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Training programmes to learn how to ride a bicycle independently for children and youths: a systematic review
Abstract
Background: The bicycle is a popular means of transportation, exercise, recreation and also socializing for children worldwide, allowing them several physical and psychological benefits. Several methodologies and types of bicycles have been used for learning how to cycle, however, the best approach is still unclear.
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to review and summarize the existent studies of programmes that aim to teach children how to ride a bicycle independently, in order to identify which possibilities lead to a more efficient intervention.
Methods: A comprehensive search was performed in seven electronic databases (TRID, CENTRAL, Web of Science, SCOPUS, EBSCO, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses and Google Scholar), including grey literature and the citations of relevant articles, from their inception to April 2020. Studies were included according to the eligibility criteria: children and youths aged 18 or less, with and without disabilities; intervention programmes that aimed to teach how to ride a bicycle with a pre- and post-intervention assessment regarding the ability to ride. The Downs and Black checklist was used for quality assessment.
Results: Nine intervention studies, including a randomized controlled trial, were included. The mean quality score was 11.8 ± 3.6 points. Just one of the included studies was targeted at children without disabilities. Different facilitating constraints and barriers were identified, which resulted in a list of tips for future intervention programmes to teach children how to ride a bicycle. The facilitating constrains were using a progressive learning strategy; using an individualized approach; making bicycle adjustments; having motivated children and having family support throughout the learning process. The barriers were: the fear of falling; lack of parents’ support; and lower leg strength. Learning to cycle was also associated with a decrease in sedentary time, increase in physical activity, improvement in leg strength, and a positive influence on body composition, indicating that it can be a solution to disrupt the cycle of consistent weight gain over time in children with disabilities.
Conclusions: There is a gap concerning intervention studies to teach children without disabilities how to cycle. The best strategy is probably a progressive learning strategy by using simpler training bicycles that enable the child to explore balance from the beginning, and simpler exercises first. Teaching programmes should adopt an individualized intervention, feedback and motivation, considering each child’s specific characteristics.
... enhanced cardiorespiratory fitness [3], and mental health, including increased socialization opportunities and the development of social skills [5,6]. For all these reasons, previous studies have considered learning to ride a bicycle an important milestone [4,7,8]. ...
... According to research, even though using a bicycle with lateral training wheels (BTW) is the most common approach to learning to cycle worldwide [9], the balance bike (BB), a bicycle without pedals nor training wheels, is the most efficient learning bicycle [4,[9][10][11][12][13]. It has been argued that the use of the BTW is a mistake [12] which can be counterproductive [10,11,[14][15][16][17][18][19]. ...
... Several other studies have indicated that the balance bike (BB) is a more efficient learning tool than the bicycle with training wheels (BTW). For instance, a recent systematic review investigated the best strategies to promote efficient cycle learning [4]. Additionally, a retrospective study found that children who learn to cycle using the BB can successfully cycle independently on average 1.81 years earlier than those who use the BTW [9]. ...
Background/Objectives: Riding a bicycle is a foundational movement skill that can be acquired at an early age. The most common training bicycle has lateral training wheels (BTW). However, the balance bike (BB) has consistently been regarded as more efficient, as children require less time on this bike to successfully transition to a traditional bike (TB). The reasons for this greater efficiency remain unclear, but it is hypothesized that it is due to the immediate balancing requirements for learners. This study aimed to investigate the reasons why the BB is more efficient than the BTW for learning to cycle on a TB. Methods: We compared the variability of the child–bicycle system throughout the learning process with these two types of training bicycles and after transitioning to the TB. Data were collected during the Learning to Cycle Program, with 23 children (6.00 ± 1.2 years old) included. Participants were divided into two experimental training groups, BB (N = 12) and BTW (N = 11). The angular velocity data of the child–bicycle system were collected by four inertial measurement sensors (IMUs), located on the child’s vertex and T2 and the bicycle frame and handlebar, in three time phases: (i) before practice sessions, (ii) immediately after practice sessions, and (iii), two months after practice sessions with the TB. The largest Lyapunov exponents were calculated to assess movement variability. Conclusions: Results supported the hypothesis that the BB affords greater functional variability during practice sessions compared to the BTW, affording more functionally adaptive responses in the learning transition to using a TB.
... Moreover, as an active and environmentally friendly means of transport, it contributes to the reduction in gas emissions associated with the use of private motor vehicles [9,10] while helping to achieve the 60 min of moderate to vigorous physical activity per day recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) [11], which is necessary to reduce sedentary lifestyles and improve body composition parameters in children and adolescents [12]. Based on these arguments, governments and administrations consider it necessary to implement public policies for the promotion of cycling as a means of sustainable mobility [9,13]; therefore, in many countries, programs aimed to promote cycling as active transport to schools (ATS) have increased [14,15]. ...
... Despite the large number of studies on cycling from the perspective of ATS [3,4,15], and of sports performance [16], the scientific literature on the study of cycling from other viewpoints is rather scarce [17]. Psychological variables have been less frequently studied in the cycling literature [9,18]. ...
... Psychological variables have been less frequently studied in the cycling literature [9,18]. So far, some psychological benefits of cycling have been identified [6], such as the positive effect on mental well-being [15,19], the improvement its dimensions as a function of gender and the frequency of cycling; and (d) analyze the relationship between MC and EI, identifying those dimensions or categories that show a greater strength of association. ...
(1) Background: The psychological benefits of cycling have been identified such as the maintenance of low-stress levels. However, no studies have been found addressing the benefits of cycling on variables such as emotional intelligence (EI) and motivational climate (MC), which are important for holistic development in children. This study aimed to investigate the interrelationships between MC, EI, and cycling habits in schoolchildren. (2) Methods: A descriptive, comparative, cross-sectional study was conducted in a sample of 347 Spanish schoolchildren (46.4% boys; 53.6% girls; Mage = 10.55, S.D. = 0.97). A sociodemographic questionnaire, the Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24), and the Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire (PMCSQ-2) were applied for data collection. (3) Results: Boys use bicycles more frequently than girls; task-oriented motivational climate (TC) is observed in girls and schoolchildren with moderate cycling habits; ego-involving motivational climate (EC) prevails in boys and students who cycle more than four times per week; no statistical association was found between EI and cycling use habits; and EI and its dimensions correlate with TC and some categories of EC. (4) Conclusions: Moderate cycling habits are linked to a task-oriented MC and have slightly higher scores on general EI and its dimensions.
... Maintaining cycling stability mainly depends on gliding a bike with feet off the ground. [5][6][7]. When learning to cycle, it is not surprising that cyclists fall if they cannot maintain their posture. ...
... Positive transfer occurs when the skills learned on the balance bike improve the individual's ability to a new but similar task, riding on a two-wheel bike [3]. On the other hand, negative transfer occurs if the skills learned on the bike with training wheels actually hinder the individual's ability to learn [3,6]. Zero transfer would occur if the skills learned on a balance bike have no effect on their ability to ride a pedal bike. ...
... Riding on a balance bike has been proven to be an effective method for positively transferring the skills needed to learn how to cycle [6]. In fact, a study indicated that children could learn how to cycle within a short period of two weeks with the assistance of balance bike [7]. ...
Background
Learning to cycle can be challenging for adults who did not acquire the necessary skills during childhood. Balance bikes have been used to teach children how to cycle, but it was unclear whether this approach could also be effective for adults.
Purpose
To address this, a multi-phase intervention study was conducted to investigate whether healthy adults could be taught to cycle independently through the use of a balance bike.
Methods
In Phase 1, a case-control observational study was conducted in which 13 cyclists and 8 non-cyclists completed balance bike tests. Based on the findings, an 8-session intervention pre- and post-test study was conducted in Phase 2, using an 8 × 20-minute balance bike training programme to improve cycling postural stability and control. Another 11 non-cyclists completed the novel programme. The time taken to complete the balance bike tests was compared before and after the program, while their cycling confidence was recorded in each session. To assess the effectiveness of the programme, participants were invited to cycle on a pedal bike to evaluate their ability to cycle independently.
Results
The results in Phase 1 showed that cyclists performed better on the balance bike than non-cyclists, with Bayes factor analyses providing evidence of this difference, BF01 = 0.228 in the 15 m sprint test and BF01 = 0.138 in the two-turn curved sprint test. The novel training programme in Phase 2 demonstrated remarkable effectiveness in improving their balance bike riding performance, as evidenced by the Bayes factor for completion times in the repeated measures being BF01 < 0.001. All participants were able to cycle independently with confidence after the programme.
Conclusions
This study sheds light on the idea that it’s never too late for adults to learn how to ride a bike. It provides evidence that healthy adults can learn to ride independently with the help of a balance bike, a tool that’s commonly used for teaching children. The study identifies five key principles for effective balance bike training in adults, including focusing on riding speed, gliding to turn, building cycling confidence, engaging high motor skills, and using a dual-task approach. Our evidence-based training programme offers a safe, enjoyable, and effective way for adults to develop the skills and confidence they need to ride, even if they’ve never ridden before.
... In the process of learning to cycle, different training bicycles can be used, and the most common is the bicycle with lateral training wheels. However, there are no consensus data available on whether this is the best approach in learning to cycle (Mercê, Pereira, et al. 2021;Shim and Norman 2015). Recently, a systematic review was carried out to synthetise, compare and evaluate different interventions and strategies implemented to teach children to cycle (Mercê, Pereira, et al. 2021). ...
... However, there are no consensus data available on whether this is the best approach in learning to cycle (Mercê, Pereira, et al. 2021;Shim and Norman 2015). Recently, a systematic review was carried out to synthetise, compare and evaluate different interventions and strategies implemented to teach children to cycle (Mercê, Pereira, et al. 2021). This review discussed several methodological aspects of cycling learning programmes, including context and personal constraints, and presented a list of recommendations for future interventions. ...
... According to the studies reviewed by Mercê, Pereira, et al. (2021), the BTW, by having pedals and lateral training wheels that limit lateral oscillations, may not invite children to explore balance in forming a system between their body and bicycle from the beginning (Hauck et al. 2017;Hawks et al. 2020;MacDonald et al. 2012;Temple et al. 2016;Ulrich et al. 2011). The BTW decomposes the cycling task because it only encourages pedalling behaviours without the challenge of maintaining regulating posture on the bike. ...
Background
Cycling is a foundational movement skill which represents an important motor milestone to achieve in children’s lives. The use of a bicycle with training wheels is the most common approach for learning how to cycle, although some evidence suggests that this approach is counterproductive.
Purpose
Underpinned by an ecological dynamics and Constraints-led approach, this study investigated whether learning how to ride a conventional bicycle in childhood can be shaped by the specific task constraints related to the kind of training bicycle used beforehand (i.e. balance bike or bicycle with training wheels). This comparison could guide pedagogical practice to facilitate children’s learning in cycling and their independent riding.
Methods
The Learning to Cycle intervention programme was introduced to 25 children (M = 6.08 ± 1.19 years) who could not previously cycle, divided into two treatment groups. One group trained with a bicycle with training wheels (BTW) and another with a balance bicycle (BB) for six sessions, followed by four sessions with a conventional bicycle (CB). The acquisition of independent cycling was assessed, based on established cycle learning milestone achievements, without help: (i) self-launch, (ii) riding for at least 10 (consecutive) metres, and (iii) braking. To be considered an independent rider, participants needed to achieve all these milestones, without any external help. During the CB sessions, the number of sessions that each child needed to acquire each learning milestone and independent cycling were recorded.
Results
The programme led to a success rate of 88% for achievement of independent cycling on a conventional bicycle, differentiated by 100% success in the BB group and 75% in the BTW group. The BB participants were significantly faster in learning to self-launch, ride, brake, and cycle independently, compared to BTW participants.
Conclusions
The Learning to Cycle programme was effective for facilitating learning in children from three years of age onwards. Using the BB instead of the BTW seems to lead to a more effective and efficient acquisition of independent cycling at earlier ages.
... A BB is a bicycle without pedals or training wheels, which is opposed to the previously standardized use of training wheels (stabilizers) on a regular bicycle [13]. The studies have indicated that the BB is a more effective learning tool than a traditional bicycle with lateral wheels is [13,14]. The lack of pedals is a task constraint that gives the children the opportunity to explore several modes of locomotion, e.g., walking, running, or gliding on the bike. ...
... During a glide pattern, the children do not have any direct contact with the ground since their feet are up in the air, thus, they need to explore and acquire dynamic balance with the bicycle in order to cycle [15]. Considering that balance acquisition is a key element for cycling [14,16,17], promoting gliding on the BB could enhance the children's dynamic balance control, thereby accelerating the transition to a traditional bicycle with pedals. To better understand the learning process with a BB, it is important to categorize the different cycle patterns that might emerge while the children use it and to try to identify the control parameter that promotes the transitions between these patterns. ...
... At the higher speeds, gliding becomes prevalent, leading the children to experience balance for longer periods, a skill which is necessary to ride a traditional bicycle. The previous literature supports the hypothesis that the BB is a better tool to learn to cycle independently when it is compared to the bicycle with lateral training wheels (BTW) because it seems to enable balance acquisition at the early stages of learning [13,14,16,17]. However, until now, it was not known which cycle patterns were more frequently explored by the children on a BB, nor what the preferred velocities were for the transition between them. ...
The balance bike (BB) has been pointed out as being the most efficient learning bicycle due to its inherent stimulation of balance. However, the process of acquiring the control of balance on the BB has not been explored. This study aimed to: (i) categorize the cycle patterns of children on the BB, (ii) compare the cycle patterns in different stages of learning (before and after six sessions of a BB practice program), and (iii) verify whether velocity is a control parameter leading to transitions between different cycle patterns on a BB. The data were collected during the Learning to Cycle program from 12 children aged 6.06 ± 1.25 years. The velocity was measured using an inertial sensor. Seven different movement patterns were captured and categorized through video analysis. After practice, there was an increase in the mean number of different patterns and in the global mean and maximum velocity. These were interpreted as an improvement of the motor competence in the use of the BB. The results obtained support the hypothesis that velocity is a control parameter which leads to the emergence of diverse patterns of behavior. As the speed increased, the amount of foot contact with the ground became less frequent and the locomotor modes that imply that longer flight phases began to emerge.
... Two independent reviewers screened the titles, abstracts and full articles according to the eligibility criteria. Disagreements were resolved through discussion between the two reviewers, and when necessary, with the help of a third reviewer (e.g., Mercê, Pereira, Branco, Catela, & Cordovil, 2021). The flowchart illustrating the selection process is presented in Figure 1. ...
... After the removal of duplicates, the screening of titles, abstracts and full texts was performed according to the previously defined eligibility criteria. The screening process was carried out by two authors independently, situations of disagreement were resolved through discussion and, when necessary, with recourse to a third author (e.g., Mercê et al., 2021). Sixteen articles were included, which were qualitatively assessed using the STROBE scale . ...
... Data were retrieved by one author and confirmed by another author (e.g., Mercê et al., 2021). The following information was extracted from each study: author(s), study design, age and population studied, test instrument for DCD, instrument for measuring physical activity, results obtained in the study and conclusions drawn from the study. ...
O Transtorno do Desenvolvimento da Coordenação (TDC) acomete cerca de 5 a 6% das crianças em idade escolar, sendo um dos problemas de desenvolvimento mais comuns na infância. Uma revisão datada identificou que crianças com TDC apresentavam níveis mais baixos de atividade física do que seus pares, porém, não investigaram as implicações dessa menor atividade na vida das crianças. A presente revisão sistemática objetivou identificar: i) diferenças nos níveis de atividade física entre crianças com transtorno do desenvolvimento da coordenação (pDCD) e desenvolvimento típico, ii) as repercussões dessas diferenças e iii) principais instrumentos utilizados na mensuração da atividade física. Uma busca abrangente em cinco bancos de dados foi realizada (Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Cochrane), incluindo literatura cinza. Após encontrar 785 publicações, 16 estudos foram incluídos. Esta revisão verificou que crianças com pDCD apresentam níveis mais baixos de atividade física moderada e vigorosa, com possíveis implicações nos níveis físico (por exemplo, maiores porcentagens de massa gorda) e psicológico (por exemplo, aumento dos níveis de frustração). Esta revisão confirma que crianças com pDCD são menos ativas do que crianças com desenvolvimento típico e têm maior risco de desenvolver doenças cardiometabólicas. Pais, professores, escolas e comunidades devem criar ambientes motivacionais para que os jovens com DCD se envolvam e mantenham a atividade física à medida que avançam para a idade adulta.Palavras-chave: crianças, DCD, atividade física, saúde.
... Two independent reviewers screened the titles, abstracts and full articles according to the eligibility criteria. Disagreements were resolved through discussion between the two reviewers, and when necessary, with the help of a third reviewer (e.g., Mercê, Pereira, Branco, Catela, & Cordovil, 2021). The flowchart illustrating the selection process is presented in Figure 1. ...
... After the removal of duplicates, the screening of titles, abstracts and full texts was performed according to the previously defined eligibility criteria. The screening process was carried out by two authors independently, situations of disagreement were resolved through discussion and, when necessary, with recourse to a third author (e.g., Mercê et al., 2021). Sixteen articles were included, which were qualitatively assessed using the STROBE scale . ...
... Data were retrieved by one author and confirmed by another author (e.g., Mercê et al., 2021). The following information was extracted from each study: author(s), study design, age and population studied, test instrument for DCD, instrument for measuring physical activity, results obtained in the study and conclusions drawn from the study. ...
The Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) affects about 5 to 6% of school-aged children, being one of the most common developmental problems in childhood. A dated review identified that DCD children had lower levels of physical activity than their peers however, they did not investigate the implications of this lower activity in the children's lives. The present systematic review aimed to identify: i) differences in physical activity levels between children with developmental coordination disorder (pDCD) and typical development, ii) the repercussions of these differences, and iii) main instruments used in the measurement of physical activity. A comprehensive search in five databases was performed (Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Cochrane), including grey literature. After finding 785 publications, 16 studies were included. This review verified that pDCD children have lower levels of moderate and vigorous physical activity, with possible implications at physical (e.g., higher percentages of fat mass) and psychological (e.g., increased levels of frustration) levels. This review confirms that children with pDCD are less active than children with typical development and have a higher risk of developing cardio-metabolic diseases. Parents, teachers, schools and communities should create motivational environments for youngsters with DCD to engage and maintain physical activity as they move into adulthood. Resumen: El Trastorno del Desarrollo de la Coordinación (DCD) afecta alrededor del 5 al 6% de los niños en edad escolar, siendo uno de los problemas de desarrollo más comunes en la infancia. Una revisión fechada identificó que los niños DCD tenían niveles más bajos de actividad física que sus compañeros; sin embargo, no investigaron las implicaciones de esta menor actividad en la vida de los niños. La presente revisión sistemática tuvo como objetivo identificar: i) diferencias en los niveles de actividad física entre niños con trastorno del desarrollo de la coordinación (pDCD) y desarrollo típico, ii) las repercusiones de estas diferencias, y iii) principales instrumentos utilizados en la medición de la actividad física. Se realizó una búsqueda exhaustiva en cinco bases de datos (Science Direct, PubMed, Web of Science, EBSCO, Cochrane), incluida la literatura gris. Después de encontrar 785 publicaciones, se inclu-yeron 16 estudios. Esta revisión verificó que los niños con pDCD tienen menores niveles de actividad física moderada y vigorosa, con posibles implicaciones a nivel físico (p. ej., mayores porcentajes de masa grasa) y psicológico (p. ej., mayores niveles de frustración). Esta revisión confirma que los niños con pDCD son menos activos que los niños con desarrollo típico y tienen mayor riesgo de desa-rrollar enfermedades cardiometabólicas. Es crucial desarrollar para promover mejores estrategias para aumentar la actividad física en estos niños.
... There is also emerging evidence supporting the use of large-scale physical activity strategies focusing on transport and mobility systems that prioritize walking and cycling, thereby promoting healthy cities (Corbett & Mellouli, 2017;Mercê et al., 2021;Salvo et al., 2021). This could positively influence the economy (Baena-Morales et al., 2021;Dudfield & Dingwall-Smith, 2015;Lynch, 2016;MINEPS VI, 2017) and people's well-being (SDG 3) due to increased physical activity and improved traffic. ...
... Likewise, campaigns can be carried out to support free access for all people to the use of renewable energies by increasing energy efficiency, as well as guaranteeing access to public services for all people in vulnerable situations. In addition, it is possible to promote the construction of specific public spaces for sports practice such as gyms and stadiums ; and, in large cities, PE can improve transport and mobility systems by promoting healthy cities (Corbett & Mellouli, 2017;Mercê et al., 2021;Salvo et al., 2021) and sustainable consumption and production . In relation to these ideas, the narratives of the preservice teachers who participated in the study showed that the main contribution of PE to the SDGs is an awareness of the values needed to facilitate sustainable development, the promotion of healthy habits being mentioned to a lesser extent. ...
The integration of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into the curriculum of prospective physical education (PE) teachers is limited. This research aims to analyze their knowledge and perceptions of the role of physical education in promoting the SDGs. The SDGs most related to physical education are health and well-being, quality education, gender equality and reducing inequalities. Participants felt that PE contributes to the development of values for sustainability and that the constraints to being future sustainable teachers were mainly educational. With this information, more reliable conclusions can be drawn on how to intervene in their training to promote relevant training.
... Prior to learners' formulation and selection of initial key anchors, divergent questioning by the teacher should initiate the former's tactical thinking process, helping them construct a few basic action rules and management rules (e.g., see Gréhaigne et al. 2005 for action rules and play organization rules in invasion team sports; see also Godbout 2021 for exercise-monitoring procedures and exercisemanagement rules). Determining key anchors rests on one's understanding of what is at stake during the practice of the activity and what SA should focus on (e.g., Gregg 2013, Mercê et al. 2023. In that respect, problem-based (Ryan 2021) or project-based (Simonton et al. 2020) learning approaches would seem most appropriate, providing learners with opportunities for reflecting on SA-related cue selection given conditions of learning or conditions of practice (see the physical-activity dimensions mentioned earlier). ...
In physical education (PE), reflection on action is usually referred to in relation with pedagogical approaches such as experiential learning, constructivism and social constructivism. In organization systems, sensemaking has been discussed in relation with situation awareness (SA), a construct closely related not only to decision making but to understanding as well. In recent years, researchers interested in decision making in high-level sport performance have taken an interest in SA. The purpose of this explanatory article is to examine the applicability of the SA construct, including its related DM and sensemaking processes, to the teaching/learning and performing of diverse categories of physical activities such as sports, dance, fitness activities, outdoor activities and leisure activities in general. In a first section, the author distinguishes two types of SA, current SA and reflected SA, in relation with reflection in action and reflection on action. With regard to the involvement of one or several individuals, three SA facets are suggested: primary SA, distributed SA, and socially shared SA. Following a short discussion on the relationship between SA and the data/frame theory, the author examines the process of framing physical activities in view of situation awareness. Finally, the metacognitive side of framing and situation awareness is briefly discussed in terms of individuals who come to select particular observational cues that work better for them. Keywords: situation awareness, data/frame theory, sensemaking, decision making, frame building
... In addition, increasing the strength and resistance of the spinal extensors can prevent certain spinal injuries, as well as osteoporosis and postural problems. 47 But hyperextension of the spine is a common mechanism of lower back injury, therefore, the correct technique, and careful progression from less to more demanding exercises, are essential to ensurethe potential benefits and reduce the risks. ...
Low back pain is one of the most prevalent orthopedic conditions, affecting around 70% to 80% of the world’s population at least once during their life times. Surface electromyography is an important tool for assessing the muscle function of the lumbar stabilizers. One of the best treatment options for patients with chronic low back pain (CLBP) is physical exercise, particular lyaerobic exercise and Pilates, as these can reduce short-term pain and disability, and improve balance. This review aims to identify the state of art regarding the benefits of pilates on the population with CLBP, evaluating changes in the muscular activation of the muscles of the lumbar region. Searches were conducted on the following databases: PubMed (Medline), Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science, Cochrane, Ebsco and Scielo; including gray literature: Google Scholar, Grey Literature, Pro Quest Dissertations & Theses. The inclusion criteria were adults with low back pain for three months or more, with or without referred pain in the lower limbs; studies that used electromyographic variables; studies with a pain assessment measure at two different times; studies with physical exercise performed only using the Pilates method. Applying these criteria, the searches retrieved 439 abstracts. Of these, 44 articles were evaluated for eligibility, and three fulfilled the qualitative and quantitative synthesis criteria. The average methodological quality score on the Downs and Black checklist was 15 out of 28. It was therefore concluded that Pilates is an excellent option for the treatment of non-specific low back pain, promoting health and helping prevent low back pain among asymptomatic individuals. Level of evidence II; Systematic Review of Level II or Level I Studies with Discrepant Results.
Keywords:
Low back pain; Electromyography; Pilates training; Physical activity
... Interestingly, static balance (e.g., Statue Game) measures were a less meaningful outcome measure than measures of strength (e.g., Broad Jump). This is consistent with research supporting the association between learning to ride a bicycle and increased leg strength [32]. Specifically, MacDonald [10] found that youth with disabilities who learned to ride had greater leg strength than individuals who did not learn to ride. ...
Background:
A developing area for therapy is teaching children to ride a bicycle. Little has been written about the effectiveness of these programs. This study explored outcomes from participation in a novel bicycle riding program for children with a wide array of developmental challenges.
Method:
Two studies were conducted; a nonconcurrent, multiple baseline design with four participants and a pretest-posttest single group with 15 children.
Results:
Study 1 participants improved on broad jump. Balance positions showed variable responses. Study 2 participants showed significant improvement on broad jump, and a trend toward significance walking forwards and backwards. Parents reported improvement in following rules, participating in daily routines, interacting with peers, and feeling good about him/herself and a change in child's participation in community and extracurricular activities. All children improved in glide time or achieved independent riding.
Conclusions:
Preliminary evidence was found for the effectiveness of one approach for developing motor and social skills within the context of learning to ride a bicycle. Children over the age of 6 years were able to ride a two-wheeled bicycle at the end of the program. Participation suggested improvement in motor coordination and dynamic balance as well as changes in measures of social interaction and self-esteem.
... Most children learn to cycle with the help of their families. Although structured programs with cycling lessons exist, they seem to be more frequent for children with disabilities (57). However, for all children, learning is enhanced when (1) it is more like a team effort than a solo race, (2) frequent opportunities to perform and receive suggestions for improvement exist and/or (3) learners use realistic amounts of time for effective learning (58). ...
Background
Learning to cycle is an important milestone for children, but the popularity of cycling and the environmental factors that promote the development and practice of this foundational movement skill vary among cultures and across time. This present study aimed to investigate if country of residence and the generation in which a person was born influence the age at which people learn to cycle.
Methods
Data were collected through an online survey between November 2019 and December 2020. For this study, a total of 9,589 responses were obtained for adults (self-report) and children (parental report) living in 10 countries (Portugal, Italy, Brazil, Finland, Spain, Belgium, United Kingdom, Mexico, Croatia, and the Netherlands). Participants were grouped according to their year of birth with 20-year periods approximately corresponding to 3 generations: 1960–79 (generation X; n = 2,214); 1980–99 (generation Y; n = 3,994); 2000–2019 (generation Z; n = 3,381).
Results
A two-way ANOVA showed a significant effect of country, F(9,8628) = 90.17, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.086, and generation, F(2,8628) = 47.21, p < 0.001, ηp2 = 0.122, on the age at which individuals learn to cycle. Countries with the lowest learning age were the Netherlands, Finland and Belgium and countries with the highest learning age were Brazil and Mexico. Furthermore, the age at which one learns to cycle has decreased across generations. There was also a significant country x generation interaction effect on learning age, F(18,8628) = 2.90, p < 0.001; however, this effect was negligible (ηp2 = 0.006).
Conclusions
These findings support the socio-ecological perspective that learning to cycle is a process affected by both proximal and distal influences, including individual, environment and time.
Learning to ride a bicycle is an important milestone in children’s life, so it is important to allow them to explore cycling as soon as possible. The use of a bicycle with training wheels (BTW) for learning to cycling independently is an old approach practiced worldwide. Most recently, a new approach using the balance bike (BB) has increased, and several entities believe that this could be most efficient. Drawing on the work of Bronfenbrenner (1995) and Newel (1986), this study aimed to analyse the effect of BB’s use on the learning process of cycling independently. Data were collected in Portugal from an online structured survey between November 2019 and June 2020. A total of 2005 responses were obtained for adults and children (parental response). Results revealed that when the balance bike’s approach was used, learning age (LA) occurred earlier (M=4.16 ± 1.34 years) than with the bicycle with training wheels’ approach (M=5.97 ± 2.16 years) ( p <0,001); or than when there was only the single use of the traditional bicycle (TB) (M=7.27 ± 3.74 years) ( p <0,001). Children who used the BB as the first bike had a significant lower LA than children who didn´t use it ( p <0.001). To maximize its effects, the BB should be used in the beginning of the learning process.
Active commuting to school (ACS) is an important source of physical activity among children. Recent research has focused on ACS and its benefits on cognition and academic achievement (AA), factors important for success in school. This review aims to synthesize literature on the relationship between ACS and cognition or AA among children and adolescents. Peer-reviewed articles in PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO and Cochrane Library assessing ACS with cognition and/or AA among children, until February 2019, were selected. Twelve studies across nine countries (age range 4-18.5 years) were included. One study used accelerometers, whereas all others used self-report measures of ACS. A wide range of objective assessments of cognitive functioning and AA domains were used. Five among eight studies, and four among six found a positive relationship between ACS and cognitive or AA measure, respectively. Four studies found dose-response relationships, and some studies found sex differences. The quantitative analysis found that ACS was not significantly associated with mathematics score (odds ratio = 1.18; CI = 0.40, 3.48). Findings are discussed in terms of methodological issues, potential confounders, and the strength of the evidence. Future studies should conduct longitudinal studies and use objective measures of ACS to understand this relationship further.
Background
Encouraging more trips by bicycle is often an objective of bicycle skills training. Bicycle skills training programs have been implemented in several countries, cities, and schools, but few evaluations measure changes in bicycling. We conducted a scoping review to identify and describe evidence of changes in bicycling frequency associated with bicycle skills training. We also describe and compare the theoretical basis, context, and training content of bicycle skills trainings that might be associated with changes in bicycling.
Methods
We searched six electronic databases, grey literature websites, Google Scholar, and citations in relevant articles for pre- and post-test studies of bicycle skill training interventions which measured bicycling frequency in children or adults. We assessed the theory, context, and content of the bicycle skills training interventions using pre-defined concepts and a behaviour change technique taxonomy.
Results
We found 12 studies. Six studies assessed programs for adult populations, of which five reported increases in overall bicycling and three reported increases in bicycling to work. Six studies assessed programs for children, of which five reported increases in overall bicycling and three reported increases in bicycling to school. Information about the statistical significance of these results was sometimes missing. Studies described intervention content adequately, but poorly reported details about intervention theory and context. No associations were found between intervention content and changes in bicycling frequency.
Conclusions
Bicycle skills training increases participants’ bicycling, but evidence is heterogeneous among a small number of studies. Sparse reporting limited our ability to detect associations between changes in bicycling frequency and the training theory, context, or content. Future studies should strive to report details on theory, context, and content to help assess effectiveness and generalizability.
Evidence supports a positive association between competence in fundamental movement skills (e.g., kicking, jumping) and physical activity in young people. Whilst important, fundamental movement skills do not reflect the broad diversity of skills utilized in physical activity pursuits across the lifespan. Debate surrounds the question of what are the most salient skills to be learned which facilitate physical activity participation across the lifespan. In this paper, it is proposed that the term ‘fundamental movement skills’ be replaced with ‘foundational movement skills’. The term ‘foundational movement skills’ better reflects the broad range of movement forms that increase in complexity and specificity and can be applied in a variety of settings. Thus, ‘foundational movement skills’ includes both traditionally conceptualized ‘fundamental’ movement skills and other skills (e.g., bodyweight squat, cycling, swimming strokes) that support physical activity engagement across the lifespan. A proposed conceptual model outlines how foundational movement skill competency can provide a direct or indirect pathway, via specialized movement skills, to a lifetime of physical activity. Foundational movement skill development is hypothesized to vary according to culture and/or geographical location. Further, skill development may be hindered or enhanced by physical (i.e., fitness, weight status) and psychological (i.e., perceived competence, self-efficacy) attributes. This conceptual model may advance the application of motor development principles within the public health domain. Additionally, it promotes the continued development of human movement in the context of how it leads to skillful performance and how movement skill development supports and maintains a lifetime of physical activity engagement.
Background
Evidence is mounting to suggest a causal relationship between the built environment and people’s physical activity behaviours, particularly active transport. The evidence base has been hindered to date by restricted consideration of cost and economic factors associated with built environment interventions, investigation of socioeconomic or ethnic differences in intervention effects, and an inability to isolate the effect of the built environment from other intervention types. The aims of this systematic review were to identify which environmental interventions increase physical activity in residents at the local level, and to build on the evidence base by considering intervention cost, and the differential effects of interventions by ethnicity and socioeconomic status.
Methods
A systematic database search was conducted in June 2015. Articles were eligible if they reported a quantitative empirical study (natural experiment or a prospective, retrospective, experimental, or longitudinal research) investigating the relationship between objectively measured built environment feature(s) and physical activity and/or travel behaviours in children or adults. Quality assessment was conducted and data on intervention cost and whether the effect of the built environment differed by ethnicity or socioeconomic status were extracted.
Results
Twenty-eight studies were included in the review. Findings showed a positive effect of walkability components, provision of quality parks and playgrounds, and installation of or improvements in active transport infrastructure on active transport, physical activity, and visits or use of settings. There was some indication that infrastructure improvements may predominantly benefit socioeconomically advantaged groups. Studies were commonly limited by selection bias and insufficient controlling for confounders. Heterogeneity in study design and reporting limited comparability across studies or any clear conclusions to be made regarding intervention cost.
Conclusions
Improving neighbourhood walkability, quality of parks and playgrounds, and providing adequate active transport infrastructure is likely to generate positive impacts on activity in children and adults. The possibility that the benefits of infrastructure improvements may be inequitably distributed requires further investigation. Opportunities to improve the quality of evidence exist, including strategies to improve response rates and representativeness, use of valid and reliable measurement tools, cost-benefit analyses, and adequate controlling for confounders.
Electronic supplementary material
The online version of this article (10.1186/s12966-017-0613-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Although it was invented nearly two centuries ago in Germany, the balance bike is only now beginning to make its presence known in the United States. A balance bike is a bicycle with no pedals — propelled by running or walking — and is designed to teach young children how to ride a bike in less time by allowing them to practice balance and steering with minimal risk of falling. The use of balance bikes is gaining traction as the “new” way to transition children to riding a bicycle without the need to use training wheels. However, the implementation of a balance bike unit is surprisingly lacking in the vast majority of elementary physical education programs. The purpose of this article is to provide an introduction to the balance bike, highlight the benefits of implementing it in the elementary physical education curriculum, and offer a four-lesson, ready-to-use balance-bike unit plan.
A task oriented intervention " Bike Skills Group " (BSG) programme was developed using theoretical/conceptual frameworks from occupational therapy and motor learning literature. Theoretical analysis supported bike riding as a therapeutic intervention. A clinical audit of 53 children (48 boys 5 girls) aged 6-15 years with various difficulties found 47 (89%) children learnt to ride independently and the majority (n=29 63%) learnt to ride in four hours (range two-16 hours). Developing complex interventions like the BSG requires synthesis of conceptual, empirical and experiential evidence which can be evaluated through the clinical audit process. The BSG is a theory-based, successful therapeutic intervention for learning to ride a bike.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses have become increasingly important in health care. Clinicians read them to keep up to date with their field [1],[2], and they are often used as a starting point for developing clinical practice guidelines. Granting agencies may require a systematic review to ensure there is justification for further research [3], and some health care journals are moving in this direction [4]. As with all research, the value of a systematic review depends on what was done, what was found, and the clarity of reporting. As with other publications, the reporting quality of systematic reviews varies, limiting readers' ability to assess the strengths and weaknesses of those reviews.
Several early studies evaluated the quality of review reports. In 1987, Mulrow examined 50 review articles published in four leading medical journals in 1985 and 1986 and found that none met all eight explicit scientific criteria, such as a quality assessment of included studies [5]. In 1987, Sacks and colleagues [6] evaluated the adequacy of reporting of 83 meta-analyses on 23 characteristics in six domains. Reporting was generally poor; between one and 14 characteristics were adequately reported (mean = 7.7; standard deviation = 2.7). A 1996 update of this study found little improvement [7].
In 1996, to address the suboptimal reporting of meta-analyses, an international group developed a guidance called the QUOROM Statement (QUality Of Reporting Of Meta-analyses), which focused on the reporting of meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials [8]. In this article, we summarize a revision of these guidelines, renamed PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses), which have been updated to address several conceptual and practical advances in the science of systematic reviews (Box 1).
Box 1: Conceptual Issues in the Evolution from QUOROM to PRISMA
Completing a Systematic Review Is an Iterative Process
The conduct of a systematic review depends heavily on the scope and quality of included studies: thus systematic reviewers may need to modify their original review protocol during its conduct. Any systematic review reporting guideline should recommend that such changes can be reported and explained without suggesting that they are inappropriate. The PRISMA Statement (Items 5, 11, 16, and 23) acknowledges this iterative process. Aside from Cochrane reviews, all of which should have a protocol, only about 10% of systematic reviewers report working from a protocol [22]. Without a protocol that is publicly accessible, it is difficult to judge between appropriate and inappropriate modifications.
Learning to ride a bicycle is an important milestone in a child's life. Unfortunately, young traffic casualties remain overrepresented in traffic reports, with single-bicycle crashes as principal cause in children. This correlational, cross-sectional study focuses on the association between cycling skills and two intrinsic characteristics: general motor competence and body mass index (BMI). Therefore, general motor competence, BMI and practical cycling competence were measured in 9-year-old children (n = 40). Significant correlations were found between cycling skills and general motor competence (r = 0.434, p ≤ 0.01), and between cycling skills and BMI (r = - 0.400, p ≤ 0.05). A multiple regression analysis revealed that children's general motor quotient and BMI together predicted 19% of cycling skill score. These findings indicate that general motor competence and bicycle skills are not independent of each other stressing the importance of young children's characteristics when actively participating in traffic. In addition, BMI might be negatively associated with the development of cycling skills in children.
Currently, it is difficult to determine when a novice bicycle rider is ready to ride without training wheels or external assistance. In this study, we quantify the changes that occurred as 10 subjects with disabilities learned to ride traditional bicycles during a specialized bicycle training camp. These changes are revealed by three synchronized wireless inertial measurement units (IMUs) used to measure bicycle kinematics. Out of 10 subjects, 6 were successful in riding a traditional bicycle without assistance by the end of the camp. The peak value of the cross-correlation between steer and roll angular velocities was significantly greater for riders who ultimately succeeded in riding a traditional bike without assistance. This finding suggests that rider learning can be quantified by increased correlation between bicycle steer rate and roll rate. In essence, learning to steer in the direction of lean is an essential skill in learning to ride a bicycle.
Data collected from questionnaires, individual interviews and a group interview shed light on influences and motivators for six Vancouver teenagers who were old enough to drive but regularly cycled to secondary school. The participants began cycling by themselves around the age of ten because it afforded independence, fun, speed and time efficiency. Their parents resisted habitual chauffeuring and modeled bicycle use for recreation and transportation. The participants continued cycling throughout their mid-teen years because those early motivators—along with fitness and health—were stronger than negative comments from peers. They rode neither new nor expensive bikes, and considered bicycle "advocacy" to be too aggressive to be directed at their peers. However, rigorous tactics to encourage friends to cycle indicated that friends of current cyclists are an important target in bicycle promotion at secondary schools.
Children with Down syndrome (DS) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD) frequently have difficulty riding a two-wheel bicycle. The purpose of this study was to investigate an intervention using an adapted bicycle and individualized instruction to teach 71 youth to ride a standard two-wheel bicycle. Youth with DS (n = 30) and ASD (n = 41) between the ages of nine and 18 years took part in this study. After five days of training, 73.3% of children with DS and 85.4% with ASD successfully demonstrated the ability to ride the bicycle more than 100 feet. Leg strength differentiated riders from nonriders in both groups. For the youth with DS, those who learned to ride were significantly older and heavier than those who did not learn to ride. Participants with ASD who learned to ride were significantly taller and stronger than those with ASD who did not learn to ride a two-wheel bicycle. Implications are discussed.
Although significant attention has been paid to promoting the importance of physical activity in children, adolescents, and adults, we do not currently understand how to promote sustained physical activity levels throughout the lifespan. We contend that previous research has failed to consider the dynamic and synergistic role that motor skill competence plays in the initiation, maintenance, or decline of physical activity and how this role might change across developmental time. In this article, we present a conceptual model hypothesizing the relationships among physical activity, motor skill competence, perceived motor skill competence, health-related physical fitness, and obesity. We contend that the development of motor skill competence is a primary underlying mechanism that promotes engagement in physical activity. (Contains 1 figure.)
Study design:Systematic literature review.Objectives:The primary aims of this study were to evaluate the methodological quality of exercise intervention studies in adults with spinal cord injuries (SCIs); and to classify the reported outcome measures according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF).Methods:Electronic searches of PubMed, CINAHL, SPORTDiscus, PsychINFO, Scopus and the Cochrane Center Register of Controlled Trials from 2001 to 2011 were performed. Selected studies were evaluated for methodological quality using the Downs and Black checklist. Outcome measures were extracted and linked to categories of the ICF using standardized linking rules.Results:Two-hundred forty abstracts were retrieved, 57 studies met eligibility criteria. The mean methodological quality score was 14.7±3.2 out of 28 on the Downs and Black checklist. Three-hundred seventy four outcome measures were extracted with 333 concepts linked to 35 second-level ICF categories across the four components.Conclusion:Studies of exercise interventions for adults with SCI included in this review are generally low in methodological quality, primarily reporting outcomes related to the Body Functions and Body Structures components of the ICF. It is recommended that studies employ more vigorous methodological designs to reduce bias and confounding, and include outcome measures targeting more categories in the Activities and Participation component so as to reflect the potential benefits of exercise on health and functioning in this population.
It has previously been shown that light contact with the finger tip on a fixed surface reduces centre of pressure (CoP) fluctuations
in the frontal plane when standing in an unstable posture with the feet in line (tandem Romberg stance). Positive cross-correlations
between horizontal finger forces and CoP fluctuations with finger forces exhibiting a phase lead suggest the hand provides
sensory input for postural stability. The present study investigates whether this is the case for normal posture. We report
reduced CoP fluctuations in the sagittal plane when light touch is permitted during normal bipedal stance. Moreover, we find
positive crosscorrelations between finger tip forces and CoP fluctuations which are of similar magnitude and phase lag to
those observed in tandem Romberg stance. This shows the utility of hand touch input for regulation of normal upright posture
as well as inherently unstable postures such as tandem Romberg.
People with Down syndrome (DS) display consistent patterns of physical inactivity. If these sedentary behaviors continue over extended periods of time, there will be negative health consequences.
The objective of this study was to investigate the physical activity and health-related outcomes of teaching children with DS to ride a 2-wheel bicycle.
This study was a randomized intervention in which the control group waited 1 year to receive the intervention.
This intervention study was conducted in a community setting.
The participants were children who were 8 to 15 years of age and who had been diagnosed with DS. Intervention The participants were randomly assigned to an experimental group (bicycle intervention) or a control group (no intervention).
Measurements were obtained in the month before the intervention (preintervention), at 7 weeks after the intervention, and at 12 months after the preintervention measurement for all participants.
The results indicated no group differences at the preintervention session. Fifty-six percent of the participants in the experimental group successfully learned to ride a 2-wheel bicycle during the 5-day intervention. Analysis showed that participants who learned to ride spent significantly less time in sedentary activity at 12 months after the preintervention measurement and more time in moderate to vigorous physical activity than participants in the control group. Body fat appeared to be positively influenced over time in participants who learned to ride.
It is unknown how frequently the children in the experimental group rode their bicycles after the intervention.
Most children who are 8 to 15 years of age and who have been diagnosed with DS can learn to ride a 2-wheel bicycle. Learning to ride can reduce time spent in sedentary activity and increase time spent in moderate to vigorous physical activity, which may influence the health and functioning of these children.
To determine what interventions are effective in promoting cycling, the size of the effects of interventions, and evidence of any associated benefits on overall physical activity or anthropometric measures.
Systematic review.
Published and unpublished reports in any language identified by searching 13 electronic databases, websites, reference lists, and existing systematic reviews, and papers identified by experts in the field. Review methods Controlled "before and after" experimental or observational studies of the effect of any type of intervention on cycling behaviour measured at either individual or population level.
Twenty five studies (of which two were randomised controlled trials) from seven countries were included. Six studies examined interventions aimed specifically at promoting cycling, of which four (an intensive individual intervention in obese women, high quality improvements to a cycle route network, and two multifaceted cycle promotion initiatives at town or city level) were found to be associated with increases in cycling. Those studies that evaluated interventions at population level reported net increases of up to 3.4 percentage points in the population prevalence of cycling or the proportion of trips made by bicycle. Sixteen studies assessing individualised marketing of "environmentally friendly" modes of transport to interested households reported modest but consistent net effects equating to an average of eight additional cycling trips per person per year in the local population. Other interventions that targeted travel behaviour in general were not associated with a clear increase in cycling. Only two studies assessed effects of interventions on physical activity; one reported a positive shift in the population distribution of overall physical activity during the intervention.
Community-wide promotional activities and improving infrastructure for cycling have the potential to increase cycling by modest amounts, but further controlled evaluative studies incorporating more precise measures are required, particularly in areas without an established cycling culture. Studies of individualised marketing report consistent positive effects of interventions on cycling behaviour, but these findings should be confirmed using more robust study designs. Future research should also examine how best to promote cycling in children and adolescents and through workplaces. Whether interventions to promote cycling result in an increase in overall physical activity or changes in anthropometric measures is unclear.
When a standing person applies a light finger touch to an external stable object, postural sway is reduced. We tested a hypothesis that two factors related to touch can induce this effect, the presence of a stable reference point and the modulation of contact forces leading to tissue deformation. Force platform signals were analyzed while subjects stood quietly with or without additional light touch to an external object (contact forces under 1 N). The point of touch on the body was manipulated. We also investigated the effects of active touch vs fixation of a finger at a point in external space. The results show that touch to the head or neck can be more effective in reducing body sway than a finger touch. A larger reduction in sway was observed when the finger was fixed in a clip (the net forces between the clip and the point of its fixation to the stand were under 1 N) as compared to a free light touch to a pad. The subjects showed a reduction in postural sway while holding a load suspended using a pulley system; in this situation, contact with the load via the pulley provided modulation of contact forces but not a fixed reference point. This finding emphasizes the importance of such factors as stability of the contact point and modulation of contact forces, as compared to active touch or to an implicit task of stabilizing the kinematic chain. The system of postural stabilization can reduce postural sway, making use of either of two sources of sensory information associated with touch, one related to providing a fixed reference point in space, and the other related to transient force changes at the point of contact related to the sway.
Learning to ride a bicycle and enjoying the pleasures of cycling are synonymous with childhood; unfortunately, cycling does not come without risk of serious injury. Children under 15 years old account for the majority of cycling time in the United States, and on average, 1 child dies every day from a bicycle-related injury. Health care professionals can play an important role in making cycling a safe activity by encouraging and advocating for safe bicycling practices. Specific areas for physicians and health care professionals to emphasize involve the cyclist, environmental factors, and equipment factors. Helmet use by cyclists, avoidance of risk-taking, safe cycling road behavior, and proper cycling equipment fit and usage are all areas in which health care professionals can instruct families during office visits. The physician and the health care community can also be advocates for mandatory helmet legislation in order to achieve higher helmet usage rates and decreased cycling injuries. The health care professional's role in bicycle safety is an important component in building a foundation for safe cycling.
Because of the prevalence and devastating consequences of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), a systematic review devoted to low-vision rehabilitation and AMD seems timely and appropriate.
Several electronic databases were searched for studies from 1980 to 2006 involving individuals with low vision or visual impairment and rehabilitation interventions. Studies were assessed for quality and level of evidence.
The findings indicate that standard low-vision rehabilitation programs, conventional in-clinic assessments, and optical devices are effective ways of managing and living with vision loss. Areas of unmet need include determining which types of orientation and mobility programs and devices are most effective and developing methods of matching assistive technologies with the individual's visual and environmental requirements.
Additional randomized controlled trials with similar intervention comparisons and outcome measures are needed to form stronger conclusions for the most effective low-vision rehabilitation interventions for individuals with AMD.
Background: Cycling has gained more attention as an important lifelong physical activity. Learning to cycle independently without assistance is a milestone for most children that requires time and practice to master. Cycling was recently added to the motor development model and so a valid and reliable measure of cycling ability is required to allow accurate assessment of the skill. Cycling has many health benefits along with being a commonly reported physical activity globally and therefore is an important skill to promote in early childhood and throughout life. To date, there are no measurement tools examining the developmental process to independent cycling in the early childhood years. The current study aimed to develop and assess the inter-rater and test-retest reliability of the ‘KIM Cycling Scale’.
Methods: Development of the scale occurred in four phases: (1) development of criteria and stages, which used observation of children when learning to cycle and expert panels to develop the initial developmental stages, (2) review of instructions and criteria and pilot inter-rater and test-retest reliability, to ensure that the scale could be used as a standalone scale without requiring further instructions (3) cycling intervention, which allowed assessment of the developmental nature of children along the scale as they learn to cycle independently and to assess typical and alternate routes to independent cycling and (4) inter-rater and test-retest reliability.
Results: Ninety children took part in phase 1, thirty-six children took part in phase 2, seventy-four children took part in phase 3 and one hundred and forty-nine children took part in phase 4. All three hundred and forty-nine children were between 2 and 6 years. The developed scale included eight stages in total. The scale was found to have excellent inter-rater reliability (ICC = 0.97, 95% CI = 0.96–0.98) and good to excellent test-retest reliability [(ICC = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.87–0.94) & (ICC = 0.90, 95% CI = 0.85–0.93)]. Typical routes to independent cycling along the scale were examined and reported as being step-wise on all occasions except one where a two stage jump was as common as the step-wise route. Alternate routes were also reported.
Conclusion: The current study developed a reliable measurement tool for assessing children between 2 and 6 years of age on the developmental process to independent cycling. Having a cycling scale will allow teachers and practitioners to assess competence in cycling and moreover, track changes in skill development. Furthermore, parents could also use the scale to better understand and better asses their child’s progression when learning to cycle.
Learning to ride a bicycle can be considered a keystone in a child's life, however, bicycle injuries in young bicyclists remain a significant problem. The current systematic review evaluated cross-sectional and intervention studies regarding the development of the intrinsic factors (motor skills, perceptual-motor skills, attitudes and knowledge) in young bicyclists of five to 18 years old. A systematic search of the literature resulted in 3426 abstracts, published before October 1, 2017, of which 63 full-texts were retrieved. A total of 46 qualitative articles were included for review, consisting of 23 cross-sectional studies and 23 intervention studies. A meta-analysis was performed for each intrinsic factor. It was found that bicycling skills develop with both age and experience. Even until the age of twelve, children have not yet automated their bicycling skills and experience difficulties with coordinating more complex motor and perceptual-motor skills such as estimating and anticipating dangerous situations. Given that attitudes such as rule compliance are affected by hormonally induced changes during puberty, more research is needed regarding the development of safe attitudes. Most training programs were effective to improve knowledge, motor skills and perceptual-motor skills in young bicyclists, especially those including an on-road component.
Motor impairment is common in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and, as such, a potential target for interventions to improve adaptive functioning. This study investigated motor skill acquisition in children with ASD (n = 15, 12 males; ages 7–16 years) during iCan Bike Camp, a 1-week, community-based intervention (5 × 75-min sessions) to teach independent bicycle riding. After completing the camp’s task-oriented, individualized training program, all participants demonstrated motor skill acquisition on the bicycle, and nine participants rode independently at least 70 feet. Exploratory analyses showed that motor coordination and social communication correlated with rates of skill acquisition. These findings indicate the feasibility and efficacy of brief, community-based motor interventions to teach bicycle riding—an important developmental skill supporting adaptive functioning—to children with ASD.
Objective: To analyse the association between cycling to/from school and body composition, physical fitness, and metabolic syndrome among a sample of Colombian children and adolescents.
Study design: During the 2014–2015 school years, we examined a cross-sectional component of the FUPRECOL study. Participants included 2,877 youths (54.5% girls) from Bogota (Colombia). A self-reported questionnaire was used to measure frequency and mode of commuting to school. Four components of physical fitness were measured: (1) anthropometric parameter (height, weight, body mass index, and waist circumference); (2) musculoskeletal parameters (handgrip and standing long jump test); (3) motor parameter (speed-agility test; 4 × 10 m shuttle run); and (4) cardiorespiratory parameter (20mSRT: 20 m shuttle run test). The prevalence of metabolic syndrome was determined by the definitions provided by the International Diabetes Federation.
Results: Twenty-three percent of the sample reported commuting by cycle. Active commuting boys showed lower likelihood (OR) of having unhealthy 4 x 10 m levels (OR = 0.72; 95% CI 0.53 to 0.98, p = 0.038) compared to the reference group (passive commuters). Active commuting girls showed a lower likelihood of having unhealthy 20mSRT levels (OR = 0.81; 95% CI 0.56 to 0.99, p = 0.047) and metabolic syndrome (OR = 0.61; 95%CI 0.35 to 0.99, p = 0.048) compared to passive commuters.
Conclusion: Our results provide some evidence that regular cycling to school may to be associated to greater physical fitness and lower metabolic syndrome than passive transport, especially in girls.
Many children with disabling conditions do not acquire the skills to successfully ride a 2-wheeled bicycle. The aim was to describe cycling patterns before and after an innovative learn-to-ride bike camp and factors that facilitate or hinder the generalization of skills developed at camp to home. Parents and children participated in semistructured interviews 3-4 mo postcamp. Transcripts were examined deductively for participation and contextual influences using a template of codes approach. None of the children were successfully riding a 2-wheeled bicycle before camp. Two patterns of participation were evident from narrative descriptions of postcamp riding: "riders" and "not there yet." Major facilitating factors were the camp itself, the interaction between the camp and the health service, and continued parent involvement. The program transferred well to home for children who were riding independently on the last day of camp. Ongoing support is needed for children "not there yet."
This study investigated the use of adapted bicycles on the acquisition, maintenance, and generalization of conventional cycling by seven children with mild mental retardation. Feedback was used in addition to the adapted bicycles and consisted of pedal rate, head position, and steering participation. A multiple probe design was used. Participants were required to ride as far as possible for each trial. Results indicated that 100% of participants demonstrated acquisition of conventional cycling. Maintenance was demonstrated by 71.4% of participants, and generalization was demonstrated by 42.9% of participants. Results are interpreted from an ecological perspective.
The aim of this study was to reveal cortical areas that may contribute to the movement difficulties seen in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Specifically, we hypothesized that there may be a deficit in the mirror neuron system (MNS), a neural system that responds to both performed and observed actions. Using functional MRI, 14 boys with DCD (mean = 10.08 years ± 1.31, range = 7.83 - 11.58 years) and 12 typically developing controls (mean = 10.10 years ± 1.15, range = 8.33 – 12 years) were scanned observing, executing and imitating a finger sequencing task using their right hand. Cortical activations of mirror neuron regions, including posterior inferior frontal gyrus, ventral premotor cortex, anterior inferior parietal lobule and superior temporal sulcus were examined. Children with DCD had decreased cortical activation mirror neuron related regions, including the precentral gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus, as well as in the posterior cingulate and precuneus complex when observing the sequencing task. Region of interest analysis revealed lower activation in the pars opercularis, a primary MNS region, during imitation in the DCD group compared to controls. These findings provide some preliminary evidence to support a possible MNS dysfunction in children with DCD.
Keywords: developmental coordination disorder (DCD); imitation; mirror neuron system (MNS); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); cortical function
Physical educators are expected to develop activities that promote psychological and physiological benefits for children during their pre-adolescent years, especially in pre-K through third grade. One of these skill components is the development and acquisition of stability or balance. This article describes how to use pedal-less bicycles to teach balance and stability to pre-K through third-grade children.
The primary aim of the present study was to evaluate the short- and longer-term effects of a cycle training on children's cycling skills. A second aim of the study was to examine the effects of a cycle training, with and without parental involvement, on levels of cycling to school and on parental attitudes towards cycling.
Three participating schools were randomly assigned to the "intervention" (25 children), the "intervention plus parent" (34 children) or "control" condition (35 children). A cycle training (four sessions of 45min) took place only in the intervention schools. Parents in the "intervention plus parent" condition were asked to assist their child in completing weekly homework tasks. Children's cycling skills were assessed, using a practical cycling test. All participating children also received a short parental questionnaire on cycling behavior and parental attitudes towards cycling. Assessments took place at baseline, within 1 week after the last session and at 5-months follow-up. Repeated measure analyses were conducted to evaluate the effects of the cycle training.
Children's total cycling skill score increased significantly more from pre to post and from pre to 5-months follow-up in the intervention group than in the control group. On walking with the bicycle (F=1.6), cycling in a straight line (F=2.6), cycling a slalom (F=1.9), cycling over obstacles (F=2.1), cycling on a sloping surface (F=1.7) and dismounting the bicycle (F=2.0), the cycle training had no effect. For all other cycling skills, significant improvements were observed on short- and longer-term. No significant intervention effects were found on children's cycling to school levels (F=1.9) and parental attitudes towards cycling.
The cycle training course was effective in improving children's cycling skills and the improvements were maintained 5 months later. However, the cycle training course was not effective in increasing children's cycling to school levels.
Bicycling is a popular means of recreation and transportation for children; however, it is a leading cause of recreational injury. Bicycle skill development and safety education are important methods of bicycle injury prevention.
To determine the effectiveness of bicycle skills training programmes in reducing bicycle-related injuries in children and youth.
Sixteen databases were systematically searched to include studies involving children less than 19 years of age who participated in interventions that targeted bicycle skills and safety education. Outcome measures included injury, behaviour, knowledge and attitudes. Data extraction included study characteristics, intervention and outcomes. Quality of evidence was assessed using the Downs and Black criteria.
Twenty-five studies, including both observational (ie, case-control) and experimental (ie, randomised controlled trials) designs met the inclusion criteria. Overall, there was no statistically significant intervention effect on measures of injury. Eight of 16 studies measuring knowledge reported significant knowledge gains as a result of the intervention. Of 13 studies evaluating behavioural and attitude changes, five reported significant improvement. There was no significant difference in quality index scores between studies that showed an improvement in knowledge or behaviour (61%, 95% CI 49% to 74%) and studies that did not (57%, 95% CI 48% to 66%).
There is a paucity of high-quality research in the area of bicycle skills training programmes. Educational and skills training bicycling programmes may increase knowledge of cycling safety, but this does not seem to translate into a decrease in injury rate, or improved bicycle handling ability and attitudes.
Introduction:
The aim of this study was to determine the short-term effects of cycle training on basic cycling skills in children from the 4th grade of elementary school. Furthermore, the influence of gender, socio-economic status (SES) and initial cycling skills level on the effects of the cycle training was investigated.
Methods:
Five participating schools were randomly assigned to the intervention (n=3) or control condition (n=2). Children's cycling skills were assessed, using a practical cycling test, at baseline and immediately after the intervention. At baseline, all participating children received a short parental questionnaire on child's demographic and family factors. After the pre-test, cycle training took place only in the intervention schools. Repeated measure analyses were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the cycle training.
Results:
The cycle training had a statistically significant effect on children's total cycling skill (F=46.9, p<0.001). On mounting the bicycle and start to cycle (F=2.6, p=0.11), cycling one handed (F=2.0, p=0.16), and cycling on a sloping surface (F=1.5, p=0.23), no statistically significant effects were detected. On all other cycling skills, time×condition interaction effects were statistically significant. Gender, SES and initial cycling skills level had no significant influence on the effects of the cycle training.
Conclusion:
This study showed that a cycle training of only three sessions was effective to improve children's cycling skills at short term and that cycle training within a traffic-free environment seems to be a useful first step in the development of safe cycling behaviors.
To evaluate the effectiveness of a skills training program in improving safe cycling behavior, knowledge, and attitudes in young children.
Grade 4 children from six elementary schools in East York (a borough of Metropolitan Toronto) participated. The intervention--playground based instruction on bicycle handling skills by certified instructors--was randomly allocated to three schools. Altogether 141 children participated: 73 in the intervention group and 68 in the control group, with follow up evaluations available on 117 (83%). The primary outcome was safe cycling behavior (straight line riding, coming to a complete stop, and shoulder checking before a left turn). A self report questionnaire collected data on knowledge and attitudes. Baseline assessments were made in June, with follow up evaluations in September, 1995.
The prevalence of safe cycling behaviors at follow up in the intervention and control groups respectively, were: straight line riding (90% v 88%; p = 0.782), coming to a complete stop (90% v 76%; p = 0.225), and shoulder checking (0% v 2%; p = 1.000). Over time (from baseline to follow up) children in both groups were more likely to maintain straight line riding, less likely to ride on the sidewalk, and less likely to consider that a car had more right to the road.
This brief skills training program was not effective in improving safe cycling behavior, knowledge, or attitudes among grade 4 children.
To test the feasibility of creating a valid and reliable checklist with the following features: appropriate for assessing both randomised and non-randomised studies; provision of both an overall score for study quality and a profile of scores not only for the quality of reporting, internal validity (bias and confounding) and power, but also for external validity.
A pilot version was first developed, based on epidemiological principles, reviews, and existing checklists for randomised studies. Face and content validity were assessed by three experienced reviewers and reliability was determined using two raters assessing 10 randomised and 10 non-randomised studies. Using different raters, the checklist was revised and tested for internal consistency (Kuder-Richardson 20), test-retest and inter-rater reliability (Spearman correlation coefficient and sign rank test; kappa statistics), criterion validity, and respondent burden.
The performance of the checklist improved considerably after revision of a pilot version. The Quality Index had high internal consistency (KR-20: 0.89) as did the subscales apart from external validity (KR-20: 0.54). Test-retest (r 0.88) and inter-rater (r 0.75) reliability of the Quality Index were good. Reliability of the subscales varied from good (bias) to poor (external validity). The Quality Index correlated highly with an existing, established instrument for assessing randomised studies (r 0.90). There was little difference between its performance with non-randomised and with randomised studies. Raters took about 20 minutes to assess each paper (range 10 to 45 minutes).
This study has shown that it is feasible to develop a checklist that can be used to assess the methodological quality not only of randomised controlled trials but also non-randomised studies. It has also shown that it is possible to produce a checklist that provides a profile of the paper, alerting reviewers to its particular methodological strengths and weaknesses. Further work is required to improve the checklist and the training of raters in the assessment of external validity.
Hospital-based research has shown that wearing a helmet reduces the risk of head injury in bicycle riders. These studies have provided the impetus for community-wide interventions to increase the numbers of cyclists who wear helmets; however, the effectiveness of such programmes is undetermined. This study employs extensive search strategies to review the scientific literature to establish the effectiveness of community-wide programmes to increase helmet use among cyclists. Thirteen community-wide intervention studies using substantive methodologies were located in 16 published papers. The community-wide interventions include mandating helmet wearing, education campaigns, distribution of free or subsidized helmets or, more frequently, combinations of all of these methods of influence. All studies reported success in influencing helmet wearing across communities. However, none of the studies reveals enough detail of the mix or techniques employed in the interventions to replicate the interventions. While it is encouraging that all of the studies showed positive results, the way forward for further implementation of helmet wearing is for adequate documentation of successful interventions.
Evaluation of Two Bicycle Programs for Primary School Children in the ACT: Bike Ed and the Traffic Centre Road Safety Package.” Australasian Road Safety Research Policing Education Conference
- K Imberger
- T Styles
- I Hughes
- G. Di Pietro
Imberger, K., T. Styles, I. Hughes, and G. Di Pietro. 2007. "Evaluation of Two Bicycle Programs for Primary School
Children in the ACT: Bike Ed and the Traffic Centre Road Safety Package." Australasian Road Safety Research
Policing Education Conference, 2007, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, October. https://trid.trb.org/view/855323.
Ultimate Bicycle Book
- Richard Ballantine
- Richard Grant
Ballantine, Richard, and Richard Grant. 1992. Ultimate Bicycle Book. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited.
Benefits of Learning to Ride a Two-Wheeled Bicycle for Adolescents with Down Syndrome and Autism Spectrum Disorder
- Janet Hauck
- Irully Jeong
- Phil Esposito
- Megan Macdonald
- Joseph Hornyak
- Angela Argento
- Dale A Ulrich
Hauck, Janet, Irully Jeong, Phil Esposito, Megan MacDonald, Joseph Hornyak, Angela Argento, and Dale A. Ulrich.
2017. "Benefits of Learning to Ride a Two-Wheeled Bicycle for Adolescents with Down Syndrome and Autism
Spectrum Disorder." PALAESTRA 31 (2). https://js.sagamorepub.com/palaestra/article/view/8431.
Putting the Fun Before the Wonk: Using Bike Fun to Diversify Bike Ridership
- Lillian Karabaic
Karabaic, Lillian. 2016. "Putting the Fun Before the Wonk: Using Bike Fun to Diversify Bike Ridership." TREC Friday
Seminar Series, April. https://pdxscholar.library.pdx.edu/trec_seminar/4.
System and Method for Providing Gyroscopic Stabilization to a Two-Wheeled Vehicle. WO2007005282A3. World Intellectual Porperty Organization
- H Murnen
- A Niles
- N Sigworth
- D Sperling
Murnen, H., A. Niles, N. Sigworth, and D. Sperling. 2009. System and Method for Providing Gyroscopic Stabilization
to a Two-Wheeled Vehicle. WO2007005282A3. World Intellectual Porperty Organization. https://patentimages.
storage.googleapis.com/25/90/b9/9a9bf1d0d1a8db/WO2007005282A3.pdf..
Understanding the Development of Bicycling Skills in Children: A Systematic Review
- Linus H R H Zeuwts
- J A Frederik
- Pieter Deconinck
- Greet Vansteenkiste
- Matthieu Cardon
- Lenoir
Zeuwts, Linus H. R. H., Frederik, J. A. Deconinck, Pieter Vansteenkiste, Greet Cardon, and Matthieu Lenoir. 2020.
"Understanding the Development of Bicycling Skills in Children: A Systematic Review." Safety Science 123
(March): 104562. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2019.104562.