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Energy generation in public buildings using piezoelectric flooring tiles; A case study of a metro station

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Abstract

The building sector is benefitting from the significant advancements in clean energy harvesting technologies. The function of building products is witnessing a huge leap to extend beyond mere functional requirements to account for the environmental benefit as well. Piezoelectric flooring tiles are amongst the most promising for indoor energy generation especially in public buildings with great occupancy patterns and intensity. Hence, this study presents a comprehensive review of literature for the use of piezoelectric. The next step deducted parameter integration for the proper selection of piezoelectric tiles. This determined its successful application in the building industry-especially the transportation section which has a notable contribution to energy consumption and emission release. These were divided into factors related to the project type and location, as well as proper selection of the piezoelectric tile product. This hypothesis was tested in the case study. Hence, the application of piezoelectricity was investigated in a Metro station in a core urban area in Egypt, with an estimate of almost 57,000 daily passengers. The selection of the metro line and station as well as the location of installing the tiles was based on the highest passenger density class which provided the greatest step-footage. Furthermore, the selection of the number and type of piezoelectric tiles was determined based on the current project's energy consumption. The study compared the two shortlisted types of tiles in terms of their power generation capacity, initial capital cost, lifespan and expected savings. The results showed that twelve tiles were needed to generate the station's needs for electric energy using Sustainable Energy Floor tiles while only eight tiles were needed using Waynergy piezoelectric tiles. The results also showed a decrease in energy consumption and carbon emissions.
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Sustainable Cities and Society 77 (2022) 103555
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103555
Energy generation in public buildings using piezoelectric flooring tiles; a case study of a
metro station
Rania Rushdy Moussa *, Walaa S.E. Ismaeel, Madonna Makram Solban Architectural
department, The British University in Egypt (BUE), El- Sherouk City, Egypt
This is the preprint version presented to the Journal of Sustainable Cities and Society.
The final version includes substantial changes according to the reviewers’ comments; this
can be found on the following link:
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2210670721008210
Abstract
The building sector is benefitting from the significant advancements in clean energy harvesting
technologies. The function of building products is witnessing a huge leap to extend beyond
mere functional requirements to account for the environmental benefit as well. Piezoelectric
flooring tiles are amongst the most promising for indoor energy generation especially in public
buildings with great occupancy patterns and intensity. Hence, this study presents a
comprehensive review of literature for the use of piezoelectric. The nest step deducted
parameter integration for the proper selection of piezoelectric tiles. This determined its
successful application in the building industry-especially the transportation section which has
a notable contribution to energy consumption and emission release. These were divided into
factors related to the project type and location, as well as proper selection of the piezoelectric
tile product. This hypothesis was tested in the case study. Hence, the application of
piezoelectricity was investigated in a Metro station in a core urban area in Egypt, with an
estimate of almost 57,000 daily passengers. The selection of the metro line and station as well
as the location of installing the tiles was based on the highest passenger density class which
provided the greatest step-footage. Furthermore, the selection of the number and type of
piezoelectric tiles was determined based on the current project’s energy consumption. The
study compared the two shortlisted types of tiles in terms of their power generation capacity,
initial capital cost, lifespan and expected savings. The results showed that twelve tiles were
needed to generate the station’s needs for electric energy using Sustainable Energy Floor tiles
while only eight tiles were needed using Waynergy piezoelectric tiles. The results also showed
a decrease in energy consumption and carbon emissions.
Keywords: Carbon emission reduction; Electricity generation; Energy harvesting;
Piezoelectric flooring tiles; Metro station
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1. Introduction
Worldwide energy consumption is increasing daily, according to the International Energy
Outlook 2017, the energy consumption will increase from 575 quadrillions Btu in 2015 to736
quadrillion Btu by 2040 which is equivalent to a 28 percent increase (Shreeshayana et al.,
2017; Moussa, 2019). Fossil fuels used to generate electricity have a negative impact on the
environment at every stage of production till it is consumed, and relying solely on these energy
resources to meet this new massive demand will result in more CO2 gas emissions into the
atmosphere, causing a significant increase in global temperatures (Dawood et al., 2013).
However, the electricity produced from clean and renewable sources has lesser greenhouse
gas emissions produced. The potential of buildings to generate energy is considered a
substantial change in the vision of resilient cities.
Egypt suffers from energy-related problems e.g. shortage in the power supply and high carbon
emission. Buildings devour approximately 39% of the energy and 74% of the electricity
produced annually (Ahmad et al., 2020). Also, the transportation segment is responsible for
around 28% of the energy use and around 25% of CO2 release. Total greenhouse gas emissions
(GHG) from the transportation segment in Egypt are evaluated at 29 million tons of CO2
(Arafat, 2017). Moreover, Metro Stations are an example of project types with high energy
consumption and use density. The first metro line consumes about 12.5 Million kW per month
while, the second 19 million kilowatts per month. Moreover, the third line consumes about 5
million kilowatts per month (Arafat, 2017). Hence, there is an urgent need to apply energy
harvesting technologies to reduce energy consumption and emission reduction (Harb, 2011;
Tan et al., 2013; Orrego et al., 2017).
Piezoelectricity has several applications in architecture noteworthy the use of flooring tiles.
Nevertheless, its use is currently limited due to factors including economic efficiency and
service life to overcome its high capital cost (Anton & Sodano, 2007; Mak, McWilliam, Popov
and Fox, 2011). From an environmental perspective, energy harvesting technologies such as
piezoelectric tiles represent a promising innovation system. It does not require additional land
space (Walubita et al., 2018) and is free of noise emissions with zero GHG emissions
(Woodcock et al., 2009). Hence, it appears as a solution to the depleting trend of natural
resources and the global energy problems (Andriopoulou, 2012). It is in phase with the actual
adaptation strategies for global climate change (IPCC, 2014; Berrang-Ford et al., 2011).
Considering the information provided by the EPA, in combination with the aforementioned
Innowattech’s, estimates, 1 km of pavement length with piezoelectric sensors may contribute
to the reduction of an equivalent of 53 kg of CO2 per hour. The use of energy with zero
atmospheric emissions may thus aid in minimizing global warming and contribute to
stabilizing the climate (Walubita et al., 2018). However, there are some limitations to their
implementation compared to conventional energy sources. This includes the lack of detailed
information on its economic merits and the storage problem of this system. Moreover, it is
important to mention that piezoelectric tiles most widely use toxic materials such as lead
zirconate titanate (Maeder et al., 2014). Although this material is highly valued for its high
cost-effectiveness, it is also considered a health risk material due to the use of lead toxicity
(Zhang et al., 2014).
This study presents a pilot attempt for energy-efficient buildings through the use of
piezoelectric cells. Reviewing previous attempts for the use of piezoelectric in public
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buildings paves the way for defining parameter integration for proper selection of piezoelectric
cells in the interior design such that it carries both functional and aesthetical benefits. Hence,
their application as flooring tiles was a manifestation for applying the laws of conservation of
energy; transferring mechanical energy into electric power. A public metro station located in
a highly-populated core urban area was selected as a case study due to its great use pattern
and density. This enables energy generation from flooring tiles installed at defined locations
in the metro station where the greatest numbers of passengers pass by. Accordingly, this
contributes to the advancements of energy generation in green building design, construction
and operation.
The study followed the sequence of steps shown in Fig. (2); the data collection and review
phase provided a background for the use of piezoelectricity, latest advancements in technology
according to uses and features- particularly for Sustainable Energy Floor (SEF) and
Waynergy. This helped determine parameter integration for the proper selection of
piezoelectric tiles. It was later applied to a case study project-metro station in a core urban
area, collecting; electricity consumption, number of passengers as well as occupation density
and patterns. Then, based on the previous literature review, the type of piezoelectric tiles was
determined. Accordingly, the energy generation capacity was estimated and compared for SEF
and Waynergy and finally, carbon dioxide emission reduction was calculated.
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Figure 1. Research methodology
2. Literature review
Reviewing the application of piezoelectricity in the Scopus database followed the diagram in
Fig. (3). This included All Science Journal Classification and all publication types from 2015
to March 2021. There is an accelerating research world widely for the use of piezoelectric tiles
in the building industry. Other subject areas such as material science, computer science and
energy contribute fewer publication shares of 21.2%, 8.6% and 3.2%, respectively. Fig. (4)
shows a total of 567 publications and over 3300 citations in the last 5 years. Nevertheless,
there is notably less contribution in developing countries. This presents a clear case for
research originality and contribution to the academic field.
The screening step included papers discussing its application in the field of building
engineering (25% of all publications) for a comprehensive overlook i.e. electrical, mechanical,
chemical, civil and architectural engineering. They were filtered to include records in the
fields of building design and construction. Records were excluded which did not fall into the
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relevant journal research area. It was found that only 18 records discussed its application in
the field of green building design and construction; only two discussed harvesting mechanical
energy of footsteps, one for applications on bridges and another in indoor spaces (Apurva,
Tailor and Rastogi, 2017; Toh et al., 2020; Mahapatra et al., 2021) e.g. only one publication
for ‘Piezoelectric Actuators’ (Qin and Cheng, 2021). Nevertheless, this did not include a lot
of studies for the application for piezoelectric tiles in urban studies though they share a lot in
common e.g. sustainable cities, energy harvesting and clean sources of energy generation…etc
(Vatalis et al., 2013; Casini, 2017; Jettanasen, Songsukthawan and Ngaopitakkul, 2020).
Hence, it is important to link both studies as presented in this study.
Figure 2. PRISMA chart showing Literature review, Source: Page et al. 2020
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Figure 3. Worldwide research for the application of piezoelectric cells in the building sector,
Source Scopus database up to 03 Mar 2021, retrieved 9 March 2021.
2.1. Types and applications of energy harvesting technologies
Researchers have focused their attention on developing means of harvesting energy from the
human body and motions (Dagdeviren, et al., 2017). This includes converting mechanical
energy to electricity following the first law of conversion of energy through Piezoelectric,
Electromagnetic and Triboelectric applications (Mitcheson et al., 2007).
Piezoelectricity was first identified in 1880 by The Curie brothers, and it is known as the
property of materials that generate electricity from mechanical deformation. Piezoelectric
technologies are generally classified into two categories: piezopolymer and piezoceramic. The
former type is flexible, but they show many drawbacks e.g. low energy conversion rates and
low electromechanical coefficients. The latter is usually brittle but they have high energy
conversion rates and large electromechanical coupling constants (Khalid, et al. 2019). Over
the past decade, piezoelectric devices were the most widely discussed technology (Elahi, et
al., 2018). Hence, Piezoelectric Energy Harvesting (PEEH) gained more attention in the field
of energy harvesting technologies owing to its ease of use and simple structure (Priya, et al.
2017). Different types of piezoelectric transducers can be used to harvest mechanical energy,
including monomorphic, bimorph, stack or membrane (Shenck & Paradiso, 2001; Wang &
Song, 2006; Feenstra, Granstrom & Sodano, 2008). Each configuration has its own advantages
and limitations, and in general, an energy harvester can't perform well in all applications. For
this reason, energy harvesters are normally designed for a specific application and a particular
frequency range of operation (Mak, McWilliam, Popov and Fox, 2011). For example,
Piezoelectric gadgets inserted in roadways may recover energy in the form of mechanical
energy and pressure beneath the vehicle tires (Hill, Agarwal and Tong, 2014).
Electromagnetism was discovered by Faraday in 1831 when a coil moves through the
magnetic field causing a potential difference at both ends of the coil. The voltage induced in
the coil is proportional to the time rate of change of magnetic flux (Invernizzi, 2016). Hence,
this attracted the attention of researchers as an efficient way for energy harvesting and
electromagnetic energy harvesters (EMEHs) were developed (Anjum et al. 2018).
The Triboelectric effect results from a charge transfer which occurs when two materials with
dissimilar polarities make contact with each other. After connecting these two materials with
metal, electrodes are found at the two non-contacting ends, detachment of surfaces leads to
charge accumulation due to the electrostatic induction effect. By repeating the contact between
these two surfaces results in charge flow in opposite ends (Fan, et al., 2012). Compared to
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piezoelectric and electromagnetic energy harvesting, Triboelectric energy harvesting (TEEH)
is considered an advanced technique, it is easily fabricated at the nano-scale size and has low
operation frequency (Lai, 2019). In recent years, it has gained much attention because it
produces high power density, high conversion efficiency, and low operating frequency
(Invernizzi, et al., 2016).
Table (1) compares the three aforementioned types showing that although electromagnetic
tiles generate energy more than piezoelectric tiles, piezoelectric tiles are easier in the
manufacturing and installing process.
Table 1: A comparison between the three types of Energy harvesting technologies
Type of
energy
harvesti
ng
Advantages
Disadvantages
Ideal body
parts and
movements for
energy
harvesting
PEEH
High energy
density, high
voltage output, no
need for the
mechanical stopper
and no voltage
source (Roundy et
al., 2003).
High capacitance
(Boisseau et al.,
2012)
Small mechanical
damping (Khalid et
al., 2019).
Difficult
integration, poor
coupling (Roundy
et al., 2003)
High impedance
and low current
(Khan et al., 2014).
Need of
piezoelectric
material, self-
discharge at low
frequency (Miao et
al., 2006)
Feet motion
(Cha & Seo,
2018)
Leg and arm
motion
(Izadgoshasb
et al., 2019)
Palm and
finger motion
(Zhang et al.,
2019)
EMEH
No voltage source,
small mechanical
damping, no need
for contacts
(Roundy et al.,
2003)
High output
current, robust and
durable (Boisseau
et al., 2012)
Low output
impedance (Khan
Low efficiency at
low frequency
(Boisseau et al.,
2012)
Coil losses and
complicated to
miniaturize (Miao
et al., 2006)
Difficult
integration and low
voltage (Roundy et
al., 2003)
Wrist motion
(Halim et al.,
2016)
Feet motion
(Wu et al.,
2017)
Arm and leg
(Fan et al.,
2019)
Knee motion
(Luciano et
al., 2014)
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et al., 2014)
Upper body
centre of
gravity
(Zhang et al.,
2014)
TEEH
Low operation
frequency and
device flexibility
(Invernizzi et al.,
2016)
High power density
and high
conversion
efficiency (Wang et
al., 2015)
Mechanism not
fully understood
and difficult to
integrate (Wang et
al., 2015)
Low current at
high voltage
(Invernizzi et al.,
2016)
Durability (Xu et
al., 2019)
Human Skin
(Wang &
Daoud, 2018)
Hand tapping
(Shen et al.,
2017)
Cardiac and
lung
contraction
and relaxation
(Ding et al.,
2018)
Cloth (Ning et
al., 2018)
2.2. Applications of piezoelectric tiles in the building industry
Previous studies implemented piezoelectric tiles for different projects in Portugal, Japan and
England as shown in Table (2) (Solban & Moussa, 2019). These projects had different
applications for piezoelectric tiles in different space functions, areas and installation methods;
nevertheless, they all shared a large occupation density which allowed for sufficient energy
generation. The examples presented the strength and weaknesses of each type, the efficiency
of piezoelectric tiles as well as the properties of each title. This showed that piezoelectric
materials produced very small quantities of electricity, however, artificial piezoelectric
materials such as PZT generated more electricity (Moussa, 2019). Based on its application in
East Japan Railway, 0.1 watts were produced in a single second by an average person weighing
60 kg for two steps taken across the tile, but when it was used for larger areas with greater
step-footage, then a significant amount of power could be generated leading to greater
efficiency (Shreeshayana et al., 2017; Pramethesth and Ankur, 2013).
Table 2. Summarizing the efficiency of piezoelectric tiles in previous case studies
(Solban and Moussa 2019)
Case Study
Ponte 25 De Abril
Tokyo Station
Club Watt
Project Type
Transportation
Bridge
Metro public Station
Dancing floor inside
Dance Club
Location
Lisboa, Portugal
Tokyo, Japan
Rotterdam
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Cost
$67,200
$27,090
$257,000
Area
Total length 2.277
kilometres
25 m2
38 m2
Amount of energy
240W per Vehicle
500 kW-seconds
daily power
25 watts/ square
module
Energy saved
Providing 65% of
the bridge power
Providing power for
the station facilities
Reduces the electricity
consumption of the
club by 30%
Tile Shape
Rectangle
Square
Square
Tile Size
25 x 300 cm
90 cm2, 2.5 cm thick
75 x 75 x 20 cm
Colour
Black
Black
Transparent with LED
multicolour lights
Operation
frequency
155.000 vehicle
users/day
400,000 users/day
1400 users/day
Type of Piezoelectric
tiles
Waynergy
Sound Power Tile
SEF
Location of tiles
All along the bridge
Passengers steps in
front of the tickets
area.
Dancing floor
This section summarized the uses and features, form and implemented projects of different
types of piezoelectric tiles.
Waynergy tiles were used for the ‘Ponte 25 de Abril’ project. The output power was either
consumed or stored for indoor or outdoor uses. This included lighting, traffic control
gadgets supply, large pedestrian areas, security systems supply, crosswalks, walkways, and
public transport stations.
SEF tiles were used for the “Club Watt” project dance floor to power road lights and
signage. The tiles could be fully customized. Other projects used it in pavements and large
pedestrian regions e.g. aeroplane terminals, sports fields, shopping centres, railroad
stations, offices and condo squares.
Pavegen tiles were used for the Mercury mall project in London, also in various sectors
including train stations, shopping centres, airports and public spaces. Each tile was
equipped with a wireless API that transmitted real-time movement data analytics whilst
directly producing power when and where it was needed i.e. it could be used to power
interactive messages, billboards and signage. This could improve data-driven smart cities
by connecting to a range of mobile devices and building management systems.
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Electro-Active Polymers (EAPs) tiles were used for pressure mapping to trigger a control,
warning or alarm signal. This could be useful for high voltage sensor Network Technology
and sensor matrix.
Sound Power tiles were used as power sources for many applications e.g. for emergency
stairs, 0.1 watts of electricity could be generated by a person steps.
Parquet polyvinylidene fluoride layers (PVDF) tiles were characterized by a simple
manufacturing process & a comparably inexpensive price. It could be produced in a large-
sized foil material. It was very suitable for the application of mass-production technologies.
Modules were characterized by great flexibility, robustness, resistance and could be created
in almost any geometrical size and shape. The energy yield increased by the multiplication
of the layers, at higher loading forces and with more thicknesses of the modules. The
lengthwise arrangement was more efficient and they could be used to power small electrical
loads or wireless sensor systems.
PZT ceramic (lead zirconate titanate) tiles were used in Tokyo Station. It was an example
of ultra-efficient piezoelectric material that could convert up to 80% of mechanical energy
to electricity. It was characterized to be extremely brittle & could be manufactured in small
sizes. It was more expensive than PVDF, with higher and constant piezoelectric voltage
conversion and 100 times more efficient than quartz.
Drum Harvesters - Piezo buzzer tiles were used to generate low power electrical energy
required to power microelectronic devices like Bluetooth, GPS modules, microcontrollers
and low power sensors using ambient vibrations from various sources. The fabrication
process of these drum harvesters was cheap, easy and fast. Quite robust and as such may
be embedded in a variety of structures, under floors, roads, etc.
POWERleap PZT tiles used 2-inch by 1-inch PZT plates with a brass reinforcement shim
covered in nickel electrodes for low current leakage. Hence, the power was induced and
stimulated momentary electrical energy impulses used to light the LED's inside each tile.
The generated power could be stored in a battery in the form of direct current power.
Hybrid energy floor (HEF) tiles were used to convert solar power and kinetic energy to
electrical energy. It was designed for installation in commercial streets, public squares,
parks and pavements. It used photovoltaic panels with Copper Indium Selenide solar
technology. This included main benefits e.g. its excellent performance in shady areas and
its maximum energy production with minimum power use.
According to previous research and case study projects, the properties of different types of
piezoelectric tiles can be summarized in Table (3) (Pavegen, 2019; Power generation bed,
2019; Elhalwagy et al., 2017; Mishra et al., 2015; Farahat, 2014; Balouchi, 2013; Bischur and
Schwesinger, 2012; Bischur and Schwesinger. 2011; Rodrigues, 2011; Schwartz, 2011; Ryall,
2008; Starner, and Paradiso, 2003). This can be categorized based on their technical
specifications; the size of each tile, energy produced from one tile, the initial cost of the tile
and its average lifespan. This shows that the “PZT ceramic” type is the cheapest type of
piezoelectric tiles which produces an average of 8.4 MW per tile. On the other hand, the Sound
Power type produces only 0.1 W per 2 steps and its initial cost is almost 5 times more than
the “PZT Ceramic”. Each type of piezoelectric tile has a specific feature and form, some of
them has already been used in existing interior projects while others are still under testing.
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Table 3. Comparing Piezoelectric technology types for one flooring tile
Product type
Tiles Size
Energy produced
Price
Estimated
lifespan
1
Waynergy Floor
Tiles
40 x 40 cm
10 W per step
451.5$
20 years
2
SEF
Tiles
75 x 75 cm
or
50 x 50 cm
Up to 30 W of continuous
output. Typical power
output for continuous
stepping by a person lies
between 1 and 10 W
nominal output per
module (average 7 W)
1,693$
15 years
3
Pavegen tiles
Tiles
50 x 50 cm
5 W
395$
20 years
4
EAPs
Sheets
1 W
--------
20 years
5
Sound Power
Tiles
50 x 50 cm
0.1 W per 2 steps
270.9$
20 years
6
PZT ceramic
Manufactured
in a small size
8.4 MW
36.1$
20 years
7
Parquet PVDF
layers
Layers
2.1 MW per pulse with
loads of about 70 kg
---------
20 years
8
Drum Harvesters -
Piezo buzzer,
Piezoelectric
Ceramics
Varies
Around 2.463 MW
56.4 $
20 years
9
Power Leap (PZT)
Tiles
60 x 60 cm
0.5 MW per step
--------
20 years
1
0
HEF
75 x 75 cm
OR
100 x 200 cm
Up to 250 kWh per year,
per tile
1,693$
20 years
1
1
PZT Nanofibre -
Nanogenerator
PZT Textile
Sheets of 0.2
cm3 volume
6 mW/cm3 ,0.03 μW
power density up to 2.4
μW/cm3 [20]
---
20 years
1
2
Pvdf nanofibre
4 μW/cm3 ,7.2
pW
unknown
---
20 years
1
3
ZnO nanowire
VINGs
5 pW ,11
mW/cm2 ,2.7
mW/cm3
very economically
---
20 years
1
4
BaTiO3
7 mW/cm3
Available commercially
at low cost and in a
variety of designs
---
---
W: Watts
12
PW: Picowatt
MW: Megawatt
Table (4) compares different types of piezoelectric tiles according to the cost, energy
production, size, colour, material, arrangement, configuration and form as well as their
functional applications.
Table 4. A framework of Piezoelectric tiles for designing interior spaces
Criteria
Properties
Types of Piezoelectric tiles
1-Energy
Production
0.0021 W to 0.0084 W
1. Parquet PVDF, Drum Harvester and PZT
Ceramic
0.1 W to 5 W
1. Sound Power and Pavegen Tiles
7 W to 10 W
1. SEF and Waynergy Floor
Up to 60kWh to 250 kWh per
year, per tile
1. HEF
2-Cost
225.7 $ to 451.5 $
1. Waynergy Floor, Pavegen Tiles and
Sound Power
1,128.7 $ to 1,693 $
1. SEF and HEF
33.9 $ to 56.4 $ per cell
1. PZT Ceramic and Drum Harvester
3-Size
Tiles 40 x 40 cm
1. Waynergy Floor
Tiles 50 x 50 cm
1. SEF and Sound Power
Tiles 60 x 60 cm
1. Power Leap (PZT)
Tiles 75 x 75 cm
1. SEF and HEF
Tiles 1 x 2 m
1. HEF
Tiles 50 cm each edge
1. Pavegen Tiles
Sheets
EAPs, PZT Nano-Fiber-nanogenerator
and PZT textile nanogenerator
Layers
1. Parquet PVDF
Varies dimensions
1. Drum Harvesters- Piezo Buzzers and
Piezoelectric ceramics
4-Form
Square
1. Wayenergy Floor, SEF, Sound power,
2. Power Leap (PZT), HEF, Pavegon tiles
and PZT Ceramics
Rectangular
1. Parquet PVDF, Drum Harvesters, HEF
and Pavegon tiles
Triangle
1. Pavegon tiles
Circular
1. Drum Harvester and PZT ceramics
5-Colour
Comes in any colour according
to the design
1. Waynergy Floor, SEF, Pavegen tiles,
EAPs, Sound Power, PZT ceramic,
Parquet PVDF, Drum Harvesters - Piezo
buzzer, Power Leap (PZT), HEF, PZT
13
Nanofibre- nanogenerator &PZT textile
nanogenerator
7-
Configuration
Over Tile
1. Pavegon Tiles and Sound Power
Within Tile
1. PZT Ceramic and Drum Harvester
Replacing Tile
1. Waynergy, Pavegon Tiles, Sound Power
and Parquet PVDF
8-Materials
The tiles can be all kinds of
material, which makes it
possible to implement them
both inside and outside.
1. Waynergy Floor, SEF, Pavegen tiles,
Sound Power, PZT ceramic, Drum
Harvesters - Piezo buzzer, Power Leap
(PZT) and HEF
Covered with rubber to
increase durability
Sound Power
Parquet PVDF
Parquet PVDF
After this thorough review of existing literature about the application of piezoelectric tiles as
a means for clean energy harvesting, it can be noted it has great potentials use in public
facilities and there are a variety of existing product types but there is no guide for the design
and selection process. Hence, this research presents a pilot study for a self-sustained building
operation to provide sufficient electric energy using piezoelectric flooring tiles.
3. Case study
The underground station is located in Rod El-Farag neighbourhood shown in Fig. (7), located
on 30°08'05.95"N and 31°24'54" E which is a part of Shoubra Masr district- a highly-
populated area and home to around 33% of all population in the main capital Cairo. Its average
population capacity is estimated at 170,000 occupants for every square kilometre. The newest
phase of the third line (phase 3) is almost 17.7 km in length serving 15 stations. These are
divided into eight underground stations, two ground and five elevated stations. A typical metro
station consists of three floors, the 1st floor includes the railway, the 2nd floor includes daily
passengers, the tickets office, the entrances and station exists, police station, security and
supervisors’ offices, toilets and services whilst the 3rd-floor consist of admission and
mechanical rooms as shown in Fig ().
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Figure 4. The location of Rod El-Farag metro station, Source (google maps, 2021)
4. Method
Parameter integration for the proper selection of piezoelectric tiles was deducted from the
previous literature review. This determines its successful application in the building industry.
They can be divided into factors related to the project type and location, as well as the proper
selection of the piezoelectric tile. The former requires prior investigation for the pattern of
use, occupation density and area dedicated for installing piezoelectric tiles. Project location
requires investigating the density of the surrounding urban area. Proper selection of
piezoelectric tiles includes investigating their economic concerns (capital cost and as well as
the running cost required for the operation and maintenance requirements), efficiency (in
terms of energy generation and savings), form (shape, size, colour and configuration) and their
type. It also shows its contribution to reducing energy consumption and carbon emissions.
This hypothesis was tested on the case study project as shown in Fig. ().
15
Figure 5. Drawing the decision-making process for proper selection of piezoelectric tiles in
public facilities
The newest metro line (Phase 3) was selected for the study because it was designed based on
the latest planning guidelines. Three stations were selected for the study as shown in Table
(5) based on the following parameters:
A) Passenger density: transit stations in Cairo were generally classified into three classes (A,
B & C) with the former having the greatest passengers’ density. Class A was the most
congested class that included more than 30,000 passengers/hr, whereas class C included
the least number of passengers, less than 15,000 passengers/hr. Phase 3 included five
stations of class A, nine stations of class B, and three stations of class C. Thus, one station
of each class was selected.
B) Type of the station: based on the alignment of the route, transit stations were classified
into three types: underground station, elevated station and ground stations. Hence, one
station of each type was selected noting that the ground floor level had the highest density
due to the ease of access.
C) Location of the station on the line: this was generally classified into intermediate station,
intermodal station or terminal. The selected stations were two intermediate stations and
one terminal station to indicate better connectivity and serviceability.
D) Architectural design: all metro stations in Cairo followed the same prototype except for
some minor modifications. Thus, the floor plans of the three selected stations were similar.
Table 5. Three alternative metro stations
Station
Name
No. of
Levels
Passenger category
Type of the
station
Location of
the station
Selection
Tawfikia
3
Levels
C (less than 15,000
traveller/hr)
Underground
Intermediate
El Bohy
3
B (15,000-30,000
Elevated
Intermediate
16
Levels
traveller/hr)
Rod El-
Farag
3
Levels
A (more than 30,000
traveller/hr)
Ground-level
Terminal
Selected
Hence, the Rod El-Farag metro station was selected. The data collection phase included the
electricity consumption of the metro station as well as the number of daily passengers, use
pattern, density and distribution. This was needed to determine the number of piezoelectric
tiles required to generate enough energy to power the station.
4.1. Project-associated parameters
The amount of electricity generated from piezoelectric tiles depended on the occupation
pattern and density. Knowing that the metro station operated almost 16 hours/ day, hence, the
numbers of daily passengers were collected from the station ticket office from January-
December 2019. Then, their distribution was determined based on site visits and daily-based
observations from the period January to July 2020. This showed an average of 57,000
passengers crossing the station per day with notable differences between working days and
weekends. This was estimated to result in 57,000 steps per day. Table (6) showed the
distribution of transient and final destination passengers for the metro station. The high-
density areas were shown in Fig. (9) i.e. in front of ticket offices, entrance and exit stairs, and
security gates. This determined optimum locations for installing piezoelectric tiles.
Table 6. The number of passengers per hour using the station during the weekdays
Passengers entering the station
Passengers exiting the station
Days
The average number of
passengers/hour
Days
The average number of
passengers/hour
Friday
15,000 - 20,000
Friday
21,000 - 24,000
Saturday
22,000 - 24, 000
Saturday
22,000 - 24, 000
Sunday
26,000 - 29,000
Sunday
28,000 - 30,000
Monday
26,000 - 29,000
Monday
28,000 - 30,000
Tuesday
26,000 - 29,000
Tuesday
28,000 - 30,000
Wednesday
26,000 - 29,000
Wednesday
28,000 - 30,000
Thursday
27,000 - 29 000
Thursday
25,000 - 31, 000
17
Figure 6. Determining high-density areas (People/m2) in the metro station
4.1.1. Calculating electricity consumption
The research identified the average daily electricity consumption of Rod El-Farag metro
station which is approximately 4500 kW daily as shown in Table (7) (Cairo Metro Egypt,
2021).
Table 7. The Electricity Consumption of Rod El-Farag metro station in 2020
from
To
bill amount
(EGP)
Station
consumption
kW/ month
Number of
days
Station
consumption
kW/ day
12 Dec.
13 Jan
122,672
144,320
32
4,510
13 Jan
29 Jan
57,800
68,000
16
4,250
29 Jan
9 March
148,180.5
174,330
39
4,470
9 March
1 April
80,155
94,300
23
4,100
1 April
12May
160,650
189,000
42
4,500
12 may
3 June
84,150
99,000
22
4,500
3 June
1 July
115,263.4
135,604
28
4,843
1 July
3 Aug.
144,615.6
170,136
34
5,004
3 Aug.
2 Sept.
119,850
141,000
30
4,700
2 Sept.
8 Oct.
137,914.2
162,252
36
4,507
8 Oct.
3 Nov.
103,275
121,500
27
4,500
4.1.2. Calculating carbon dioxide emission reduction
Rod El-Farag metro station is located in the Shoubra Masr district. This district is served by
the South Cairo” power station. Noting that natural gas was used to generate electricity which
produces 116.999 pounds of CO2 per million Btu, 10,408 heat rate (Btu PER kWh) and 1.22
18
pounds of CO2 per kWh (EIA, 2016). Hence, each kWh produced from natural gas produces
1.22 pounds of CO2
1 billion (pound) = 0.4536 Kg
The carbon emission produced from Natural gas= 1.22 billion kilowatt-hours
CO2 =1.22×0.4536 = 0.5534 kg/kWh
Rod El-Farag metro station consumes 4500 kW/day, which is equal to 4500/16=281.25
kWh.
Carbon emissions of the “Rod El-Farag” metro station are estimated to be 1.22x
281.25=343.125 pounds per kWh.
4.2. Piezoelectric-technology associated parameters
According to previous research by Solban and Moussa (2019), SEF and Waynergy were the
best two types of piezoelectric tiles that could be used in public facilities. Table (8) compared
the properties of both types to be applied to the case study.
Table 8. Comparing the SEF and Waynergy piezoelectric tiles
Properties
SEF
Waynergy
Power generation/watt
7
10
Unit and its price
15000 EGP
4000 EGP
Shape & Size
Tiles
75 x 75 cm or
50 x 50 cm
Tiles
40 cm x 40 cm
Materials
All types of materials can be used
Colour
Comes in any colour
according to the design
Comes in any colour according to
the design
Life span by years
20
20
Number of tiles
Daily generation Capacity (kW)
1
399
570
2
798
1140
3
1197
1710
4
1596
2280
5
1995
2850
6
2394
3420
7
2793
3990
8
3192
4560
9
3591
5130
10
3990
5700
11
4389
6270
12
4788
6840
19
5. Results
This investigates the efficiency of using piezoelectric tiles to generate enough electricity to
supply public facilities such as the metro station in Rod El-Farag which is a core urban area
in Cairo. The results help determine the most suitable type of piezoelectric tiles with enough
generation capacity to balance the station’s demand for electricity with a clean source of
energy which shall reduce carbon emissions as well.
5.1. Determining the optimum type and number of piezoelectric tiles
The average energy daily consumption of the station is 4500 kW/day. The initial cost for
buying 1kW from the government is 0.85 EGP/ kW. Hence, twelve tiles are needed to generate
the station’s needs for electric energy using SEF piezoelectric tiles while only eight tiles are
needed using Waynergy piezoelectric tiles. Their power generation capacity, initial capital
cost, lifespan and expected savings are compared in Table (9). This shows that using 12 SEF
tiles will generate 4788 kW/day while installing 8 Waynergy tiles will generate 4560 kW/day.
The amount of energy-saving using 12 SEF tiles is almost 1,476,476 EGP/year with a saving
percentage of 99.3%, while the energy-saving from using 8 Waynergy tiles is almost
1,413,075.6 EGP/ year with a saving percentage of 99.9%. This shows that using Waynergy
piezoelectric tiles produce more energy than the SEF but with less payback time. Accordingly,
the station will be a 100% self-sustained project.
Table 9. Comparing the efficiency of using SEF and Waynergy for the case study
Type
SEF
Waynergy
Power generation/watt
7W =0.007 kW
10W =0.01 kW
Number of tiles
12
8
Initial cost for installing
one tile
15,000 EGP
4,000 EGP
Initial cost for installing
12 tiles
12 x 15,000 = 180,000 EGP
8 x 4,000 = 32,000 EGP
Daily Generation
Capacity
(57,000 x 0.07 x 12) = 4788
kW/day
(57,000 x0.01x8) = 4560 kW/day
Lifespan (years)
20 years x 365 day = 7300 days
20 years x 365 day = 7300 days
Cost for generating daily
energy from
Piezoelectric tiles
180,000/ 7300 /4788 =0.00515
EGP/kW
32,000/ 7300/ 4560 = 0.000961
EGP/kW
Daily saving amount/ 1
kW
0.85- 0.00515 = 0.84485 EGP/
kW
0.85- 0.000961= 0.8490 EGP/
kW
Annual saving/ 1 kW
308.37 EGP/ kW
309.99 EGP/ kW
Annual saving for
electrifying the station
using piezoelectric tiles
4788 x 308.37 = 1,476,476.8
EGP
4560 x 309.99 = 1,413,075.6
EGP
Saving Percentage %
100-((0.005/0.85)x100)
= 99.3%
100-((0.00096/0.85)x100)
=99.9%
20
Total saved amount
through 20 years
(lifespan of tiles)
1,476,476.757 x 20
=29,529,535.14 EGP
1,413,075.6 x 20
=28,261,512 EGP
5.2. Calculating carbon emission reduction
By applying piezoelectric tiles in the station, a CO2 reduction of 5490 pounds/day is expected.
6. Discussion
The search for clean sources of energy is a rising concern to overcome the problems associated
with the use of non-renewable sources of energy. There are numerous advancements for
energy-efficient building elements. The use of piezoelectric applications is a promising field of
study for the conversion of energy from mechanical to electric energy. Nevertheless, its use is
currently limited due to factors including economic efficiency and service life to overcome its
high capital cost (Anton & Sodano, 2007; Mak, McWilliam, Popov and Fox, 2011). Moreover,
previous research stated that the transportation system contributes a great deal to energy
consumption and emission release. Hence, this study shows clean methods of reducing energy
consumption arising from metro stations. This can be generalized to obtain self-sufficient
transportation hubs. The study bridges the gaps between theoretical research and the
implementation of energy harvesting and renewable energy production using piezoelectric tiles
in public buildings with high occupation density. It shows that its successful implementation
depends on factors associated with the project and other with the technology itself. This
indicates that an integrated approach should be adopted, looking at the contribution of
individual parts in the whole process as recommended by previous researchers (Ismaeel, 2020b,
2020a).
Few existing research about the application of piezoelectric tiles in the building industry was
one of the main limitations during data gathering. It was more in the form of reports and product
catalogues but fewer scientific papers were found in this regard. Also, the scope of the study
did not account for the effect of the site on the successful implementation of this green solution
as indicated in previous studies (Ismaeel, 2019, 2021). Furthermore, parametric design tools
may be used for future research to trace the effect of changing the number of users, materials
or a change in the country’s energy mix. These tools were very useful to support early design
decisions on the building scale (M. ElBatran & Ismaeel, 2021) as well as on the urban scale
(Ahmed & Ismaeel, 2016). Studying the environmental impact of this technology may also
provide a comprehensive view of the benefits and risks of using piezoelectricity all along its
life cycle. Some studies have suggested the use of lead-free or mixed which are likely
biocompatible (Maeder et al., 2014). However, the environmentally friendly properties of these
alternative materials are not sufficiently established, and more research is needed to outline the
cost benefits (Ibn-Mohammed, 2017). Hence, advanced tools and methods could be used to
account for its use on the urban level e.g. using the Geographic Information System (Dabaeih
et al., 2017; El-Sayed et al., 2018; Ismaeel et al., 2016) and the project scale (Elsayed &
Ismaeel, 2019). It may also include the use of Life Cycle Assessment to be able to compare
between the aforementioned types of piezoelectric flooring tiles (Dalia M.A. Morsi et al., 2020;
Dalia Morsi Ahmed Morsi et al., 2020).
21
7. Conclusion and recommendations
Nowadays energy is one of the most significant problems all over the world, hence, it is
important to introduce clean energy harvesting technologies such as piezoelectricity in the
building sector and most importantly for the transportation sector which result in major energy
consumption and emission release. This is based on converting mechanical energy to clean
electricity production especially for public projects with significant occupation patterns and
density. Hence, this study presents a comprehensive review of literature for the use of
piezoelectric flooring tiles; citing research papers and international case study projects and as
a result of the review phase two main types were shortlisted; waynergy and SEF.
Parameter integration for the proper selection of piezoelectric tiles was deducted from the
literature review. This determined its successful application in the building industry. These
were divided into factors related to the project type and location, as well as proper selection of
the piezoelectric tile product. This hypothesis was tested in the case study. Hence, the
application of piezoelectricity was investigated in a Metro station in a core urban area in Egypt,
with an estimate of almost 57,000 daily passengers. The selection of the metro line and station
as well as the location of installing the tiles was based on the highest passenger density class
which provided the greatest step-footage. Furthermore, the selection of the number and type of
piezoelectric tiles was determined based on the current project’s energy consumption. The
study compared the two shortlisted types of tiles in terms of their power generation capacity,
initial capital cost, lifespan and expected savings. The results showed that twelve tiles were
needed to generate the station’s needs for electric energy using SEF piezoelectric tiles while
only eight tiles were needed using Waynergy piezoelectric tiles. The results also showed a
decrease in energy consumption and carbon emissions. Hence, the study encourages the use of
clean energy harvesting which helps in promoting environmentally sustainable
and socially resilient cities. This research is in continuous advancements, so more future
research about the use of piezoelectricity in different building applications shall support the
findings of this research.
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... Researchers have indicated that these tiles can be utilized in diverse settings, including busy places such as train stations, airports, shopping malls, and residential buildings, where they can generate energy from foot traffic and other sources. [17] [8] Piezoelectric tiles, like Waynergy Floor, Sustainable enegy floor, and Pavegen tiles, are innovative flooring solutions that generate electricity from footsteps. [9 ] These tiles, made of materials such as piezoelectric tiles ceramic, produce an electric charge under mechanical pressure. ...
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