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ISAP
2021
International Forum for Sustainable Asia and the Pacific
ISAP2021
DISCUSSION PAPER
RIVERINE MICROPLASTIC POLLUTION
IN ASEAN COUNTRIES
- CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE -
Pham Ngoc Bao1, Yukako Inamura1, Amila Abeynayaka2
Pankaj Kumar1, Bijon Kumar Mitra1,3
1: Adaptation and Water Area, IGES
2: IGES Centre Collaborating with UNEP on Environmental Technology (CCET), IGES
3: Integrated Sustainability Center, IGES
ISAP
Executive Summary
Water pollution caused by microplastics generated from land-based sources (e.g. as tire-wear particles, broken road
markings, synthetic textile microfibre from washing, microbeads from personal care products, discharged domestic
wastewater from households, and others) is attracting attention in many countries and regions around the world as
an emerging environmental problem, not only at national and regional level, but also worldwide. Microplastics
released from these sources often flow directly or indirectly into surrounding aquatic environments such as rivers and
lakes, and eventually enter the ocean. The adverse impacts of microplastics on ecosystems and aquaculture
organisms have been well-reported, and they may gradually cause potential adverse effects on human health as well.
Unfortunately, in most member states in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), basic knowledge about
the occurrence, ingestion and impacts of riverine microplastics pollution on ecosystem and human health is
very limited. As a result, appropriate and effective countermeasures to control the emission of microplastics have
not yet been established. This Discussion Paper presents a concise and insightful review of the current state of
knowledge on the occurrence, ingestion and impacts of microplastics on ecosystems and human health.
Moreover, due to the transboundary nature of plastic litter issues, any solutions implemented in single country
will not be sufficient to address these regional and transboundary issues. The paper calls for collective efforts
from all the ASEAN Member States to address issues along the plastic value chain through the circular economy
approach, from raw material extraction, design, production, distribution, responsible plastic consumption
(especially single use plastic products), collection/reuse/repair, to the recycling stage and final disposal.
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Plastics in a river
1. Introduction
Human society has been sustained by consuming
resources, and plastic has become one of the materials
we use to maintain a convenient and comfortable
lifestyle. Plastic was invented in the early 1800s as a
substance for tooth filling and as a reinforcing material
(British Plastic Federation, 2021). Since the first
appearance of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in the early
1900s, plastic has been used in many products, and its
low cost, convenience and durability created strong
demand from the manufacturing and packaging
industries (Ryan, 2015). Because of this huge demand,
the annual global production of plastic has seen a
massive increase from 2 million tonnes per year in
1950 to 381 million tonnes per year in 2015. More than
70% of the total amount of plastic was produced after
1990 (Geyer et al., 2017). It has been reported that the
ASEAN region, comprised of member states of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, accounts for
about 20% of global plastic production (Borongan et
al., 2018). The ASEAN countries with the largest growth
in plastic production and consumption are Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet
Nam. Four ASEAN countries (Indonesia, the Philippines,
Thailand and Viet Nam) and China are estimated to
contribute to about half of the world’ s marine plastic
litter generation (Geyer et al., 2017).
In addition, the ’takeaway food culture’, ‘e-commerce
activities’ and ‘sachet economy’ are growing in the
region, leading to an increased use of plastics.
Consumer preferences are also shifting from traditional
fresh foods to packaged foods, while at the same time,
shopping on digital platforms is on the rise (The World
Bank, 2021). Consequently, this convenience and
versatility has resulted in an increase in plastic waste,
with mismanaged plastic waste emerging as an
environmental problem. The scientific community has
made great efforts to spread awareness about the
environmental consequences from this plastic pollution,
but in absence of any strict regulations, irrational
consumption and littering has continued, resulting in
severe damage to global aquatic ecosystems (Alegado
et al., 2021; Bean, 1987).
Microplastics (MPs) are currently a great concern as
they exist in water, sediments, fauna and even flora
(Kalčíková, 2020). However, there is no all-inclusive
definition which accurately encompasses the criteria
that could potentially describe microplastics. These
small-size plastic pieces, with a size less than 5mm, are
produced as synthetic raw materials or generated as a
result of the breakdown and fragmentation of larger
pieces of plastic. MPs are divided into two categories,
primary and secondary, based on their origin. Primary
MPs enter the environment directly. Secondary MPs
derive from the breakdown of larger plastic pieces in
the environment. This environmental degradation of
plastic is governed by the synergic effects of photo-
and thermo-oxidative degradation, abrasion and
biological activities (Amila Abeynayaka et al., 2020;
Barnes et al., 2009). Figure 1 shows the categorisation
of plastic debris. Primary MPs are comprised of
tire-wear particles, broken road markings, synthetic
textile microfibres from washing, microbeads from
personal care products and land-based accidental
pellet releases. Secondary MPs are made up of
decomposed macroplastic debris originating from
roads, domestic wastewater systems and municipal
waste dumps. These MPs originate from various
environmental sources through multiple pathways:
road runoff, wastewater systems, wind movement, and
marine activities. (Boucher & Friot, 2017).
MPs released from these sources often flow directly or
indirectly into surrounding aquatic environments such
as rivers, and eventually enter the ocean. However,
there is still not much scientific evidence on the
potential negative impacts of MPs on ecosystems and
aquaculture organisms, or on the implications of
microplastics toxicity on human health, and as such,
the issue is not well-understood in most ASEAN
countries. In addition, basic knowledge is quite limited
about the occurrence and status of MP pollution,
particularly riverine MP pollution, and the impact on
ecosystems and human health. As a result, appropriate
and effective countermeasures to control the emission
of MPs have not yet been established.
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Human society has been sustained by consuming
resources, and plastic has become one of the materials
we use to maintain a convenient and comfortable
lifestyle. Plastic was invented in the early 1800s as a
substance for tooth filling and as a reinforcing material
(British Plastic Federation, 2021). Since the first
appearance of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in the early
1900s, plastic has been used in many products, and its
low cost, convenience and durability created strong
demand from the manufacturing and packaging
industries (Ryan, 2015). Because of this huge demand,
the annual global production of plastic has seen a
massive increase from 2 million tonnes per year in
1950 to 381 million tonnes per year in 2015. More than
70% of the total amount of plastic was produced after
1990 (Geyer et al., 2017). It has been reported that the
ASEAN region, comprised of member states of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, accounts for
about 20% of global plastic production (Borongan et
al., 2018). The ASEAN countries with the largest growth
in plastic production and consumption are Indonesia,
Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet
Nam. Four ASEAN countries (Indonesia, the Philippines,
Thailand and Viet Nam) and China are estimated to
contribute to about half of the world’ s marine plastic
litter generation (Geyer et al., 2017).
In addition, the ’takeaway food culture’, ‘e-commerce
activities’ and ‘sachet economy’ are growing in the
region, leading to an increased use of plastics.
Consumer preferences are also shifting from traditional
fresh foods to packaged foods, while at the same time,
shopping on digital platforms is on the rise (The World
Bank, 2021). Consequently, this convenience and
versatility has resulted in an increase in plastic waste,
with mismanaged plastic waste emerging as an
environmental problem. The scientific community has
made great efforts to spread awareness about the
environmental consequences from this plastic pollution,
but in absence of any strict regulations, irrational
consumption and littering has continued, resulting in
severe damage to global aquatic ecosystems (Alegado
et al., 2021; Bean, 1987).
Microplastics (MPs) are currently a great concern as
they exist in water, sediments, fauna and even flora
(Kalčíková, 2020). However, there is no all-inclusive
definition which accurately encompasses the criteria
that could potentially describe microplastics. These
small-size plastic pieces, with a size less than 5mm, are
produced as synthetic raw materials or generated as a
result of the breakdown and fragmentation of larger
pieces of plastic. MPs are divided into two categories,
primary and secondary, based on their origin. Primary
MPs enter the environment directly. Secondary MPs
derive from the breakdown of larger plastic pieces in
the environment. This environmental degradation of
plastic is governed by the synergic effects of photo-
and thermo-oxidative degradation, abrasion and
biological activities (Amila Abeynayaka et al., 2020;
Barnes et al., 2009). Figure 1 shows the categorisation
of plastic debris. Primary MPs are comprised of
tire-wear particles, broken road markings, synthetic
textile microfibres from washing, microbeads from
personal care products and land-based accidental
pellet releases. Secondary MPs are made up of
decomposed macroplastic debris originating from
roads, domestic wastewater systems and municipal
waste dumps. These MPs originate from various
environmental sources through multiple pathways:
road runoff, wastewater systems, wind movement, and
marine activities. (Boucher & Friot, 2017).
This discussion paper aims to provide a concise review
of the current state of knowledge on the occurrence,
ingestion and impacts of MPs on ecosystems and
human health. It also initiates discussion and dialogues
on how to minimise the discharge of MPs into aquatic
environments, particularly into rivers, either through
effective end-of-pipe wastewater treatment
technologies, or changing lifestyles and consumption
habits for products/materials containing MPs.
MPs released from these sources often flow directly or
indirectly into surrounding aquatic environments such
as rivers, and eventually enter the ocean. However,
there is still not much scientific evidence on the
potential negative impacts of MPs on ecosystems and
aquaculture organisms, or on the implications of
microplastics toxicity on human health, and as such,
the issue is not well-understood in most ASEAN
countries. In addition, basic knowledge is quite limited
about the occurrence and status of MP pollution,
particularly riverine MP pollution, and the impact on
ecosystems and human health. As a result, appropriate
and effective countermeasures to control the emission
of MPs have not yet been established.
Figure 1. Characteristics for categorising plastic debris. a) Size-based classification (modified from Abeynayaka et
al 2021) and b) Morphology-based classification (Source: Abeynayaka et al., 2021; Lusher et al., 2017; Pirika, 2021)
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Figure 2 shows the pathways taken by MPs as they
enter freshwater and marine environments from
land-based sources such as direct littering, wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) and households (HHs).
While scholars have revealed evidence of MP pollution
in water, particularly in oceans, national governments
also began to address the issue by implementing
various measures. For example, Belgium, Canada,
France, Italy, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Sweden,
Taiwan, the United Kingdom and the United States
have all imposed bans on adding MPs to personal care
products (PCPs) prior to 2017. Moreover, regional
economic and political unions such as the European
Union (EU) and ASEAN also initiated different actions
for managing MPs (Kadarudin et al., 2020; Kentin &
Kaarto, 2018).
Several empirical studies show the occurrence of MPs
in water bodies including the Arctic and the Antarctic
Oceans, rivers and lakes around the world (Constant et
al., 2020; A. L. Lusher et al., 2015; Phuong et al., 2021;
Sarijan et al., 2021; Waller et al., 2017; Zeri et al., 2021).
A significant amount of plastic has been produced and
disposed of in Asia. It has been reported that 15% of
the total solid waste by mass was plastic waste in Asia,
and half of this amount reach the ocean from
land-based sources, contributing to global MPs issues
(Alegado et al., 2021). Indeed, studies conducted in
ASEAN countries found large amounts of MPs in rivers
(Lahens et al., 2018; Sarijan et al., 2021). Studies found
that synthetic materials have become the dominant
clothing material in recent times, and during the
COVID-19 pandemic, single-use plastics have become
preferred items, implying that, without action, MP
pollution is not likely to be mitigated anytime soon
(Arkin et al., 2019).
2. Occurrences, pathways and impacts of
microplastics on ecosystems and human health
2.1. Occurrence of microplastics in aquatic environments,
particularly rivers
Figure 2. Pathways for microplastics to enter riverine systems and reach oceans
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(Source: UNEP, 2021)
Primary MPs are produced as small synthetic raw
materials for abrasive components in PCPs including
cosmetics and toothpaste as well as industrial raw
materials. Microfibers are particles from synthetic
textiles such as polyester, acrylic and nylon, which are
shed when clothes are washed, and enter freshwater
systems. Secondary MPs are generated due to the
fragmentation of larger plastic pieces that are used for
activities such as food packaging, beverage bottles,
industrial materials, household goods, synthetic fibres,
and many others (Hann et al., 2018; Lim, 2021; Sundt et
al., 2014). These MPs are thought to reach the ocean
by falling from the air (atmospheric fall-out), being
swept away by rain (run-off), or draining into ditches
and rivers (Dris et al., 2016). Septic tank systems and
WWTPs are also found to be major sources of MPs
(Leslie et al., 2017; Miller et al., 2017).
Once plastics enter the environment, they move within
a compartment or move between compartments by
various means (Figure 3 illustrates the major
compartments and exposure pathways of MPs).
Simultaneously degradation causes plastic to break
into smaller components. Due to its longer half-life, the
longevity of plastic is estimated to be hundreds to
thousands of years. Hence, complete breakdown and
removal from systems takes hundreds of years (Barnes
et al., 2009). Human exposure pathways are mostly
associated with inhalation, ingestion through drinking
water, food web-associated ingestion, and dermal
intake, and MPs will eventually reach the intestines
(Prata et al., 2020). Thus, the absorption of harmful
substances is a great concern (Ahechti et al., 2020; Fu
et al., 2021).
2.2. Major sources, fate and human exposure pathways of MPs
Figure 3. Fate of plastics and human exposure pathways (modified from Abeynayaka & Itsubo, 2019; Abeynayaka, 2021)
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Currently, studies on MPs mainly investigate the
occurrence, distribution and ingestion by biota, as well
as analysis of physical morphologies in the aquatic
ecosystems. The adverse effects of plastic litter in
ecosystems have been widely discussed in existing
literature (Bellasi et al., 2020; Horton et al., 2018).
Plastic contaminants in freshwater are a threat to
ecosystems as well as a potential health hazard to
humans (Jemec et al., 2016; Redondo-Hasselerharm et
al., 2018; Su et al., 2018).
Microplastics can be ingested by plankton at the
bottom of the aquatic food chain allowing plastics to
move to the next level of the chain, eventually affecting
humans. Transparent microplastics along the Surabaya
River in Indonesia, for instance, make it more
susceptible to ingestion by aquatic biota as it is similar
in colour to original prey (Lestari, et.al., 2020). The
presence of anthropogenic plastic debris in fish and
shellfish was found in grocery markets in Indonesia,
indicating that plastics have already infiltrated marine
food webs via sea products (Rochman et al., 2015).
A study on potential microplastics in fish from the
Surabaya River showed that microplastics were found
in 72% of fish samples (103 Surabaya fish samples from
9 species of fish) (Kristanto, 2018). In addition, the
herbivorous and polyphagous fish groups had the
highest incidence of microplastics, occurring in 67%
-100% of the studied fish.
In another study carried out by the University of
California, Davis, and Hasanuddin University in
Indonesia, 76 fish samples across 11 different species
were collected from markets in Makassar, Indonesia.
The study revealed that anthropogenic debris (plastic
or fibrous material) was found in 28% of individual fish
(in their guts) and in 55% of all species (Rochman et al.,
2015). In another study conducted in Japan,
microplastics were detected in the digestive tracts of
49 out of 64 Japanese anchovies (Engraulis Japonicus),
77% of sampled fishes in Tokyo Bay (Tanaka & Takada,
2016). Among detected microplastics, polyethylene
(PE) and polypropylene (PP) account for 52.0% and
43.3%, respectively. The results from this study also
indicated that most of the detected plastics were
fragments (86.0%), and 7.3% were beads or
microbeads, similar to those found in facial cleansers.
Although the effects of microplastic ingestion on
human health are not fully understood, microplastics
are known to travel through the human digestive tract
and into human organs. In addition, microplastics can
contain toxic contaminants (e.g. bisphenol A, phthalate
plasticizers, carcinogens, polybrominated flame
retardants and heavy metals), which are either derived
from the plastic itself or absorbed from the
surrounding environment. The exposure may cause
cancer, neurological and immune system damage, as
well as having other effects, if the particles themselves
are toxic or if they absorb toxic substances (Arkin et al.,
2019; Smith et al., 2018). Table 1 summarises the
potential human health effects of MPs and associated
chemicals.
A recent study reported that the presence of MPs in
human placentas may lead to adverse pregnancy
outcomes including preeclampsia and fetal growth
restriction (Ragusa et al., 2021). This study observed
the presence of microplastic fragments ranging from 5
to 10 μm in size, with spheric or irregular shape in
placentas (5 in the fetal side, 4 in the maternal side and
3 in the chorioamniotic membranes), which are
possibly used for manmade coatings, paints, adhesives,
plasters, finger paints, polymers and cosmetics and
personal care products (ibid.).
2.3. Ecosystem and human health risks
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Table 1. Potential human health effects due to exposure to plastic-associated chemicals.
(Source: Nikiema et al., 2020)
It has been reported that between 1.15 and 2.41
million tonnes of plastic debris are being discharged
from rivers into the oceans every year around the
world, with 86% of this debris emanating from Asian
rivers (Lebreton et al., 2017). Rapid economic growth,
changes in urban lifestyles and consumption patterns,
high ratio of poorly managed plastic waste (about 70%
in Asia, based on 2010 data, according to Jambeck et
al. (2015)), and frequent heavy rainfalls in the region
are considered to be major reasons behind high plastic
pollution in oceans, generating from Asia. It has been
reported that the top 20 rivers polluted with plastic
debris were mostly located in Asia (with seven rivers
located in ASEAN countries), accounting for more than
two-thirds (67%) of the global annual plastic input
(Lebreton et al., 2017). Rivers are considered to be one
of the major pathways for land-based plastic waste,
mainly coming from single-use plastic items. The waste
reaches the world’ s oceans (Schmidt et al., 2017), and
it is further broken down into microplastics after 20 to
hundreds of years, causing a threat to biodiversity
(Barra & Leonard, 2018; Sarkar et al., 2021). Figure 4
shows examples of the time it takes for some typical
single-use plastic items to decompose. In light of the
this, it is important to further investigate the fate and
flow mechanisms of MPs in the riverine system to
design a robust management system.
3. Status of riverine microplastic pollution in ASEAN
countries
3.1. Why do we need to focus on riverine microplastics?
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Brain/Nervous system
Potential human health impacts
Neuro-developmental disorders (Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Autism, Neurobehavioral, IQ, Cognition
Metabolic diseases Type 2 diabetes, childhood obesity; increased waist circumference; serum lipid
levels, e.g. total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol
Pregnancy outcomes -
offspring
Affected organs
(or potential health issues)
Gestational length; birth weight; delayed pubertal timing; genital structure
(ano-genital distance); and pubertal onset
Reproductive system
Polycystic ovarian syndrome, Endometriosis, Male sub-fertility, Reduced sperm
quality, Delayed time to pregnancy, Abnormal PAP smears, Pregnancy-induced
hypertension, and/or pre-eclampsia
Thyroid Hormonal (Thyroid disease, Thyroid cancer)
Respiratory system Asthma
Heart Cardiovascular disease
Antibody responses Decreased antibody response to vaccines
The management of plastic waste on land is of utmost
importance; however, MPs, particularly secondary MPs,
are found in the effluent from WWTPs (Liu et al., 2020;
Zeri et al., 2021). The literature suggeted that advanced
wastewater treatment technologies, which include
tertiary treatment processes (e.g. membrane bioreactor
(MBR), sand filtration, etc.) could remove most MPs
with removal efficiency of between 89.17 % and 97.15
%. Moreover, MPs removed at WWTPs were white
colour microfibres, 0.1 – 0.5 mm in size (Xu et al., 2019).
These MPs were rayon, polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE),
polystyrene (PS) and PE-PP from laundry and industry,
and were mainly found in samples of influent and
sludge at WWTP, but also found in the effluent (Lee &
Kim, 2018).
MPs have also been found in raw and treated water at
two water treatment plants in Indonesia, with a
concentration of 26.8-35 and 8.5-12.3 particles/L,
respectively. The MPs were made up of 93-95% fibre in
the raw water, and 84-100% fibre in the treated water.
The MPs dominant size in the raw and treated water
was 351-1,000 μm, with percentages of 45-50% and
36-69%, respectively. The dominant polymer types of
MPs in the raw water were PE, PP, and LDPE. The water
treatment plants I and II had a total MP removal
efficiency of 54% and 76%, respectively
(Radityaningrum et al., 2021).
3.2. Detection of microplastics in river water, raw and treated
water/wastewater samples
It is reported that there were between 15 and 51 rillion
microplastic particles floating in surface waters around
the world in 2015 (Lim, 2021). Since these particles
travel between the sea and land, people may be
ingesting plastic from everywhere (ibid.). Reports on
ASEAN countries have shown that the Ciwalangke,
Surabaya and Citarum Rivers in Indonesia, the Chao
Phraya River in Thailand, and the Cherating River in
Malaysia are hotspots for MP pollution (R. Kumar et al.,
2021). Besides these major rivers, MPs were also
detected in canals and tributaries in Viet Nam (Lahens
et al., 2018). In the Philippines, the abundance of MPs
in five major river mouths namely the Cañas,
Meycauayan, Parañaque, Pasig, and Tullahan rivers
draining into Manila Bay varied from 1,580–57,665
particles/m3 in surface waters and 514–1, 357
particles/kg in dry sediments (Osorio et al., 2021).
Plastic fragments are the most dominant form across
all samples taken from these rivers. This may be
attributed to indiscriminate waste dumping and
mismanaged plastic waste as evidenced by the amount
of macroplastics observed during sampling. Plastic film
was also significantly abundant in all samples especially
in the Cañas and Pasig Rivers as the mouths of these
two rivers were surrounded by large residential
settlements, where direct littering and rampant
garbage dumping were observed. Most film was
detected as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) (ibid.).
Despite the significant addition by ASEAN countries to
plastic pollution in the oceans, there are still not many
detailed studies about status quo of MPs in different
riverine systems (Alegado et al., 2021). Furthermore,
most of the existing studies investigated occurrence,
distribution and morphologies, whereas it is the exact
fate of MPs from source to ocean that needs further
investigation.
Figure 4. Time required for decomposing single-use plastic items (Source: Rhodes, 2018; Stanes & Gibson, 2017; WWF, 2021)
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3.3. Technologies for the removal of MPs at wastewater treatment
plants
Due to their low density and small particle size,
microplastics are easily discharged into the wastewater
drainage systems. Therefore, municipal wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs) have been shown to be the
main recipients of MPs before they are discharged into
natural water environments (Ngo et al., 2019).
Consequently, it is important to develop appropriate
wastewater treatment technologies to reduce MP
leakages from WWTPs to nearby aquatic environments.
Although the literature indicates that advanced WWTPs
could efficiently remove MPs, it is a fact that WWTPs in
operations are not necessarily advanced. Moreover, not
many households in the ASEAN region are connected
to centralised sewage treatment plants, indicating the
possibility of more MPs leaking from human activities
directly to freshwater and marine environments.
Neither centralised and decentralised wastewater
treatment systems are specifically designed to remove
MPs, but they do remove other organic and inorganic
pollutants. Therefore, it is vital to take this fact into
account in the design and installation of new or
modified wastewater treatment technologies in the
near future. In the case of centralised WWT systems,
Figure 5 shows how efficiently microplastics can be
removed from various treatment processes, if the
wastewater treatment facility is operated properly
(Nikiema et al., 2020). These results provide a rough
understanding of the removal efficiency of
microplastics by different treatment processes and may
serve as a basis for developing new or appropriate
technologies to remove MPs from effluent at WWTPs.
The literature investigating MP removal from
decentralised wastewater treatment systems is limited.
Decentralised WWTPs are the major method for water
treatement in the ASEAN region, so it is essential to
study MP removal in decentralised systems in order to
to reduce MPs in the riverine system.
The management of plastic waste on land is of utmost
importance; however, MPs, particularly secondary MPs,
are found in the effluent from WWTPs (Liu et al., 2020;
Zeri et al., 2021). The literature suggeted that advanced
wastewater treatment technologies, which include
tertiary treatment processes (e.g. membrane bioreactor
(MBR), sand filtration, etc.) could remove most MPs
with removal efficiency of between 89.17 % and 97.15
%. Moreover, MPs removed at WWTPs were white
colour microfibres, 0.1 – 0.5 mm in size (Xu et al., 2019).
These MPs were rayon, polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE),
polystyrene (PS) and PE-PP from laundry and industry,
and were mainly found in samples of influent and
sludge at WWTP, but also found in the effluent (Lee &
Kim, 2018).
MPs have also been found in raw and treated water at
two water treatment plants in Indonesia, with a
concentration of 26.8-35 and 8.5-12.3 particles/L,
respectively. The MPs were made up of 93-95% fibre in
the raw water, and 84-100% fibre in the treated water.
The MPs dominant size in the raw and treated water
was 351-1,000 μm, with percentages of 45-50% and
36-69%, respectively. The dominant polymer types of
MPs in the raw water were PE, PP, and LDPE. The water
treatment plants I and II had a total MP removal
efficiency of 54% and 76%, respectively
(Radityaningrum et al., 2021).
It is reported that there were between 15 and 51 rillion
microplastic particles floating in surface waters around
the world in 2015 (Lim, 2021). Since these particles
travel between the sea and land, people may be
ingesting plastic from everywhere (ibid.). Reports on
ASEAN countries have shown that the Ciwalangke,
Surabaya and Citarum Rivers in Indonesia, the Chao
Phraya River in Thailand, and the Cherating River in
Malaysia are hotspots for MP pollution (R. Kumar et al.,
2021). Besides these major rivers, MPs were also
detected in canals and tributaries in Viet Nam (Lahens
et al., 2018). In the Philippines, the abundance of MPs
in five major river mouths namely the Cañas,
Meycauayan, Parañaque, Pasig, and Tullahan rivers
draining into Manila Bay varied from 1,580–57,665
particles/m3 in surface waters and 514–1, 357
particles/kg in dry sediments (Osorio et al., 2021).
Plastic fragments are the most dominant form across
all samples taken from these rivers. This may be
attributed to indiscriminate waste dumping and
mismanaged plastic waste as evidenced by the amount
of macroplastics observed during sampling. Plastic film
was also significantly abundant in all samples especially
in the Cañas and Pasig Rivers as the mouths of these
two rivers were surrounded by large residential
settlements, where direct littering and rampant
garbage dumping were observed. Most film was
detected as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) (ibid.).
Despite the significant addition by ASEAN countries to
plastic pollution in the oceans, there are still not many
detailed studies about status quo of MPs in different
riverine systems (Alegado et al., 2021). Furthermore,
most of the existing studies investigated occurrence,
distribution and morphologies, whereas it is the exact
fate of MPs from source to ocean that needs further
investigation.
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October 2018, the Government of Malaysia released its
Roadmap to Eliminate Single-use Plastics 2018 - 2030,
announcing a policy to eliminate plastic straws and
plastic bags by 2030. In Thailand, the Government
announced a Roadmap on Plastic Waste Management
2018-2030, with the aim of reducing and halting the use
of plastic and replacing it with environmentally-friendly
materials. Accordingly, three plastic products, including
plastic cap seals for water bottles, oxo-degradable
plastics and plastic microbeads, would be banned in
Thailand. The use of four other types of plastic,
including plastic bags less than 36 microns in thickness,
styrofoam food boxes, plastic straws and single-use
plastic cups, will stop by 2022. By 2027, 100% of plastic
waste will be reusable.
Similarly, in Indonesia, the Phipppines and Viet Nam,
many actions have been taken by both central and local
governments to reduce plastic pollution, addressing
both macro and microplastics pollution in aquatic
environments.
Rapid urbanisation, economic growth and significant
changes in production and consumption patterns have
contributed to the growing problem of riverine and
marine plastic litter as well as microplastics, not only at
national level but also at the regional level in ASEAN.
Since ASEAN Member States (AMS) are connected by
oceans and rivers (e.g. Mekong River), it is necessary to
establish regional and national policies in concordance
with neighbouring countries’ policies. Moreover, due to
the transboundary nature of plastic litter issues, any
single country solution will not be sufficient. There is a
strong need for regional collective efforts, strong
commitments from AMS, and new initiatives with
adequate funding mechanisms to be implemented
through region-wide collaborations.
Consequently, AMS formalised their commitment in
June 2018 to combating marine debris through the
adoption of the Bangkok Declaration on Combating
Marine Debris in ASEAN Region, and subsequently, the
ASEAN Framework of Action on Marine Debris, which
highlights the need for regional and national actions
with four key pillars, namely (i) policy support and
planning; (ii) research, innovation and capacity building;
(iii) public awareness, education and outreach; and (iv)
private sector engagement. In May 2020, AMS also
launched the ASEAN Regional Action Plan for
Combating Marine Debris in the ASEAN Member States,
which emphasised the need to address microplastic
pollution in the region.
At national and city level, great efforts are also
underway to tackle both riverine and marine plastic
pollution, with special attention on regulating or
planning for the elimination of single-use plastic
products and plastic packaging. For example, in
4. ASEAN national and regional frameworks for
tackling plastic pollution
Detecting smaller MPs is a challenge. Fibres are found
to be one of the major MPs in rivers as well as in
WWTPs (Bujaczek et al., 2021; Uurasjärvi et al., 2020),
but sampling and lab analysis of MPs below 100 µm
are not easily done, thus recent studies highlighted the
possibility of underestimating the concentration of
MPs in WWTP effluents (Ben-David et al., 2021;
Abeynayaka at el., 2020). Establishing a practical
sampling and analysis method for the smaller particles
is also needed.
Figure 5. Average microplastics flow in both liquid and sludge across different treatment processes within a wastewater
treatment plant (Source: Nikiema et al., 2020)
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For effective implementation of the ASEAN Framework
of Action on Marine Debris and the the ASEAN
Regional Action Plan for Combating Marine Debris,
there is a need for strong political will from all AMS to
solve the issue. It is said that “Prevention is always
better than cleaning up” , considering time and
resources spent on a solution. Moreover, it is crucial to
address various issues along the plastic value chain
through the circular economy approach, from raw
material extraction, design, production, distribution,
excessive plastic consumption (especially single use
plastic products), collection/reuse/repair, to the
recycling stage. These stages are all essential to solve
this national, regional and global issue.
It is widely well-recognised that private financing can
play a major role in providing not only financial but
also operational solutions to these challenges (e.g.
research on plastic alternatives, materials and product
design, and business model innovation). This can
gradually complement public sector investments to
reduce the use of plastics, increase recycling, and
promote a circular economy (The World Bank, 2021).
Meanwhile, it is expected that the scientific community
will provide sufficient scientific evidence that supports
policymakers in developing effective measures and
evidence-based policies.
Furthermore, the following are recommended actions
for all ASEAN countries to take, based on the findings
from this paper, for establishing an MP-free water
environment.
• Install and optimise the performance of wastewater
treatment facilities in ASEAN countries
• Strictly control the discharge of wastewater
containing microplastics into aquatic environments
• Develop national quality standards related to
microplastics pollutants (standards for both effluent
and drinking water)
• Properly manage plastic waste to avoid leakage into
the water environment by improving municipal solid
waste collection, treatment and management
services
• Reduce the use of single-use plastic products and
replace them with alternative products
• Introduce an appropriate policy approach of
Extended Producer Responsibility to mitigate MP
pollution, especially in aquatic environments.
• Identifying alternative solutions to reduce leakages
of MP from textiles, personal care products, and
tire-wear particles emissions
5. The Way Forward
October 2018, the Government of Malaysia released its
Roadmap to Eliminate Single-use Plastics 2018 - 2030,
announcing a policy to eliminate plastic straws and
plastic bags by 2030. In Thailand, the Government
announced a Roadmap on Plastic Waste Management
2018-2030, with the aim of reducing and halting the use
of plastic and replacing it with environmentally-friendly
materials. Accordingly, three plastic products, including
plastic cap seals for water bottles, oxo-degradable
plastics and plastic microbeads, would be banned in
Thailand. The use of four other types of plastic,
including plastic bags less than 36 microns in thickness,
styrofoam food boxes, plastic straws and single-use
plastic cups, will stop by 2022. By 2027, 100% of plastic
waste will be reusable.
Similarly, in Indonesia, the Phipppines and Viet Nam,
many actions have been taken by both central and local
governments to reduce plastic pollution, addressing
both macro and microplastics pollution in aquatic
environments.
Rapid urbanisation, economic growth and significant
changes in production and consumption patterns have
contributed to the growing problem of riverine and
marine plastic litter as well as microplastics, not only at
national level but also at the regional level in ASEAN.
Since ASEAN Member States (AMS) are connected by
oceans and rivers (e.g. Mekong River), it is necessary to
establish regional and national policies in concordance
with neighbouring countries’ policies. Moreover, due to
the transboundary nature of plastic litter issues, any
single country solution will not be sufficient. There is a
strong need for regional collective efforts, strong
commitments from AMS, and new initiatives with
adequate funding mechanisms to be implemented
through region-wide collaborations.
Consequently, AMS formalised their commitment in
June 2018 to combating marine debris through the
adoption of the Bangkok Declaration on Combating
Marine Debris in ASEAN Region, and subsequently, the
ASEAN Framework of Action on Marine Debris, which
highlights the need for regional and national actions
with four key pillars, namely (i) policy support and
planning; (ii) research, innovation and capacity building;
(iii) public awareness, education and outreach; and (iv)
private sector engagement. In May 2020, AMS also
launched the ASEAN Regional Action Plan for
Combating Marine Debris in the ASEAN Member States,
which emphasised the need to address microplastic
pollution in the region.
At national and city level, great efforts are also
underway to tackle both riverine and marine plastic
pollution, with special attention on regulating or
planning for the elimination of single-use plastic
products and plastic packaging. For example, in
- 11 -
RIVERINE MICROPLASTIC POLLUTION IN ASEAN COUNTRIES - CURRENT STATE OF KNOWLEDGE -
ISAP2021 / Thematic Track 11 / https://isap.iges.or.jp/2021/en/t11.html
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