cell counts (SCC). The cows’ response to the challenge was assessed using QBA, clinical observations, data loggers, rumen temperature sensor, and physiological indicators (inflammation, stress) at ten time-points defining the phase of the disease: before inoculation (Phase 0: 0 h), in the pre-clinical Phase (Phase 1: 8 h), in the acute phase (Phase 2: 12 h, 16 h, 24 h) and in the remission phase (Phase 3: 32 h, 40 h, 56 h, 64 h and 80 h post-inoculation (hpi)). Principal Component Analysis of QBA scores identified two main dimensions of cow expression: PC1, ranging from active/vigorous/happy/bright to suffering/dejected/lethargic, and PC2, ranging from fearful/tense/anxious to confident/calm/relaxed, together explaining 58% of the total variation. QBA PC1 and PC2 scores varied with mastitis phases: QBA PC1 scores decreased by 4.09 in Phase 2, and by 1.98 in Phase 3, reflecting suffering/dejected/lethargic expressivity. QBA PC2 scores decreased by 1.91 in Phase 3, reflecting a confident/calm/relaxed expressivity. Clinical and physiological welfare indicators were associated with QBA. The higher the udder severity score, the body temperature, the concentrations of cortisol, SAA, TNF-α, and IL-1β, the more the cows were suffering/dejected/lethargic (PC1) (coefficients: -0.51, -0.92, -2.46, 7.52 × 10⁻⁵, -0.72, -1.13 respectively). These findings indicate that dairy cows experienced negative emotional state in the acute phase and positive emotional state in the remission phase of mastitis. This suggests that provision of pain-relief treatment during mastitis may improve animal welfare, and potentially lead to faster disease remission. However the sample size of this study was small, and larger controlled studies are needed to further investigate these findings and hypotheses. The sensitivity of QBA in this small study suggests it could potentially be a useful tool for E. coli mastitis detection.
This study aimed to apply qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) to horses farmed in single boxes, in order to investigate their emotional state and explore its association with indicators of human-animal relationship. A fixed list of 13 QBA descriptive terms was determined. Three assessors experienced with horses and skilled in measuring animal behaviour underwent a common training period, consisting of a theoretical phase and a practical phase on farm. Their inter-observer reliability was tested on a live scoring of 95 single stabled horses. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was conducted to analyse QBA scores and identify perceived patterns of horse expression, both for data obtained in the training phase and from the on-farm study. Given the good level of agreement reached in the training phase (Kendall W = 0.76 and 0.74 for PC1 and PC2 scores respectively), it was considered acceptable in the subsequent on-farm study to let these three observers each carry out QBA assessments on a sub-selection of a total of 355 sport and leisure horses, owned by 40 horse farms. Assessment took place immediately after entering the farms: assessors had never entered the farms before and were unaware of the different backgrounds of the farms. After concluding QBA scoring, the assessors further evaluated each horse with an avoidance distance test (AD) and a forced human approach test (FHA). A MANOVA test was used to assess the association of the AD and FHA tests with the on-farm QBA PC scores. The QBA approach described in this paper was feasible on farm and showed good acceptability by owners. In the analysis of on-farm QBA scores, the first Principal Component ranged from relaxed/at ease to uneasy/alarmed, the second Component ranged from curious/pushy to apathetic. Horses perceived as more relaxed/at ease with QBA showed less avoidance during the AD test (P = 0.0376), and responded less aggressively and fearfully to human presence in the FHA test (P < 0.0001). Our results support the hypothesis that QBA is sensitive to the quality of human contact in horses.
We have an ethical responsibility to provide captive animals with environments that allow them to experience good welfare. Husbandry activities are often scheduled for the convenience of care staff working within the constraints of the facility, rather than considering the biological and psychological requirements of the animals themselves. The animal welfare 24/7 across the lifespan concept provides a holistic framework to map features of the animal's life cycle, taking into account their natural history, in relation to variations in the captive environment, across day and night, weekdays, weekends, and seasons. In order for animals to have the opportunity to thrive, we argue the need to consider their lifetime experience, integrated into the environments we provide, and with their perspective in mind. Here, we propose a welfare assessment tool based upon 14 criteria, to allow care staff to determine if their animals' welfare needs are met. We conclude that animal habitat management will be enhanced with the use of integrated technologies that provide the animals with more opportunities to engineer their own environments, providing them with complexity, choice and control.
Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) is a whole-animal approach used to quantify the expressive style of animals' behaviour. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inter-observer reliability of principal components and individual descriptors from QBA of housed sheep in Norway using a fixed list of descriptors. In part 1, eight animal welfare inspectors from the Norwegian Food Safety Authority scored 12 two-minute video clips, using 12 pre-defined terms. In the second part, three of these observers visited ten sheep farms and scored the behaviour using a modified list of eight terms. The scores for all assessors within each part were analysed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The level of agreement for the first two components and for individual terms was assessed using Kendall's coefficient of concordance (W). In part 1, only seven observers were assessed for reliability of principal components due to missing data, and for these observers the agreement was high for PC1 and moderate for PC2. For the sub-group of three inspectors that also participated in part 2, the reliability was high for both components. In the on-farm assessments in part 2, these three observers obtained only moderate agreement for PC1 and low agreement for PC2. Results illustrate that good reliability can be achieved with QBA for housed sheep using videos, but that equally satisfactory reliability is more difficult to obtain using the method on-farm. The result in part 2 may be related to less-controlled circumstances concerning exactly what the observers see when sheep are kept indoors with high stocking densities, observer drift, and limited between-farm variation, which is a challenge for many types of reliability studies in field conditions.
Dogs housed in shelters may experience poor welfare. To ensure these dogs a good quality of life, welfare assessment tools should be sensitive not only to the animals’ physical health but also to their mental state, including the assessment of positive and negative emotions. In this study, we focused on the assessment of shelter dogs’ emotional expression using a Qualitative Behavioural Assessment (QBA) approach. Previous work successfully applied QBA to assess the emotional state of working and rescue dogs, and the observations were carried out on individual dogs in standardised settings with little or no stimulation. Results from such experiments might not be fully representative of the expressive demeanour that a dog could show in shelter conditions, where animals are exposed to a number of social and environmental stimuli. Thus, our aim was to apply QBA to a wider variety of shelter environments and social contexts than has been done so far, giving the animals the opportunity to express a wider repertoire of emotions and allowing for a more comprehensive assessment of dogs’ affective state. A set of descriptive terms was generated using Free-Choice-Profiling methodology by a group of 13 observers. QBA was made by scoring 16 video clips of shelter dogs in very different contexts (e.g. single/pair/group housing, presence/absence of human activity). Generalised Procrustes Analysis showed a high consensus between observers’ scoring patterns (75.7%; p < 0.001), and generated three main consensus dimensions explaining overall 66.6% of the variation between clips. The terms generated by the observers describing these consensus dimensions were semantically consistent, and characterised dogs as ranging: 1) from “playful/sociable/curious” to “bored/uncomfortable/apathetic”, 2) from “relaxed/tranquil” to “nervous/alert/fearful” and 3) from “stressed/anxious” to “wary/timorous/hesitant”. Overall, these broad dimensions are similar to those described in previous QBA studies on dogs. However, we detected differences in the type or frequency of the terms used, especially concerning three semantic spheres (i.e. “sociability”, “fearfulness” and “boredom”). It appears that, compared to what has been reported previously, by presenting more complex contexts and thus giving the animals the opportunity to express different behaviours, we generated a richer list of terms representing a wider repertoire of emotions. Our results support the notion that QBA can be immediately sensitive to an animal’s circumstances, integrating the ways in which animals experience the conditions in which they live into meaningful emotional indicators. This also highlights the importance of developing QBA tools that are species- and context-specific, especially for applied purposes.
Environmental enrichment in zoos and aquariums is often evaluated at two overlapping levels: published research and day-to-day institutional record keeping. Several authors have discussed ongoing challenges with small sample sizes in between-groups zoological research and have cautioned against the inappropriate use of inferential statistics (Shepherdson, 2003, International Zoo Yearbook, 38, 118–124; Shepherdson, Lewis, Carlstead, Bauman, & Perrin, 2013 Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 147, 298–277; Swaisgood, 2007, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 139–162; Swaisgood & Shepherdson, 2005, Zoo Biology, 24, 499–518). Multi-institutional studies are the typically-prescribed solution, but these are expensive and difficult to carry out. Kuhar (2006 Zoo Biology, 25, 339–352) provided a reminder that inferential statistics are only necessary when one wishes to draw general conclusions at the population level. Because welfare is assessed at the level of the individual animal, we argue that evaluations of enrichment efficacy are often instances in which inferential statistics may be neither necessary nor appropriate. In recent years, there have been calls for the application of behavior-analytic techniques to zoo animal behavior management, including environmental enrichment (e.g., Bloomsmith, Marr, & Maple, 2007, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 205–222; Tarou & Bashaw, 2007, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 189–204). Single-subject (also called single-case, or small-n) designs provide a means of designing evaluations of enrichment efficacy based on an individual's behavior. We discuss how these designs might apply to research and practice goals at zoos and aquariums, contrast them with standard practices in the field, and give examples of how each could be successfully applied in a zoo or aquarium setting.
Recent studies suggest that bears have relatively high cognitive capabilities. However, cognitive processes and problem solving abilities remain relatively unexplored in bear species. We studied the capacity for eight captive brown bears (Ursus arctos) to move and use inanimate objects in order to obtain a food reward. We recorded their behaviors during the problem solving process using a behavioral ethogram. Three items: a large log, a small log and a box were placed in an outdoor enclosure. As the bears progressed through three stages of trials, they would need to manipulate the objects and displace them into the proper location and orientation in order to climb atop to reach a suspended food reward. Completion of the third and final stage was deemed to be evidence of tool use. Six of the eight bears were capable of tool use. Most bears (>90% of trials) were successful in completing the final stage in less than 100 seconds. Bears exhibited behaviors such as head flips, pacing and jumping as the trial length progressed and failure rate increased. Individual bears exhibited different tool preferences and techniques. The bears were capable of applying previously learned skills to novel items. The two bears that did not succeed at tool use were both free range prior to their relocation to the Washington State University Bear Research and Education Center, their prior history may have contributed to their inability to use tools.
The EU-funded Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) research project (2011-2015) aimed to improve animal welfare through the development of practical on-farm animal welfare assessment protocols. The present study describes the application of the AWIN approach to the development of a welfare assessment protocol for horses (Equus caballus). Its development required the following steps: (i) selection of potential welfare indicators; (ii) bridging gaps in knowledge; (iii) consulting stakeholders; and (iv) testing a prototype protocol on-farm. Compared to existing welfare assessment protocols for other species, the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for horses introduces a number of innovative aspects, such as implementation of a two-level strategy focused on improving on-farm feasibility and the use of electronic tools to achieve standardised data collection and so promote rapid outcomes. Further refinement to the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for horses is needed in order to firstly gather data from a larger reference population and, secondly, enhance the welfare assessment protocol with reference to different horse housing and husbandry conditions.
Measures of animal emotions are essential to assess animal welfare. Recently, the cognitive bias technique has been proposed as a measure of animal affective state. This technique is based on the premise that subjects in negative affective states make more negative judgements about ambiguous stimuli than subjects in positive affective states. In the present study, 44 female pigs were divided into two groups of equal size (22 pigs each): one group was allocated in enriched housing conditions (more space allowance, presence of straw and solid floor) and the other in barren housing conditions (lower space allowance and slatted floor) in order to induce differences in the affective state. Three cognitive bias tests (CBT) based on spatial discrimination were performed: 1 week before starting the housing conditions (CBT1) and 1 and 5 weeks (CBT2 and CBT3, respectively) after it. Moreover, 3 and 4 days after each CBT, a qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) and a serum sampling for the assessment of cortisol concentration were carried out. Finally, the number of wounds was counted on the pig carcass at slaughter. The results showed that the cognitive bias did not differ between treatment groups in any of the two CBT carried out after starting the housing conditions (p > 0.05). However, during the CBT2 and CBT3 when compared with the barren group the enriched group presented a lower concentration of serum cortisol (p = 0.008 and p = 0.011, respectively), a higher QBA score (p = 0.022 and p = 0.027, respectively) and a lower number of wounds on the carcass (p = 0.05). Considering the QBA, serum cortisol and carcass wounds results, the CBT used in this study was not valid or not sensitive enough to assess the variation in the affective state between pigs raised in different housing conditions.
Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) was utilised to examine the behavioural expression of dogs in different housing environments and the results were compared to measurements of quantitative behaviour and physiology. Firstly, quantitative behavioural and physiological differences were investigated between dogs in 3 housing environments (short-term shelter confinement, ≤ 4 days, n = 10; long-term shelter confinement, > 30 days, n = 9; and domestic living situations, n = 10). Each dog’s behaviour was recorded over a 4 h period using an ethogram consisting of 21 behaviour categories. Dogs in both short (SD) and long (LD) term confinement displayed higher frequencies of paw-lifting (P < 0.001), displacement behaviour (digging and/or drinking P < 0.01), vocalisation (P < 0.05) and locomotory activity (P < 0.001) compared to dogs maintained as family pets (PD). Salivary cortisol concentrations did not differ amongst groups (H = 0.55, P = 0.76). Secondly, quantitative behaviour and QBA were combined to investigate differences among these same 29 dogs when filmed for 1 min in both their Home Environment and a standardised Novel Environment. QBA of these video clips was made by 10 observers utilising Free-Choice-Profiling methodology. Generalised Procrustes Analysis was used to calculate a consensus profile and three main dimensions of dog expression in both Environments. The observers repeated dog scores on these dimensions with high accuracy (P < 0.001). Observers perceived dogs as more ‘relaxed/content’ in the Home Environment (H = 17.86, P < 0.0001), and more ‘calm/relaxed’ in the Novel Environment (H = 13.58, P < 0.001), than SD and LD dogs. In the Novel Environment, LD dogs were perceived as more ‘inquisitive/curious’ (H = 5.97, P < 0.05), and SD dogs as more ‘curious/cautious’ (H = 6.82, P < 0.05), than the other groups. Quantitative assessment of the 1 min Home and Novel Environment video clips were analysed using Principle Component Analysis (PCA), generating two main factors explaining 88% and 76% of the variation respectively. PCA factor 1 (‘rest’) and QBA Dimension 1 (‘relaxed/content’) correlated (P < 0.0001) in the Home Environment’. In the Novel Environment PCA factor 1 (‘stand’, ‘sniff’) correlated with QBA Dimension 1 (‘clam/relaxed’) and PCA factor 2 (‘sniff’, ‘walk’) correlated with QBA Dimension 2 (‘curious/inquisitive’). There was no correlation between QBA dimensions and cortisol concentrations. In sum, these results indicate that a combined quantitative/qualitative assessment facilitates the interpretation of behavioural variances resulting from housing differences and supports utilising QBA for the assessment of dog behavioural expression.
Objective:
Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) is a widely used reliability index in test-retest, intrarater, and interrater reliability analyses. This article introduces the basic concept of ICC in the content of reliability analysis.
Discussion for researchers:
There are 10 forms of ICCs. Because each form involves distinct assumptions in their calculation and will lead to different interpretations, researchers should explicitly specify the ICC form they used in their calculation. A thorough review of the research design is needed in selecting the appropriate form of ICC to evaluate reliability. The best practice of reporting ICC should include software information, "model," "type," and "definition" selections.
Discussion for readers:
When coming across an article that includes ICC, readers should first check whether information about the ICC form has been reported and if an appropriate ICC form was used. Based on the 95% confident interval of the ICC estimate, values less than 0.5, between 0.5 and 0.75, between 0.75 and 0.9, and greater than 0.90 are indicative of poor, moderate, good, and excellent reliability, respectively.
Conclusion:
This article provides a practical guideline for clinical researchers to choose the correct form of ICC and suggests the best practice of reporting ICC parameters in scientific publications. This article also gives readers an appreciation for what to look for when coming across ICC while reading an article.
Brown bears (Ursus arctos) in zoos are often kept under sub-optimal conditions and have behavioral time-budgets that differ from their wild counterparts. We conducted 2 experiments using novel feeding conditions for captive European brown bears (scattering food rather than piling and increasing feeding frequencies from 3 to 6/day) in the Bear Forest (BF), a 2-ha forested enclosure in Rhenen, the Netherlands. No significant differences in any behavioral category were found when food was scattered rather than piled. We found significant differences in active and foraging behavioral categories when feeding was increased form 3 to 6 times daily, suggesting a more natural behavioral pattern. We speculate that this effect will increase when scattering food and increasing feeding frequency are combined into a new feeding condition.
This chapter outlines the science behind the development of the Welfare QualityR assessment systems. We concentrate on the animal welfare science and social science discussions upon which the welfare principles and criteria developed in the project are based, rather than on the actual assessment measures and their integration which are detailed in Chapters 6 and 7, although examples of measures are given to illustrate some of the issues that arose during the above process (Forkman, 2009; Keeling, 2009). From its inception the Welfare QualityR project was committed to developing a new way of assessing farm animal welfare that was both scientifically rigorous and reflected broader public concerns. Within the project social scientists worked alongside animal scientists in order to gain a deeper and more broad-based understanding of societal concerns about farm animal welfare and to help foster science-society dialogue around these issues based on fact rather than supposition (Miele et al., 2011). In some ways this was fairly straightforward, for example a societal concern about injuries to farm animals can be easily matched to the definitions of animal welfare prevalent among scientists. However, in other ways this dialogue was quite challenging because it raised fundamental questions not only concerning what constitutes 'farm animal welfare' but also about the nature and relevance of dialogues between experts and members of the public around these kinds of issues. For example, how can we foster a constructive dialogue between groups with very different levels of perception, understanding, experience and expertise? How also can we take into account the opinions of nonexperts within the increasingly technical fields of modern farming and farm animal welfare?.
The effort to develop methods for assessing animal welfare at farm level has grown dramatically since the end of the 1990s, culminating in the protocols developed by the European-wide project Welfare Quality (R) (WQ). However, these protocols are time consuming and lack transparency in how scores are aggregated into welfare outcomes. The current study investigates the potential of Qualitative Behavior Assessment (QBA), a much less time-consuming approach, to be used as a stand-alone integrative screening tool for identifying farms with compromised welfare before applying the full WQ protocol. QBA is a 'whole-animal' approach asking human observers to summarize animals' expressive demeanor and its context into descriptors such as relaxed, anxious, content or frustrated -terms which given their emotional connotation appear to have direct relevance to animal welfare. Two trained QBA-assessors, and one trained Welfare Quality (R) assessor visited 43 Danish dairy cattle farms at different times, the former focusing on QBA and the latter making a full WQ protocol assessment. The QBA scores were analyzed using Principal Component Analysis (correlation matrix, no rotation), and WQ protocol data were analyzed and integrated according to the WQ protocol. The resulting QBA and WQ protocol outcomes were correlated using non-parametric methods (Spearman Rank and Kendall W). Highly significant inter-observer agreement was found between the two QBA-assessors (P<0.0001). QBA scores showed some weak correlations to WQ measures but no meaningful pattern of relationship between these measures emerged. The present study does not support the application of QBA as a stand-alone welfare assessment tool capable of predicting the outcome of the larger WQ protocol.
Most observers in behaviour studies are aware of relevant information about the animals being observed. We investigated whether observer expectations influence subjective scoring methods during a class practicum. Veterinary students were trained in recording negative and positive interactions between pigs, in scoring the degree of panting in cattle and in applying qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) using a fixed set of terms for assessing hens' behaviour. The students applied these methods in three trials in which they were shown duplicated video recordings of the same animals: the original and a slightly modified version (to prevent recognition at second viewing). When scoring the duplicated recordings they were told either correct or false information about the conditions in which the animals had been filmed. The false information reflected plausible study scenarios in ethology and was used to create expectations about the outcome. As in reality the students scored the identical behaviour twice, the difference in the scores for the original and modified recordings reflects expectation bias due to providing different contextual information. In all trials there was evidence of expectation bias: students scored the ratio of positive to negative interactions higher when told that the observed pigs had been selected for high social breeding value, they scored cattle panting higher when told that the ambient temperature was 5 °C higher than in reality, and in the QBA they indicated more positive and fewer negative emotions when told that the hens were from an organic instead of a conventional farm. The magnitude of the bias in the QBA trial was related to the opinion of the students about hen welfare in organic versus conventional farms. Although veterinary students may not be representative of practising ethologists, these findings do indicate that observer bias could influence subjective scores of animal behaviour and welfare.
We observed the behavior of a captive sterilized male brown bear before and after the death of his female sibling, in order to investigate the effect of the change of social environment on his behavior and welfare. Observations were carried out by continuous recording during daylight for 6 weeks prior to hibernation when the bear was kept with the sibling, and they were repeated two years later, when the bear was alone (total observation time=108 h).
Feeding, moving and the total amount of time spent resting (including sleeping and alert inactive) were not affected by the change of social environment. However, when the bear was alone the percentage of time he spent alert inactive almost trebled (pair: 17.7±3.3, alone: 48.5±5.5; P<0.001) and the time spent sleeping was less than one third (pair: 51.1±6.1, alone: 14.2±5.0; P<0.001) than when the female was present. The bear spent most of his sleeping time in lateral lying posture (a posture probably associated with REM sleep). The percentage of time dedicated to this posture was significantly reduced after the death of his sibling (pair: 35.9%±7.4, alone: 15.0%±5.4; P<0.05), whereas the percentage of time spent in quadrupedal posture increased (pair: 17.1%±5.4, alone: 37.8%±7.8; P<0.05). One of the possible reasons for these changes may be an increased risk perception of the bear after the death of his sibling. Our results highlight the importance of social environment and of its changes, which should be carefully considered in order to maintain captive bears in good welfare conditions.
Although captive bears are popular zoo attractions, they are known to exhibit high levels of repetitive behaviors (RBs). These behaviors have also made them particularly popular subjects for welfare research. To date, most research on ursid welfare has focused on various feeding methods that seek to increase time spent searching for, extracting, or consuming food. Prior research indicates an average of a 50% reduction in RBs when attempts are successful and, roughly, a 50% success rate across studies. This research focused on decreasing time spent in an RB while increasing the time spent active by increasing time spent searching for, extracting, and consuming food. The utility of timed, automated scatter feeders was examined for use with captive grizzly bears (Ursis arctos horribilis). Findings include a significant decrease in time spent in RB and a significant increase in time spent active while the feeders were in use. Further, the bears exhibited a wider range of behaviors and a greater use of their enclosure.
Multi-institutional studies of welfare have proven to be valuable in zoos but are hampered by limited sample sizes and difficulty in evaluating more than just a few welfare indicators. To more clearly understand how interactions of husbandry factors influence the interrelationships among welfare outcomes, epidemiological approaches are needed as well as multifactorial assessments of welfare. Many questions have been raised about the housing and care of elephants in zoos and whether their environmental and social needs are being met in a manner that promotes good welfare. This article describes the background and rationale for a large-scale study of elephant welfare in North American zoos funded by the (U.S.) Institute of Museum and Library Services. The goals of this project are to document the prevalence of positive and negative welfare states in 291 elephants exhibited in 72 Association of Zoos and Aquariums zoos and then determine the environmental, management, and husbandry factors that impact elephant welfare. This research is the largest scale nonhuman animal welfare project ever undertaken by the zoo community, and the scope of environmental variables and welfare outcomes measured is unprecedented.
Behaviour is a significant component of well-being and should be properly considered in a pig welfare assessment. However, interpretation of variations in behaviour is usually not straightforward, especially when dealing with animals housed and managed in a variety of systems. The fourth principle of the Welfare Quality® project, labelled “Appropriate behaviour”, was assessed on 21 farms (11 extensive and 10 intensive) with a total of 25,856 Iberian pigs (Sus scrofa). The methodology included scan samplings of social and exploratory behaviour, human–animal relationship tests and qualitative behaviour assessments (QBA). Changes in occurrence of behaviour and qualitative measures were evaluated and discussed when comparing Iberian pigs either in intensive or extensive rearing conditions. Negative as well as positive social behaviours were significantly (P
This study evaluates the qualitative assessment of dairy cows’ social behaviour on farm with regard to its inter- and intra-observer reliability and its correlation to quantitative ethogram-based assessment. Qualitative behaviour assessment is a method based upon the integration by observers of perceived animal behaviour expression, using descriptors such as ‘calm’, ‘aggressive’, ‘sociable’ or ‘indifferent’. Cows’ behaviour at the drinker was video recorded in five commercial dairy herds with loose housing systems. Qualitative assessment of 25 video clips showing various types of cows’ interaction was provided in two replicate studies by 12 experienced dairy cow observers, through the use of a methodology called free choice profiling (FCP). This method gives the observers complete freedom to choose their own descriptive terms. Furthermore, an ethogram was used to quantify the cows’ social behaviour in the same 25 video clips. The ethogram included frequency and duration of social licking, head and body sniffing, pushing, head butting, fighting and behavioural response to pushing or head butting. Data of the qualitative assessment were analysed with generalised procrustes analysis (GPA), a multivariate statistical technique associated with FCP. The correlation between qualitative and the quantitative assessment of the 25 video clips was investigated by calculating Spearman rank correlation between the qualitative assessments and the calculated frequencies and proportional durations of the ethogram measures. The results indicate that observers showed significant agreement in their qualitative assessments (P
In captivity, some species often seem to thrive, while others are often prone to breeding problems, poor health, and repetitive stereotypic behaviour. Within carnivores, for instance, the brown bear, American mink and snow leopard typically adapt well to captivity and show few signs of poor welfare, while the clouded leopard and polar bear are generally hard to breed successfully and/or to prevent from performing abnormal behaviour. Understanding the fundamental source of such differences could enable reproductive success and behavioural normalcy to be improved in zoos and breeding centres, by increasing the appropriateness of the enclosure designs and environmental enrichments offered particular species, and by allowing these to be offered pre-emptively instead of reactively. Here, we demonstrate that a significant proportion of the variation in apparent welfare between captive carnivore species stems from specific aspects of natural behaviour. We tested pre-existing hypotheses that species-typical welfare is predicted by natural hunting behaviour, general activity levels, ranging, or territorial patrolling (all activities that are constrained in captivity), by collating data on median stereotypy levels and infant mortality for multiple captive species, and then regressing these against median values for the relevant aspects of natural behavioural biology (e.g. hunts per day, proportion of flesh in the diet, home-range size, etc.). Our results revealed that instead of relating to foraging (e.g. hunting), as often assumed, carnivore stereotypy levels are significantly predicted by natural ranging behaviour (e.g. home-range size and typical daily travel distances). Furthermore, naturally wide-ranging lifestyles also predicted relatively high captive infant mortality rates. These results suggest that enclosure designs and enrichments focussing on carnivores’ ranging tendencies (e.g. providing more space, multiple den sites, greater day-to-day environmental variability/novelty, and/or more control over exposure to aversive or rewarding stimuli) could be particularly effective means of improving welfare; and also, that targeting such enrichment programmes on wide-ranging species, before problems even emerge, might effectively pre-empt their development. Alternatively, species with relatively small ranges could instead be made the focus of future collections and breeding programmes, zoos phasing out wide-ranging carnivores in favour of those species inherently more suited to current or readily achievable enclosure sizes and enrichment regimes.