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1
Presence and performance of sledge dogs in Antarctic Exploration,
1897-1994
R Trevor WILSON
Bartridge House, Umberleigh, UK, EX37 9AS
trevorbart@aol.com
Abstract: The Antarctic Circle (66 30' S) was first crossed in the 1770s. Reports of large numbers of
whales and seals led to a frantic industry. From 1820 to 1840 several geographic expeditions were
mounted. There was little activity thereafter until the late 1890s. Scientific exploration – geography,
geology, meteorology, botany, zoology – began with a Belgian Expedition that launced the so-called
Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration in 1897. Over the next 25 years, until 1922 at least 16 Expeditions
were mounted by at least nine countries with sledge dogs being used on all except three of these. During
the Mechanical age from the late 1920s to about 1950 at least 13 expeditions were mounted by at least
nine countries, several of these being multinational: dogs were used on at least eight expeditions. In the
Modern Age from 1950 to 1994 some 17 expeditions were mounted by at least 10 individual countries
and others by collaborative efforts and on only five of which were dogs used. From the inception of
Operation Tabarin in 1943 through its successors the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey and the
British Antarctic Survey the number of dogs imported and their subsequent offspring totalled more than
900 which together pulled sledges for an approximate 336 500 miles (541 544 km). Supposedly
environmental concerns and a perceived risk of canine distemper being transmitted to native wildlife
resulted in dogs being withdrawn from the Antarctic 22 February 1994.
Key words: Heroic Age, Shackleton, Amundsen, polar survey, geography.
Can it be that the dog has not understood his master? Or is it the master who has not understood his
dog? (Amundsen 1912)
Introduction
Captain James Cook was one of the first humans to sail in the far south of the globe. During his
second voyage of 1772-1775 in the Royal Navy ships HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure he became
the first person recorded to have sailed south of the Antarctic Circle. His announcement of the presence
of vast numbers of whales and seals led to a killing spree that almost wiped out whole populations of
these marine mammals. Subsequently, in the second quarter of the nineteenth century from about 1820
to the mid 1840s there was considerable geographic exploration by several nations. These included
travels by such memorable people as von Bellingshausen, Biscoe, Balleny, Dumont d'Urville, Morrell,
Ross. Weddell and Wilkes who were determined to discover more about the Antarctic area (von
Bellingshausen 1831; Morrell 1832; Dumont d’Urville 1841; Biscoe 1901; Evans 1943; Jones 1969; Ross
1982; Cleaver and Stanne 1988). Most attempted to penetrate the sea ice barriers surrounding the
Antarctic land and most were simply geographical in intent.
On some expeditions, however, some scientific work was undertaken. On James Clark Ross’
exploration with HMS Terror and HMS Erebus from 1839 to1843, for example, the surgeon on Erebus
made zoological and geological collections (Stone 2020) whereas the assistant surgeon concentrated on
botany on which he eventually published a massive work (Hooker 1844-1860).1
1 The Assistant Surgeon was Joseph Dalton Hooker, eminent botanist, friend of Charles Darwin and later
Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, President of the Royal Society and founder of the Bentham and
Hooker taxonomic system for plants.
2
The so-called Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration began in 1897 with the Belgian Antarctic
Expedition. This period is considered to have ended with the Shackleton-Rowett or Quest Expedition
of 1921–1922 (Fisher and Fisher 1957; Smith 2014). The Mechanical Age began in 1922 with the advent
of the use of aircraft and motorised vehicles by which the range and ease of Antarctic exploration was
greatly extended. Radio was used to communicate with the outside world and nutritional knowledge
banished scurvy, the scourge of the early expeditions. The Modern Era or the Age of Science and
Exploration began about 1950 during which permanent bases were established with a focus on science
and mapping of the remaining unknown sections of the Antarctic. Although science and discovery
continue to be important aspects of exploration and the expansion of knowledge, the Antarctic has now
become a playground for “celebrities” and BBC programmes in which “firsts” designed to obtain an entry
in the Guinness Book of Records are the principal aim.
This paper attempts to compile the role and contribution of dogs to Antarctic exploration and
discovery from the beginning of the Heroic Age to their banishment from the Antarctic continent in 1994
(Table 1).
Materials and Methods
This paper reviews the literature on Antarctic exploration from 1898 to 1994. Primary sources
have been used where available. Secondary published sources have also been included in addition to
material available on the Internet.
The Expeditions
The Heroic Age, 1898-1922
Belgian Antarctic (Belgica) Expedition, 1897-1899
The initial expedition of the Heroic Age undertaken by the Belgian Antarctic (Belgica)
Expedition of 1897-1899 and led by Adrian de Gerlache was the first to overwinter south of the Antarctic
Circle but made no use of dogs (De Gerlache de Gomery 1900; Barczewski 2007).
British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition, 1898-1900
The British Antarctic or Southern Cross Expedition of 1898-1900 led by Carsen Borchgrevink
was thus the first of many subsequent forays onto Antarctic land to use dogs (Figure 1). Siberia was the
source of 90 dog that travelled to the Antarctic on the Southern Cross (Figure 2). The first dogs were
landed on 18 February 1899 together with 28 tons of dog biscuits. Several litters of pups were born
during the time the Expedition was in the south. During preparatory work and the setting up of the base
camp the dogs were completely buried under snow by a blizzard on 17 March. The first journey on to
the ice was made on 22 April by four men with twenty dogs and provisions for twenty days. Several
sledge journeys were made to set up depots on the ice. A major journey started on 26 July with four men
and 29 dogs. Several other journeys were made over the succeeding weeks. One unexpected hazard was
caused by Skuas (which he noted to be of the genus Lestris [now Catharacta] spp.) attacking the dogs.
In some respects the dogs got their own back by providing transport for the extensive collections of eggs
of Skua, Snow Petrel (Pagodroma nivea) and Giant Petrel (Macronectes giganteus) taken by the
Expedition from many areas of the Antarctic. One dog, having been blown out to sea on an ice floe,
returned to the camp after five weeks of absence, evidently fit and healthy. In early January 1900 the
dogs were taken back on board the Southern Cross for the return journey but on 17 March they were
again unloaded and with the Expedition leader on the sledges they reached 78 50' S which was at that
time the most southerly point ever reached by man (Borchgrevink 1900; 1901). It has not been possible
to determine the fate of the dogs of this expedition.
British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition, 1901-1904
The British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition of 1901-1904 led by Robert Falcon Scott
obtained 29 dogs from northern Russia through the good offices of the Norwegian explorer and diplomat,
Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen. On arrival in New Zealand the dogs were put into quarantine on Quail
3
Table 1 Synoptic list of Antarctic expeditions during the period dogs were present, 1897-1994
/a
Expedition title, (alternative title/ship), dates, leader Dogs References
No Type/source
Heroic Age, 1898-1922
British Antarctic (Southern Cross) Expedition, 1898-1900 (Carsten Borchgevink) 90Siberia Borchgevink 1900; 1901
British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition, 1901-1904 (Robert Falcon Scott) 23Archangel, Russia Scott 1905
First German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition, 1901–1903 (Erich von Drygalski) ?? Murphy 2002
Swedish Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1903 (Otto Nordenskjöld) ?Greenland Nordenskjöld and Andersson 1905
Scottish National Antarctic (Scotia) Expedition, 1902-1904 (William Speirs Bruce) 8? Rudmose-Brown et al 2002
Third French Antarctic (Le Français) Expedition, 1903-1905 (Jean-Baptiste Charcot) 5ex Swedish Expedition (Greenland) Hoisington 1975
British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition, 1907-1909 (Ernest Shackleton) 9New Zealand (descendants Southern Cross Expedition) Huntford 1985
Fourth French Antarctic (Porquoi-pas?) Expedition, 1908-1910 (Jean-Baptiste Charcot) 0 Hoisington 1975
Japanese Antarctic (Kainan Maru) Expedition, 1910-1912 (Nobu Shirase) 29Karafuto: Sakhalin Husky (karafuto-ken) Hamre, 1933
Norwegian South Pole (Fram) Expedition 1910-1912 (Roald Amundsen) 97Norway (117 on arrival at base due to births) Amundsen 1912
British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition, 1910-1913 (Robert Falcon Scott) 3331 Siberian, 2 Husky; 14 Kamchatka dogs added later Murray 2008
Second German Antarctic (Deutschland) Expedition, 1911–13 (Wilhelm Filchner) 75Greenland Filchner and Przybyllok 1913
Australasian Antarctic (Aurora) Expedition, 1911-1914 (Douglas Mawson) 50Greenland (Amundsen gave 21 dogs for 1913 season) Riffenburgh 2014
Imperial Trans-Antarctic (Endurance) Expedition, 1914–1916 (Ernest Shackleton) 100Hudson’s Bay Company, Canada Hurley 11925; Huntford 1985
Shackleton-Rowett (Quest) Expedition, 1921–1922 (Ernest Shackleton) 0 Wild 1923
Mechanical Age, 1922-1950
Richard Evelyn Byrd First Expedition, 1928-1930 129[Norfolk, Virginia]; 1 terrier as a pet Byrd 1930; Rodgers 2002
British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE), 1929-1931
(Douglas Mawson)
0
Richard Evelyn Byrd Second Expedition, 1933-1935 153Alaska > Labrador Byrd 1935; Young 2008
British Graham Land Expedition (BGLE), 1934-1937 (John Riddoch Rymill) 60Greenland (45 died on route); 34 later from Labrador Polar Record 1935; Rymill 1938
Third German Antarctic (Schabenland) Expedition, 1938-1939 (Alfred Ritscher) 0
United States Antarctic Service Expedition (Byrd's Third Expedition), 1939-1941 (Richard
Evelyn Byrd)
c160Mostly from specialist kennels in US; Malamute, Siberian,
Eskimo, Chinook, “Huskies”
Ronne 1945; Bryner 2016
Operation Tabarin, 1943-1945 (James Marr) 25Labrador BAS 2020
Operation Highjump (Byrd's Fourth Expedition), 1946-1947 (Richard Evelyn Byrd) 0
First Chilean Antarctic Expedition, 1947-1948 (Federico Guesalaga Toro) 0
Operation Windmill, 1947-1948 (Gerald Ketchum) 0
Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition, 1947-1948 (Finn Ronne) 40? Ronne 1945; 1949
Fifth French Antarctic (Commandant Charcot) Expedition, 1948-1949 (Michel Barre) 40? Anon 1949; 1950
Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition, 1949-1952 (John Giaever) 62West Greenland, Spitsbergen; Falkland Islands Depen- Giaever 1954; Reece 1954
4
Modern Era or Age of Science and Exploration, 1950-1994
Operation Deep Freeze (Byrd's Fifth Expedition), 1955-1956 (Richard Evelyn Byrd) 0
First Soviet Antarctic Expedition, 1955-1957 (Mikhail Somov)
/b
0
Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1956-1958 (Vivian Fuchs) 60 Watson 2019, AHT 2021
New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition, 1957-1958 0
Luncke [Norway] Expedition, 1957-1958 (Bernhard Luncke) 0
Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition, 1957-1958 15 Sakhalin huskies (Japanese = ‘karafuto-ken’) JARE 2007
New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition, 1958-1959 0
First South African National Antarctic Expedition, 1959-1961 (J J (Hannes) la Grange) 12 “huskies” taken over from the Norwegian IGY team la Grange 1991
Terrestrial Argentine Expedition to the South Pole, 1965 (Jorge Edgard Leal) 18 Quevedo Paiva 2001.
New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition, 1969-1970 0
Transglobe Expedition, 1980-1981 (Ranulph Fiennes) 0 1 non-working dog taken as pet Fiennes 1983
First Indian Expedition to Antarctica, 1981-1982 (Sayed Zahoor Qasim)
/c
0
In the Footsteps of Scott, 1984-1987 (Robert Swan) 0
First Uruguayan Antarctic (Antarkos I) Expedition, 1984-1985 (Omar Porciúncula) 0
First Bulgarian Antarctic Expedition, 1987-1988 0
International Trans-Antarctica Expedition, 1989-1990 (Will Steger/Jean-Louis Étienne) 40 de Moll 2015
First North Korean Antarctic Expedition, 1990 0
Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey/British Antarctic Survey, 1946-1994
/d
108 Various sources, various times (see text) Walton and Atkinson, 1996
Notes: /a This list is just one of several similar but not necessarily identical posted on the internet
/b 35 further expeditions were made up to 1992
/c 7 further expeditions to 1988
/d total of 108 includes 4 exchanged with New Zealand and Argentina
5
Figure 1Outline map of Antarctica showing approximate locations of landing of dogs by various
expeditions (Source: constructed by the Author)
Figure 2 Borchgrevink with dogs on the Southern Cross (Source: Norwegian Polar Institute archives)
6
Island in Lyttelton Harbour near Christchurch on South Island. Winter quarters were set up on McMurdo
Sound where the expedition party set itself to do some training. None of the party had experience of skis
and only two men had limited experience with dog sledges. Attempts to become proficient in skiing and
sledging were not very successful but which reinforced Scott's preference for man-hauling (Scott 1905).
As the southern summer approached, Scott and two others set off south on 2 November 1902 with dogs
and supporting parties and on 11 November a supporting party passed Borchgrevink's Farthest South
record of 78°50'. Inexperience with the dogs caused major problems with slow progress and the dogs,
with no respect for their inept masters, refusing to pull. Added to this, the rations fed to the dogs were
inadequate although a manufacturer of compound feeds for livestock had already formulated a complete
dog ration but this was left behind. No attempt was made to kill seals for dog food. The result was that
the dogs rapidly weakened and some had to be killed to provide food for the others. Eventually the last
two surviving dogs were “put down” (a British euphemism for being slaughtered) on 13 January 1903.
During the second summer of 1903 the daily average of over 14 miles achieved by man-hauling was
considerably better than that achieved with dogs the previous year which added further fuel to Scott's
prejudice against dogs. Frank Wild, a Seaman on this Expedition, later served on three Shackleton
Expeditions being in charge of provisions on Nimrod 1907-1909 and second in command on both
Endurance 1914-1917 and Quest 1921-1922, also took part in an extended dog trek during this tour of
duty.
First German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition, 1901-1903
Dogs for use by the First German South Polar (Gauss) Expedition of 1901-1903 led by Erich von
Drygalski were loaded onto the SS Tanglin at Sydney in Australia. They had been accompanied there
from Siberia by three Siberians who travelled on the ship but in addition to their dog work they had to
act as stokers as only two of 11 Chinese stokers were fit for work. The dogs were transferred to the
Gauss at Kerguelen Island which left for the south on 31 January 1902. The expedition reached its
destination on the east coast of Antarctica on 14 February but sledging was impossible until 18 March
1902 when the ice became thick enough for sledge travel. The sledge party returned after eight days
having travelled 50 miles south of the ship where it discovered and named a 300 m mountain as
Gaussberg (Von Drygalski 1905a; 1905b; Murphy 2002).
Swedish Antarctic (Antarctic) Expedition, 1901-1903
On arrival at Snow Hill in mid February 1902 three days were spent getting equipment, supplies
and sled dogs from the ship Antarctic to the shore by the Swedish Antarctic Expedition of 1901-1903
which was led by Otto Nordenskjöld. Snow Hill was not a good choice for the over wintering site as it
was very exposed to the many storms which soon destroyed one of their two huts and during which
several dogs died. Some journeys away from the hut were used to test clothing and other equipment but
on several occasions dogs escaped from their harness and returned to the hut or ate food meant for the
men. Eventually, in October, three men covered 400 miles in 33 days with five dogs, each of which lost
five pounds despite being on full rations. This was the first properly recorded sled journey in the
Antarctic and for many years was the longest. After spending two winters on the ice the party was
eventually rescued by an Argentine naval ship (Nordenskjöld and Andersson 1905; Watkinson and
Atkinson 1996).
Scottish National Antarctic (Scotia) Expedition, 1902-1904
Only eight dogs were taken by William Spiers Bruce on the Scottish National Antarctic (Scotia)
Expedition of 1902-1904 as most of the work was at sea or within the limits of the winter station. These
dogs facilitated occasional sledge journeys. The expedition’s botanist recorded that the dogs "pulled well
in harness, their only weak point being their paws which ... were apt to be cut when on rough ice"
(Rudmose-Brown et al. 2002). Four dogs survived the trials and tribulations of the voyage.
7
Third French Antarctic (Le Français) Expedition, 1903-1905
Led by Jean-Baptiste Charcot, the Third French Antarctic Expedition in Le Français explored
the west coast the Antarctic Peninsula in 1903-1905, receiving logistical support from the corvette ARA
Uruguay of the Argentine Navy (Armada de la República Argentina).2 Travelling via Buenos Aires,
Charcot was fortunate to meet Nordenskjöld who was returning to Sweden after being rescued by the
Argentine Navy. Charcot received a gift of five dogs from Nordenskjöld (Hoisington 1975).
British Antarctic (Nimrod) Expedition, 1907-1909
Mechanized vehicles were first used in the Antarctic by the British Antarctic Expedition, also
known as the Nimrod Expedition, of 1907-1909 which was led by Ernest Shackleton. Ten ponies from
Manchuria – the first ponies in the Antarctic – and nine dogs were also part of the transport corps. An
attempt to reach the South Pole began on 29 October 1908 comprising four men and four ponies. All
four ponies had died by 7 December, following which the team resorted to man-hauling. The dogs,
which had been boarded in New Zealand rather as an afterthought (Shackleton was not a believer in dogs
and none of the men had much experience with them), were not taken on any major journey and were
used only around the base camp and to restock the staging depots (Figure 3) (Huntford 1985).
Figure 3 Petty Officer Joyce with dogs near main base of Nimrod Expedition (Source: Copyright
holder not found)
Fourth French Antarctic (Porquoi-pas?) Expedition, 1908-1910
The Fourth French Antarctic (Porquoi-pas?) Expedition of 1908-1910 was again led by
Jean-Baptiste Charcot but no dogs were taken as the scientific work was mostly conducted in the coastal
areas.
2 The First French Expedition took place in 1772 under Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec who took
possession of various Antarctic territories for France including what are now the Kerguelen Islands. The Second
Expedition was carried out in 1837-1840, commanded by Captain Jules Dumont d'Urville in the Astrolabe: he named
the Adélie Coast for his wife and the Adelie Penguin (Pygoscelis adeliae) bears its name in honour of her.
8
Japanese Antarctic (Kainan Maru) Expedition, 1910-1912
The Japanese Antarctic Expedition of 1910-1912 on the ship Kainan Maru with Lieutenant Nobu
Shirase as leader was one of five or six international expeditions working in Antarctic waters and on land
at the time. No dogs were taken on the first voyage to the south from New Zealand. For the second
voyage of 1911-1912 a total of 29 dogs participated. These dogs were unusual in that they were Japanese
animals and had not been recruited in Siberia or Greenland. The expedition sailed from Sydney in
Australia on 19 November 1911. On 5 January 1912 a seal was shot that provided food for men and dogs
and fuel for heating and lighting. Dogs pulled 26 kg each on sledges with iron runners that were 7 inches
(17.8 cm) high, 1 foot 8 inches (50.8 cm) wide and 4 feet (121.9 cm) long. The dogs were driven in line
and harnessed alternately to a central trace. It seems, however, that the dogs were often required to pull
heavier loads and ended a day exhausted. On 23 January 1912 they ran 22 miles (35.4 km), the next day
23.5 miles (37.8 km) and the day after that 21 miles (33.8 km). The dogs suffered from frostbite in their
feet but refused to enter the tents and lay outside getting snowed up (Hamre 1933).
Norwegian South Pole (Fram) Expedition, 1910-1912
The sole exception to pursuit of scientific knowledge of the Antarctic during the Heroic Age was
the Norwegian South Pole (Fram) Expedition of 1910-1912. Roald Amundsen had wanted to be the first
man to reach the North Pole overland but this ambition was thwarted by the Americans Robert Peary and
Frederick Cook who claimed to have achieved that objective in 1909.3 Amundsen turned his attention
to the Antarctic and mounted an expedition whose sole objective – it was, indeed, an obsession – was
to be the first man at the South Pole. No one was informed of his intention to travel south instead of
north until his ship reached Madeira when he told the crew of this plan. He also sent a cable to Scott to
inform him of this: Scott replied that he would carry on with his scientific work and did not intend to
enter into a race. From the beginning, Amundsen’s strategy was a utilitarian approach in using dogs to
achieve his objective and if whipping them into obedience, driving them to their deaths from starvation
or exhaustion or killing them to feed men and other dogs was needed, then so be it. The Fram left Oslo
with 97 dogs on board but on arrival at his Antarctic base there were 116 due to births – 10 of the original
97 dogs were bitches. Pemmican was to be a staple of the diets of both men and dogs but on the voyage
out the dogs were fed a great deal of dried fish fortified to a greater or lesser extent with tallow. The dog
pemmican was divided into rations of 1lb 1.5 oz (496 g). The Fram arrived at the Bay of Whales on 14
January 1911. After some preliminary work Amundsen himself set off inland to establish the base with
eight dogs harnessed in a sledge with a load of 660 pounds (299.371 kg) equivalent to a burden of 85
pounds (37.4 kg) per dog. After five months at sea the dogs did not know what was expected of them:
“another dose of the whip” eventually got them working.4
The “first sledge trip could not be called a triumph” but a base was finally reached where the
dogs were tethered to a triangle of wire rope of 50 yards (45.7 metres) per side. On 16 January “about”
80 dogs in six teams hauled equipment to the main camp and 20 in two teams supplied the secondary
base the whole being accompanied by “plenty of thrashings”. Two days later the dogs worked splendidly
in hauling material for the huts from the ship to the site. Over the next months the dogs were beaten or
blessed, joyfully licked their masters’ faces, hauled equipment and stores in setting up depots on the way
3 It is now generally accepted that Peary falsified his claims and that the British explorer Sir Walter
William Herbert (24 October 1934 -12 June 2007) became the first man fully recognized for walking to the North
Pole which he reached on 6 April 1969 on the 60th anniversary of Robert Peary's disputed expedition.
4 A recently published book (TAHAN M.R. 2019. Roald Amundsen’s Sled Dogs: The Sledge Dogs Who
Helped Discover the South Pole. Springer Nature Switzerland, Cham) claims to be an analytical account of how
Roald Amundsen used sledge dogs reach the Pole and to be the first to name and identify all the 116 dogs of the
Expedition. The dogs are traced from their origins in Greenland and those that reached the Pole and returned are
identified. The strategy, methodology and personal insights of the leader and his crew in using dogs to achieve their
goal are examined. It documents the controversy and internal dynamics of the team and how deep and profound the
differences of perception were regarding the use of canines for exploration.
9
to the Pole, fought each other, gorged on seal meat and blubber and died, were killed or got lost. On 19
October 1911, five men with four sledges pulled by 13 dogs each set off for the South Pole. Snow
beacons were erected every 13-15 kilometres. Good progress was made but the men, who rode on the
sledges, ensured the dogs had adequate rests. The depot at 83°S was reached where supplies for four
days were left. Further supplies were left at 84°S and 85°S, the latter being the final main depot at which
supplies for 30 days were left. The three sledges now had supplies for 60 days. Two dogs were set loose,
the one being too fat the other too weak, the former was never seen again whereas the latter returned to
the main base.
A distance of 99 miles was covered in the first four days in spite of several incidents of dogs and
sledges falling down crevasses. The dogs were fed much seal flesh but the usual precautions of putting
boots, ski straps, sledge traces and dog harness in the tent were taken otherwise the dogs ate everything.
Each sledge was loaded with biscuits, man and dog pemmican, dried milk and chocolate to a total weight
of about 668 pounds (303 kg) but with the weight of the sledge as well the total load for the dogs was
880 pounds (399 kg). The first dog was shot on 29 October. On 15 November at 85 S only 42 dogs
were left due to deaths, desertions and slaughter. The plan now was to kill 24 dogs once the polar plateau
had been attained leaving 18 (6 per sledge as one sledge was to be left behind) to go on to the Pole. The
“killing field” became known as the Butcher's Camp. Ten of the dead dogs were fed to their erstwhile
companions although some of the best meat was kept for the men with 14 being stockpiled for future
possible use.
The Pole was reached in the afternoon of 14 December 1911 (Figure 4). One dog had wandered
off at 88 25' S and not returned and a second was killed by a blow to the head at the Pole itself. For the
return journey another sledge was to be left behind and the 16 remaining dogs would be divided into two
teams of eight. A further four dogs were despatched between the Pole and the main depot at 85 5' S
which was reached on 6 January 1912 and where another dog was killed. The main base was reached
by the five men with two sledges and 11 dogs on 25 January: on the route they had seen signs that several
of the “lost” dogs had survived and were making good use of the deposited stores.
Figure 4 Amundsen at the South Pole with his dog team (Source:
https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/History/roald_amundsen_pictures.php)
10
Figure 5 Scott’s dog team with ponies on the Ross Ice Shelf
preparing for their departure for the Pole (Source:
https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-
3019459/Haunting-never-seen-pictures-Captain-Scott-s-
doomed-expedition-team-setting-South-Pole-mission.html)
On the return journey the party boarded the Fram with 39 dogs, many of which had grown up
at the main camp, about half had started out with the Expedition from Norway (about 80 of the original
97 had perished in one way or another) and 11 had been at the South Pole (these had covered 3440 km
in less than 100 days on their epic polar journey): 21 of the pack were later presented to Douglas Mawson
at Hobart (Amundsen 1912; Murray 2008).
British Antarctic (Terra Nova) Expedition, 1910-1913
Royal Navy Captain Robert Falcon Scott, leader of the British Antarctic Expedition of 1910-
1913, went ashore on Ross Island from the Terra Nova on 4 January 1911. During his preparations and
fund raining in the United Kingdom he had emphasised the scientific aspects of the Expedition in order
not to create the impression that it was just a trek to reach the South Pole (he himself did not regard the
Pole as the primary objective). He planned to use four methods of transport: the experimental tracked
motor vehicles, ponies, dogs and man-hauling. His selection of ponies was based on Shackleton’s
experience of the Nimrod Expedition of 1907-1909, he had no great faith in dogs and he really wanted
to pit man against the environment via the “noble” man-hauling the sledges. In contrast to Amundsen
whose trip was largely based on the use and abuse of dogs, Scott had the more English attitude to the
treatment of the dogs and said "One cannot calmly contemplate the murder of animals which possess
such intelligence and individuality, which have frequently such endearing qualities, and which very
possibly one has learnt to regard as friends and companions". Eventually, however, he overcame his
scruples if the dogs became too weak to work or if they had to be killed to feed men and prevent scurvy.
Vladivostok was the assembly point of 20 ponies (2 Siberian and 18 Manchurian) and 33 dogs
(31 Siberian and 2 Eskimo), the dogs having been driven across Siberia by the Expedition’s dog handler
and a young Russian driver. Only 19 ponies were loaded onto a Japanese freighter as one had tested
doubtful for glanders and was left behind but all the dogs got aboard. Transhipped at Kyoto the animals
eventually arrived at the quarantine station on Quail Island, off Lyttleton in New Zealand. The
menagerie was later augmented by seven mules and 14 dogs presented by the Government of India but
of Kamchatka provenance: three dogs did not survive long and only two proved useful sledge animals.
Ponies and dogs – and men – suffered badly on the 39-day trip from Littleton to the Ross Ice Shelf.
The dogs were put to work immediately hauling stores from ship to shore and were joined two
days later by the ponies. In the Austral spring of 1911 an Antarctic “first” was achieved by erection of
telephone line, the wire being reeled out from the back of a dog sledge. Scott’s attempt on the Pole was
supported by the tracked motor sledges,
and the ponies (Figure 5). Setting off on
17 October, the tractors did not acquit
themselves well whereas the dogs proved
their worth. By 15 November the dogs
were running out of food and it became
necessary to start killing the ponies to
feed them. Two worn out dogs were sent
back to Hut Point with a note from Scott
saying that he was taking the dogs on
farther than originally intended because
they now had food in the form of horse
meat. One pony provided four meals for
the 20 dogs remaining at this time in
addition to adding variety to the “hoosh”
that was the staple diet of the men. The
dogs finally pulled some of Scott’s
sledges the first 425 miles (684 km) all
the way across the Ross Ice Shelf before
returning to the main base.
11
Figure 6 One of the dogs donated by Amundsen to
Mawson for his Australasian Antarctic (Aurora)
Expedition (Source: Public Domain)
Second German Antarctic (Deutschland) Expedition, 1911-1913
No camp or base was established on land by the Second German Antarctic Expedition of 1911-
1913 under the leadership of Wilhelm Filchner. Operations were therefore conducted from the ship. A
total of 75 Greenland dogs had been loaded at Buenos Aires on the way south. Seven extended journeys
of 4-24 days were made duringloaded in n the expedition (Murphy 2002). Men and dogs fed largely on
the meat of the Crabeater Seal (Lobodon carcinophaga) whenever the possibility arose (Filchner and
Przybyllok 1913; Filchner 1922).
Australasian Antarctic (Aurora) Expedition, 1911-1914
The Australasian Antarctic or Aurora Expedition of 1911-1914 was led by Douglas Mawson.
A total of 50 Greenland dogs had been bought that were to travel to Australia via London. On the
journey south more than 30 pups were born but almost all died including 17 being washed overboard in
a single day. The remaining dogs, reduced to 28 in number due to deaths from distemper and various
other causes, left Hobart (Tasmania) on 2 December 1911. On arrival at what Mawson named
Commonwealth Bay on 7 January 1912, 19 of the 28 dogs were kept by Mawson with the main party and
nine were taken by Frank Wild to his subsidiary base on Henderson Island on the Shackleton Ice Shelf.
Mawson, accompanied by two others, made an extended sledge journey which turned out to be disastrous
as one companion fell down a crevasse and the other died during the journey, probably of starvation
(Carrington-Smith 2005). Mawson himself was lucky to return to base alive but was seriously ill for
some considerable time.
None of the 19 dogs that had remained at
the main base was still alive by the end of 1912,
some having died and some being killed for food.
Wild’s party was much more successful, making
several long sledge journeys. Wild returned to
Australia with two of his dogs still alive, two
having died, two gone walkabout and two shot to
feed the remaining three and then one of these last
to feed the remaining two. On one journey a team
of six dogs pulled a load of 450 kg (75 kg each
dog). For the second season of 1913 Mawson was
given 21 dogs by Amundsen on the latter’s passage
through Hobart after his success at the South Pole
(Figure 6): 11 of these were later shot to conserve
food. Several litters of pups were born during the
stay in the south but most died or were put down
within a few days of their birth. Twelve dogs
(Amundsen’s and some pups born during the first
season) returned to Australia. These were put in
quarantine and then dispersed to Adelaide zoo and
private individuals (Mawson 1915; Riffenburgh
2014; Jensen 2018).
Imperial Trans-Antarctic (Endurance) Expedition, 1914–1916
Having learnt from his own and Scott’s previous experiences Shackleton, leader of the Imperial
Trans-Antarctic (Endurance) Expedition of 1914–1916, took 100 dogs with him on Endurance. These
were obtained from the Hudson’s Bay Company in Canada. Most remained with the main party but 18
were deposited with eight men in the Ross Sea. This group was to lay depots between there and the
South Pole. Shackleton’s plan was to cross the Antarctic from the Weddell to the Ross Sea via the Pole
with a team of six men and 70 dogs. The Ross party laid only one depot and lost 10 of its dogs. The men
and five dogs were not rescued until two years later in January 1917. Boredom was a major problem on
12
these types of expeditions: Hurley remarked “how dreary the frozen captivity of our life but for the dogs”
(Hurley 1925). When the Endurance was crushed in the ice the complement was 28 men and 69 dogs
(Figure 7). All these dogs had to be killed before the party set off for Elephant Island and the death-
defying row in the ship’s boat, the James Caird, to South Georgia (Huntford 1985).
Figure 7 Dogs contemplating their fate as the Endurance sinks during the Imperial Transantarctic
Expedition (Source: Royal Geographic Society -
http://indigo.ie/~jshack/Other%20Ernest%20Pages/endurance.html)
13
Figure 8 Byrd with his terrier
pet dog on his first expedition
(Source: Canterbury Museum
19XX.2.2054. No known
copyright restrictions)
Shackleton-Rowett (Quest) Expedition, 1921–1922
Shackleton led the Quest expedition undertaken in 1921-1922 that was financed largely by an
old school friend. Shackleton’s intention had been to get to the North Pole with finance from various
Canadian organizations. His team had already bought 100 dogs when the Canadian finance was
withdrawn so the dogs were sold off. The plan was then changed to tackle the Antarctic again. The lack
of a clear, defined expedition objective was aggravated by the failure to call at Cape Town on the way
south which meant that important equipment was not picked up. Shackleton died on South Georgia in
January 1922 and Frank Wild – a veteran of several Antarctic expeditions – took over as leader. Wild
had hopes of finding dogs at South Georgia but there was none. He found nothing to make up for this
lack and the choice of a revised expedition goal of an exploration of Graham Land on the Antarctic
Peninsula came to nought. As a postscript, as it were, there was one mascot dog on the trip as well as
a ship’s cat and, as an indication of the transition from the Heroic to the Machine Age, a seaplane was
taken on the voyage (Wild 1923; Huntford 1985).
The Mechanical Age, 1922-1950
Byrd’s First Expedition, 1928-1930
Up until this time the USA had shown no interest in the
Antarctic and had concentrated on the Arctic. In typical American
style, however, in 1928 it decided to introduce the Mechanical Age to
the southern continent. Organized by Richard Evelyn Byrd it was
claimed to be the first expedition of its kind to use aeroplanes (three),
aerial cameras, snowmobiles and massive communications resources.5
Three ships were used to transport the expedition with the C.A. Larsen,
loaded in Norfolk, VA, carrying about 80 of the 129 dogs – and
another numerical record for the Antarctic -- also needed, crated on the
deck. They hated sitting in water so all the crates were mounted on
platforms to allow deck water or rain to drain out. Byrd also took a pet
terrier, a stray puppy from Washington, DC, named Igloo (Figure 8).
It was known that Byrd planned to take 97 dogs on the long journey
and attempts were made to develop a meat-cereal compound for the
dogs but in the end 40 tonnes of dog food travelled with them. A site
for the base camp, perhaps not surprisingly to be known as “Little
America”, was selected on top of the Ross Ice Shelf approximately
eight miles (12.86 km) from where the ship was tied up and four miles
(6.43 km) north of Amundsen's original base camp. Unloading began
on 2 January 1929. On a good day each of the dog teams made two
round trips (32 miles, 51.5 km) until a total of 650 tons of stores and
materials had been transferred. Laurence Gold, the Second in
5 It was rather coyly admitted, however (https://www.south-pole.com/homepage.html) that Sir Hubert
Wilkins had flown an aeroplane in Antarctica on 6 November 1928, preceding Byrd by only ten weeks who first flew
on 15 January 1929) but Byrd's flights with three aircraft (Ford monoplane, Fokker Universal and Fairchild
monoplane) were much more significant than Wilkins since they were made in higher latitudes and were tied in with
ground surveys. Wilkins had also taken from his aeroplane but with a hand-held camera whereas Byrd’s camera,
a Fairchild K-3, was used for aerial mapping and was the finest camera available at that time for this purpose.
Shackleton, Scott and Mawson had all tried, with mixed success, to use automobiles for land transport and although
Byrd had more success with a Ford snowmobile it too broke down only 75 miles from the base while hauling
supplies. Douglas Mawson was the first to use radio in the Antarctic and whalers, RRS Discovery, the Norwegian
exploring ship Norwegian and Wilkins had all used radio when the Byrd Expedition entered the field but Byrd’s use
of communications equipment overshadowed that of the others as regular wireless communications were established
with the outside world as well as with all flights and field parties.
14
command, publicized the fact that he had logged more than 1500 miles (2414 km) by dog sled over a 3-
month period at the end of 1929 and claimed it to be the longest dog sled journey ever made (Byrd 1930;
Rodgers 2002),
British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition (BANZARE), 1929-1931
BANZARE was a joint British, Australian and New Zealand research expedition that undertook
two voyages in Scott’s former ship Discovery into Antarctica over three consecutive Austral summers
between 1929 and 1931 under the leadership of Douglas Mawson. The main purpose of the voyages was
primarily to claim British sovereignty at five places in the Antarctic although considerable scientific work
was also undertaken. There was a mutual understanding and general agreement that they would later be
handed over to Australia. An aircraft was used extensively during this project and dogs were not used
(Price 1962).
Byrd’s Second Expedition, 1933-1935
Byrd’s Second Expedition took mechanical and electrical resources to a new level. Motor-driven
generating plants provided Little America with electric power and allowed use of power tools not only
for construction and maintenance of mechanical devices at Little America but also on field trips. As
might be expected the mission was massively conceived with two ships and additional aircraft but as
mechanical transport was still not fully proved in the Antarctic the fall-back position was 153 dogs
purchased in Alaska and Labrador. The trip south was a disaster for the dogs as many died from parasitic
infections, distemper and mismanagement.
On arrival at their destination 108 dogs were landed ashore (divided into 12 teams of nine dogs
per team) by 20 January 1934. On 5 March, five teams set off to flag 300 miles (483 km) of trail and to
lay depots and later in the month several litters of puppies had been born. The dogs fared little better
on land than on sea: they died, ran away, fought and killed each other and were shot when they became
exhausted and shot. Tunnels up to 1000 feet (305 metres) were dug to protect them from the weather
and, somewhat late in the course of operations, the puppies were given anti-distemper serum. Two
tonnes of seal blubber were boiled down in July and mixed with 10 tonnes of pemmican but more dogs
were lost and many remained thin and miserable. It is not clear how many dogs were taken out of the
Antarctic but some of these were housed in Canada, auctioned off or kept by team members (Byrd 1935;
Young 2008).
British Graham Land Expedition (BGLE), 1934-1937
The British Graham Land Expedition (BGLE) led by John Riddoch Rymill and carried out
between 1934 and 1937 took a dog-leg route to Antarctica using several ships. Greenland was the source
of 60 dogs that were then transferred to England. Regrettably only 15 survived as far as the Falkland
Islands, the remainder dying of distemper on route.
A further 34 dogs were subsequently bought in Labrador but the lessons had been well learned
and all of the second batch arrived in the Falklands. Success was attributed to feeding stockfish,
providing salt water baths through the tropics and vaccination against distemper in England. In early
December 1934 the 49 sledge dogs left the Falklands and arrived at Port Lockroy in Grahamland (now
the Antarctic Peninsula) on 11 January 1935. Very slow progress was made by 45 dogs working in six
teams in the first year and it took four days to cover 25 miles (40.2 km) (Polar Record 1935; Rymill
1938).
The sledging season of 1936 showed better success compared to previous ones. Several sledge
journeys were made, the longest of 10 weeks duration explored 340 miles of coast line south of the
expedition’s Southern Base. The going was very difficult due to soft snow and loads often had to be
relayed in halves. On occasions a man walked ahead to test the ground and, if necessary, find an
alternate route (Rymill 1938).
15
Third German Antarctic (Schwabenland) Expedition, 1938-1939
This was a hurriedly prepared German expedition that was led by Alfred Ritscher in the ship
Schwabenland. Its two objectives were the location of whaling grounds that would provide a source of
fat for Germany and the formal claiming of parts of Antarctica for the Third Reich. It was successful in
neither. Much of the scientific work was derived from aerial photographs taken from aircraft that were
launched by catapult from the ship. No dogs were taken on this expedition (Lüdecke and Summerhayes
2012).
United States Antarctic Service Expedition (Byrd's Third Expedition), 1939-1941
Byrd's Third Expedition, officially known as the United States Antarctic Service Expedition of
1939-1941, made great use of dogs. “About” 160 sled dogs were loaded on the U.S.M.S North Star and
the U.S.S. Beart for the expedition. Aircraft, tractors, light military tanks and a “Snow Cruiser” were
also loaded. The pack, including dogs, bitches (some spayed) and pups, comprised animals of very
mixed type and provenance, many being obtained from specialist kennels within the United States.
Types included Malamute, Siberian, Eskimo, Chinook and “Huskies”: some of the last were probably
crosses of Malamute/Eskimo, Malamute/Siberian, Siberian/wolf and Siberian/coyote. Some of the men
thought some of the dogs to be small for the job they were expected to do. On arrival in the Antarctic
the dogs were put to work unloading the ships and a start was made on training the puppies. Dogs were
housed in tunnels as they had been on Byrd’s two previous expeditions. They were fed on seal meat and
blubber, the latter being boiled to a liquid state and then mixed with Gaines Commercial dog food to form
blocks of 2.5 lb (1.13 kg) (Bryner 2016).
The main Southern Sledge Journey set off on 6 November 1940 with 55 dogs in five teams
hauling 2618 lb (1187 kg) of dog food, 900 lb (480 kg) of man food, 290 lb (131 kg) of kerosine and
1050 lb (476 kg) of equipment to a total load of 4850 lb (2200 kg). The party was supported and
supplied by air, five dogs were shot and 35 returned to the main base whilst Finn Ronne and Carl Eklund
with two sledges, 15 dogs and 74 days of supplies continued with the trek. In total during 84 days, these
two explorers sledged a total of 1097 nautical miles (1264 statute miles, 2034 km) on 61 sledging days,
equivalent to18 nautical miles per day (21 statute miles, 29 km) with a longest daily journey of 37
nautical miles (43 statute miles, 59 km). Only seven dogs survived to the end of the journey (Ronne
1945). Eventually the expedition was withdrawn but not before most of the remaining dogs had been
shot (Bryner 2016).
Operation Tabarin, 1943-1945
Operation Tabarin was a secret British operation under the leadership of James Marr.
It was set up in 1943 during World War Two, ostensibly to deny the Antarctic to enemy raiding vessels
and to gather meteorological and scientific data. It was always understood, however that it would
reinforce British territorial claims in the Falkland Islands Dependencies at a time when this was being
challenged.6 Survey and science work were planned at the outset by an advisory committee. Bases were
set up on Deception Island (Base B) and at Port Lockroy (Base A). At the beginning of 1945, 25 huskies
(crucial to the expedition’s field work) arrived from Labrador. These were Tabarin’s first dogs and were
to be based at Hope Bay (Base D) which was the centre of sledging operations during 1945. The absence
of dogs the year before had limited field work but a more ambitious schedule of survey and travel could
now be implemented.
6 The expedition became a permanent operation in July 1945 as the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey
(FIDS) under the UK Colonial Office. The three bases were relieved in March 1946 and most expedition members
returned to the UK. Port Lockroy was occupied until 1962 (and is now maintained as a museum serving mainly the
international tourist trade), Hope Bay until 1964 and Deception Island until 1967. In 1962 FIDS became the British
Antarctic Survey (BAS) as a component institute of the Natural Environment Research Council in 1967. It is now
a world-leading research centre for earth-system science and global climate change and works with international
collaborators in the Antarctic, Arctic and beyond.
16
It was intended that the first dog sledging trip would focus on Graham Land Peninsula’s east
coast but the plan had to be changed when some dogs died. The two 7-dog teams carried, among other
things, spare harnesses, dog boots, chains, tethering lines and sledge repair kits. On the first long range
journey from Hope Bay two seals were shot on which the dogs gorged themselves.7 Going was difficult
in deep snow, the dogs sank up to their bellies and got very little purchase. When the dog pemmican ran
out they were fed on tinned corned beef which had been found at an earlier depot. Other depots left by
earlier expeditions also provided a variety of food and other items. The party returned to its base on 11
September 1945 having been out for five weeks (BAS 2020). The dogs at Hope Bay were later used to
study nutritional physiology (Taylor et al 1959).
Operation Highjump (Byrd’s Fourth Expedition), 1946-1947
Officially titled The United States Navy Antarctic Developments Program, 1946–1947,
Operation Highjump was a United States Navy operation organized by Byrd and led by Rear Admiral
Ethan Erik Larson, USN. The operation began on 26 August 1946 and ended in late February 1947. In
typical US tradition it was massive: 4700 men, 13 ships and 33 aircraft. Its primary task was to establish
the Antarctic research base Little America IV (Kearns 2005). The operation appears to have been less
than successful, perhaps because on this occasion Byrd did not make use of dogs.
First Chilean Antarctic Expedition, 1947-1948
The First Chilean Antarctic Expedition of 1947–1948 led by Federico Guesalaga Toro was
mounted by Chile to enforce its territorial claims against those made by the British Operation Tabarin.
The main accomplishment was to establish the Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme and other
subsidiary bases (Mills 2003). No dogs accompanied this expedition.
Operation Windmill, 1947-1948
The United States Navy's Second Antarctica Developments Project (the first had been Operation
Highjump), was known as Operation Windmill and wascommanded by Gerald L. Ketchum. This was
primarily an exploration and training mission in which 500 men participated. Its objectives were to
supplement those of Operation Highjump in training, testing equipment and reaffirming American
interests in Antarctica (Kearns 2005).
Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition, 1947-1948
The Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition, 1947-1948 led by Finne Ronne, was the third and
final private USA expedition to the south. The Port of Beaumont, a 183-foot (55.8 metres), 1200-ton,
wooden hulled ship carried 21 explorers, 21 crew members, scientific equipment, three aircraft, 30 tons
of coal, 5500 [American] gallons (20 820 litres) drums of gasoline, 40 dogs, food for two years and
innumerable other supplies sailed from Beaumont in Texas early in 1947. Many dogs died of distemper
on the ship (Ronne 1949).
The usual method of harnessing on this, as on Byrd’s three expeditions, was the double tandem
of nine dogs, with a single lead dog followed by four pairs attached to the central line although on
occasions teams of up to 25 dogs were used. Dog teams were never flown into the field although
occasionally a sick dog was flown back to base. A team of 15 dogs spent 105 days in the field gathering
rocks, studying glaciology, measuring solar radiation and atmospheric refraction and operating a cosmic
ray machine. This exercise broke the previous record of 84 days for a sledging trip set by Finn and Carl
Eklund seven years earlier (Ronne 1949).
7 A friend of the Author who worked on the BAS in the 1960s explained that although the compressed
high-energy blocks of dog food were adequate nutritionally the dogs remained hungry and made up this deficit in
part by eating their stools. When dogs were allowed to gorge on seal meat the human contingent had to stay upwind
of them for several days until the gastric gases had returned to their normal neutral smell.
17
Fifth French Antarctic (Commandant Charcot) Expedition, 1948-1949
The fifth French expedition was led by Michel Barre and used the vessel Commandant Charcot.
During the first season no landing (17 attempts were made) due to adverse ice conditions. The 40-dog
contingent was overwintered in quarantine on Macquarie Island (Victor 1950). In the second year a party
of 12 men with 28 dogs was put ashore at Adelie Land where a year was spent doing weather and
astronomical research (Anon 1949; 1950).
Norwegian-British-Swedish (Norsel) Antarctic Expedition, 1949-1952
The Norwegian-British-Swedish (Norsel) Antarctic Expedition of 1949-1952 led by 49-year old
John Giaever, a Norwegian, left London on 23 November 1949 on the Norwegian ship the Norsel. This
vessel was too small to transport all the men, equipment, supplies and dogs and so five of the team, the
62 dogs and some heavier equipment sailed on the large whaling factory ship the Thorshovdi. West
Greenland was the source of 28 of the dogs, 12 were from Spitsbergen and 22 (including nine bitches)
were from the Falkland Islands Dependencies. The Spitsbergen dogs had originated in Canada in 1945
whereas those of the Falkland Islands had been bred from dogs originally brought from Labrador in 1945
and 1946. The Spitsbergen dogs were largest, weighing more than 50 kg, whereas the West Greenland
and Falkland Islands dogs averaged 40-50 kg. The Spitsbergen and Falkland dogs were in much better
condition than the Greenland ones when first acquired (Reece 1954). In addition to dogs, aircraft and
amphibious weasels -- which could pull sledges carrying over three tons – were used for transport. The
dogs, whose number had been reduced to 40 by the time the factory ship reached Antarctica, were in
charge of a Norwegian. The weasels transported 450 tons of stores from the Norsel's unloading dock to
the main base on the coast and to the inland base. The Auster aircraft had been used to find suitable
camp sites. Inland journeys, however, were mainly made by dog teams and sledges (Giaever 1954). The
expedition was back at Southampton on 18 February 1952: it is not clear how many dogs returned.
Modern Era or Age of Science and Exploration, 1950-1994
The Modern Era was born with yet another massive American endeavour known as Operation
Deep Freeze. This took place in 1955-1956 and was led, perhaps inevitably, by Richard Byrd and hence
also known as Byrd's Fifth Expedition. Many succeeding Operations Deep Freeze supported continuing
and constant US presence in Antarctica. There were no dogs on any of these ventures.
During this period of preparation for the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957 there was
an enormous increase in interest in Antarctica, not only for scientific but also for geopolitical reasons
and the establishment of national territorial claims. At least 17 expeditions were mounted by
collaborative efforts or by individual countries. Many countries, from Asia, Eastern Europe, South
America and Africa, had no earlier involvement in the Antarctic. Improvements in mechanical ground
transport and in aircraft performance meant that many expeditions did not use dogs (Table 1). These are
not dealt with individually in this section which reports on those expeditions that did make use of dogs.
Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1956-1958
The Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1956-1958, led by Vivian Fuchs, operated
out of the Weddell Sea (Fuchs and Hilary 1958). A major subsidiary base financed mainly by the New
Zealand Government was led by Sir Edmund Hilary of Everest fame. The 60 adult dogs and puppies of
the Expedition were a vital part of operations. They were used in 9-dog teams in surveying work, in
hauling supplies for depots set up to support the party that was to cross the Antarctic from north to south
and as back-up for vehicles with mechanical failure (Figure 9). One otherwise unrecorded benefit was
the tracks left that tractors could follow. The Ross Sea team spent 16 months on the ice. During the first
summer and autumn dozens of seals were killed to provide food for them but when seal carcasses were
under four feet (122 cm) of snow the dogs were fed tinned meat. On one occasion the winds were strong
enough to blow the dogs off their feet as they were unable to keep a grip on the ice and a separate hole
had to be dug as shelter for each dog. Like dogs on every other expedition fights amongst the animals
were common as was the risk and actuality of falling into crevasses.
18
Figure 9 Bob Miller and his team during the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition (1955-1958)
(Source: https://antarcticdogs.canterburymuseum.com/themes/canine-companions)
Some teams climbed the Skelton Glacier to the Polar Plateau whereas others had an easier time,
being flown from Scott Base to the Plateau before being set to work. Two team members on a surveying
and mapping expedition that discovered new mountain ranges claimed a new dog sledge distance record
of 2700 km (Watson 2019; AHT 2020).
Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition, 1957-1958
The Japanese Antarctic Research Expedition Program (JARE), led by T. Nagata, started in 1957
and established Syowa ("Showa") Station in East Ongul Island (Lat. 69°00' S; Long. 39°35' E). The
research team for the first over-wintering expedition comprised 11 men supported by 15 dogs of the
Sakhalin Husky breed (known in Japan as ‘karafuto-ken’). The research group was to remain at the
Syowa Base until February 1958 when it was to be replaced by another team. A severe and unexpected
storm, however, prevented the Soya -- the icebreaker carrying the relief group – from reaching the base.
The men were rescued by helicopter but there was no room for the dogs which were left chained up in
the expectation of an early return. It was not until a year later in January 1959 that a third team returned
to Syowa where they were confronted by seven dogs dead at their chains. Eight dogs, of which six were
never seen again, had managed to release themselves but amazingly two – which became heroes in Japan
– were still alive and close to the base. One remained in Antarctica and worked at Syowa until his death
in 1960 when his body was taken to Japan where his remains were embalmed. The other returned alive
to Japan and lived at Hokkaido University until his death in 1970 when he would have been about 16
years old. His body was also embalmed and displayed in the Botanical Garden of Hokkaido University
(JARE 2007).
First South African National Antarctic Expedition, 1959-1961
A party of ten men led by J. J. (Hannes) took over the station established by Norway for the IGY
on 8 January 1959. This became known as the First South African National Antarctic Expedition, 1959-
1961. The main (politically motivated) task was to take over the Norway station and establish a South
African presence in the Antarctic. The expedition was arranged very hurriedly, most necessities,
including clothing, sleeping bags, food items and man and dog rations were purchased in London and
then shipped to Antarctica from Cape Town.
Twelve dogs were taken over from the Norwegians. They were originally tethered outside but
later a tunnel was dug for their accommodation and they spent the winter in “stylish comfort”. When not
working the dogs were fed a 2.7 kg block of blubberless seal meat every second day. On sledging days
the ration was a 0.7 kg block of pemmican. None of the men had experience with dog teams but during
practice runs with a team of six a distance of 8 km could be achieved. Eventually several sledge journeys
were made in diverse directions, the longest one to the southern mountains and nunataks being 561 km
in 38 days (la Grange 1991).
19
Terrestrial Argentine Expedition to the South Pole, 1965
The Terrestrial Argentine Expedition to the South Pole, of 1965 was led by Jorge Edgard Leal.
Also known as Operación 90 (because of its target of the Pole at 90 S), this was an essentially
clandestine operation whereby the Argentines would improve their claims to areas of Antarctic territory.
A scouting group of four men with an 18-dog sled preceded the main party as far as 83° 2" S (Figure 10).8
The six snowcat vehicles used to reach the Pole arrived there on 10 December 1965 (Quevedo Paiva
2001).
Figure 10 Dogs of the Terrestrial Argentine Expedition resting at Esperanza Base (Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavo_Gir%C3%B3_Tapper#/media/File:BASE-ESPERANZA-
GG.png)
International Trans-Antarctica Expedition, 1989-1990
The 3741-mile (6020 km) 220-day 1990 International Trans-Antarctica Expedition was claimed
as the first non-mechanized dog sled crossing of Antarctica. The six international members of the trip
were led jointly by the American Will Steger and the Frenchman Jean-Louis Étienne. The team travelled
on three sleds with a rotation of 36 dogs (40 or 42 dogs were taken in all) and was supported by depots
that had been set up during the previous summer season. These caches were complemented by Twin Otter
flights that carried food and transported dogs for rest breaks (de Moll 2015). The team arrived at the
South Pole on 11 December 1989 and completed their crossing at the Mirnyy Russian base on 3 March
1990 (Figure 11).
8 The second in command of the operation, Gustavo Giró Tapper, had previously made dog sled journeys
of up to 800 km during IGY in 1958 and other sledging reconnaissances in 1962 and earlier in 1965.
20
Figure 11 The six members and dogs of the International Trans-Antarctica Expedition 1989-1990 at
the end of their journey, 3 March 1990 (Source: Photo by Will Steiger;
http://www.cathydemoll.com/new-blog/2015/2/27/the-trans-antarctica-legacy-who-will-pick-it-up)
The end of the affair
In the 1980s the subject of mining in Antarctica was highly controversial with increasing
pressure being brought to preserve the Antarctic environment. Australia helped negotiate a convention
which would regulate but eventually allow mining but then pulled out of the discussions. In a reversal
of its earlier position Australia led a strong to block a convention on allowing mineral exploitation, the
terms of which it had itself helped to draft. The Antarctic treaty partners now negotiated a Protocol on
Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty that became known as the Madrid Protocol. The
protocol that banned mining was adopted in 1991 but in an apparent non sequitur also banned the
introduction of non-native animals to Antarctica and specifically “dogs shall not be introduced onto land,
ice shelves or sea ice”. It was contended that dogs damaged the “environment” in several ways: seals
were killed to feed them; they mauled penguins and there was concern that they would pass diseases, and
especially distemper, to the seal population (which already had its own form of distemper. In the end
it was agreed that all dogs in Antarctica would be removed by 1 April 1994.
Australian dogs had been moved in to and out of the Antarctic over many years. In 1991 a total
of 19 dogs were taken to Hobart whence they were flown to adventure centres in Minnesota. Australia’s
last five dogs were evacuated from the country’s Mawson base to Hobart where they arrived in Hobart
on 20 December 1993 and were retired to ex-Antarctic personnel (Jensen 2018).
The remaining dogs were mainly those of the British Antarctic Survey. British exploration had
made great use of dogs since 1899. From the inception of Operation Tabarin in 1943 through its
successors the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey and the British Antarctic Survey dogs were
imported from various sources at various times: a first batch of 25 has already been alluded to (see
section on Tabarin}. In 1946 a further lot of 75 dogs – described as a ”cowering, untrustworthy and
smelly lot” – were purchased in Labrador: three of these died (one from eating rope and two from dining
21
Figure 12 A high-energy high-protein food block
as fed to dogs by the British Antarctic Survey
(Source: photo by the Author of his wife at Port
Lockroy, 17 November 2008)
on canvas) but the loss was more than made up by the birth of a litter of six. A further 20 dogs came
from the British North Greenland Expedition in 1954 and in the same year three dogs arrived from
England that were born of Antarctic Husky stock. The last six dogs arrived from East Greenland in 1969.
Finally, four dogs were exchanged with New Zealand and Argentine stations in the 1970s.
The number of dogs imported and their subsequent offspring totalled more than 900 of which
75 are known to have died. A total of 45 dogs were exported in 1951, mainly for exhibition at the
Festival of Britain, three were retired as domestic pets to South Africa and the UK nd finally on 22
February 1994 the remaining 14 dogs were taken to Canada to be used by the Inuit. On average each
working dog pulled sledges for 3000 miles (4828 km) but two were credited with a total pull each of
14 440 miles (23 239 km). In total, in the combined FIDS/BAS operations, sledges were pulled by dogs
for an approximate 336 500 miles (541 544 km) (Walton and Atkinson 1996).
Discussion and conclusions
The history of Antarctic exploration was written by men. The ensuing literature focussed,
therefore, on the accomplishments of man’s endeavours and his personal adventures. The dogs who made
the expeditions possible – without which some indeed would have been impossible – were usually
mentioned only marginally, although every expedition had its dog stories to tell, some heroic and some
tragic. This article has shown the extent to which dogs contributed to success in these endeavours.
The prime purpose of dogs was to provide motive power and they were managed, well or badly,
to this end (Bostelmann 1976a). The companionship of some favoured animals appears, however, to
have alleviated some of the stresses and the mental strain of isolation and confinement in the inhospitable
Antarctic environment (Patterson et al. 2018). In some cases pet dogs were included on expeditions,
presumably as a planned form of stress relief (Byrd 1930; Fiennes 1983).
One of the enigmas of sledging is the inconsistency in pulling power. Conditions, of course,
varied but there do appear to be real differences in what dogs achieved. Some were clearly heavily laden,
even overloaded, whereas others were expected to pull much lighter loads.
In the later years of exploration dogs were
also treated as scientific models. The problem of
nutrition was studied when it was found that dogs
doing no work managed on 2500 calories per day
but under heavy work more than 5000 calories
were required (Taylor 1957; Taylor et al. 1959;
Wyatt 1963; Orr 1966). Getting this amount of
energy into a dog was not possible with normal
feeds and so very high density energy blocks were
developed (Figure 12). The health of dogs was
also of concern and especially problems of arthritis
(Bellars 1969; Bellars and Godsall 1969;
Bostelmann 1976b).
Dogs were indispensable in the early and
middle periods of Antarctic exploration between
1900 and 1950. They were gradually replaced in
the next phase as tracked ground vehicles and
aircraft became more reliable and more versatile.
By the time they were expelled from the Antarctic on somewhat specious grounds their usefulness was
very limited. That they were removed at that time was probably advantageous to their history as in the
ensuing years there use – forced early training in something they did not want to do but later apparently
came to enjoy, ill treatment by their handlers and under-nutrition -- would have made them a target for
the animal rights industry. They are gone but not forgotten nor will they be, as monuments around the
world to their presence and use provide a perhaps rather muted testimony (Figure 13; Figure 14).
22
Figure 13 Sakhalin Husky named "Jiro"
returned to Japan from the Antarctic and
preserved for posterity (Source: National
Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo)
Figure 14 Memorial to sledge dogs outside British
Antarctic Survey offices in Cambridge (Source:
https://www.coolantarctica.com/gallery/dogs/antarc
tic_sledge_dog_memorial.php)
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