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Make it real: Simulation of 3D molecules using Augmented Reality in chemical bonding topic

DOI:10.1088/1742-6596/1402/5/055058
Authors:
Ella Fitriani at Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
Ella Fitriani
  • Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jakarta, Indonesia
S Suhartono
S Suhartono
S Suhartono
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
I Mugiarti
I Mugiarti
I Mugiarti
  • This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.
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Abstract and Figures

The chemical bonding is one of the crucial topics in chemistry as it becomes a basic concept to comprehend other topics. Unfortunately, it is difficult for students to understand because it is at the submicroscopic level. This study proposes a way to comprehend that topic by developing a simulation of 3D molecules using Augmented Reality (AR). The data was collected by questionnaire. This study was used ADDIE procedure to develop the product. From the results of this study, it can be concluded that the Augmented Reality learning media has a very good quality and is worthy of being used as a supporting media in chemical learning activities in the chemical bond topic.
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Journal of Physics: Conference Series
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Make it real: Simulation of 3D molecules using
Augmented Reality in chemical bonding topic
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4th Annual Applied Science and Engineering Conference
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1402 (2019) 055058
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1402/5/055058
1
Make it real: Simulation of 3D molecules using Augmented
Reality in chemical bonding topic
E Fitriani*, S Suhartono and I Mugiarti
Chemistry Education Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences,
Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Jalan Rawamangun Muka 13220, Jakarta, Indonesia
*ella.fitriani@unj.ac.id
Abstract. The chemical bonding is one of the crucial topics in chemistry as it becomes a basic
concept to comprehend other topics. Unfortunately, it is difficult for students to understand
because it is at the submicroscopic level. This study proposes a way to comprehend that topic by
developing a simulation of 3D molecules using Augmented Reality (AR). The data was collected
by questionnaire. This study was used ADDIE procedure to develop the product. From the results
of this study, it can be concluded that the Augmented Reality learning media has a very good
quality and is worthy of being used as a supporting media in chemical learning activities in the
chemical bond topic.
1. Introduction
Chemistry cannot be separated from three levels of representation, namely macroscopic,
submicroscopic, and symbolic [1]. One of the most difficult for chemistry learners' is linking between
the macroscopic world that they can see with the submicroscopic world [2]. Some basic concepts of
chemistry are at the submicroscopic level, one of them is the chemical bonding material. Chemical bonds
are one of the crucial and important material to be understood by students [3, 4]. a misconception of the
basic concepts (i.e. chemical bonding) learned in secondary schools will carry over to the university
level or further learning of chemistry [5, 6]. There have been immensely numerous researches carried
out starting from the identification of students' difficulties [7] to the ability of teachers in delivering
material [3], yet up to now misconceptions in learning chemistry, especially the topic of chemical bonds
are still occurred [8].
In Indonesia, Augmented Reality is actually not a new technology, but its name is sticking out today
when the Pokemon Go game exploded on the market. The use of Augmented Reality in Indonesia is
currently more in the field of entertainment and games. Meanwhile, in other countries, Augmented
Reality is also used in the field of research and development as a learning media. For instance, in India,
Augmented Reality in chemistry learning, students can understand the spatial relationship between
molecules in 3 dimensions efficiently [9]. In addition, Augmented Reality has a significant additional
learning effect as a computer-assisted learning tool and is considered more effective for low achievers
than high achievers [10]. However, in Indonesia, there is still not sufficient research and development
on Augmented Reality in the field of education. The development of Augmented Reality is thriving in
the field of education, especially at the university level on the topic of molecular [11]. Moreover,
learning chemistry using animation at the submicroscopic level can identify misconceptions and provide
students better understanding than learning only on paper [12]. The purpose of this study is to design
4th Annual Applied Science and Engineering Conference
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1402 (2019) 055058
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1402/5/055058
2
and develop the Augmented Reality learning media on chemical bonding material for 10-grade students.
The research questions were addressed in this paper were: (1) What are the challenges in chemical
bonding material for 10-grade students? (2) How to develop the Augmented Reality learning media on
chemical bonding material for 10-grade students? (3) How is the feasibility of the Augmented Reality
learning media developed based on experts, teachers and students assessment?
2. Methodology
2.1. Participant
This study involved 3 material and language experts, 3 media experts, 50 students, and 3 teachers. The
experts are lecturers at Universitas Negeri Jakarta. While teachers and students are from two public
schools in Jakarta as the users of the Augmented Reality learning media.
2.2. Instrument and procedure
This study employed a survey research design [13]. The research team used paper-based questionnaires
which has Likert-type scale to collect the data from participants. There are four types of questionnaires;
First, a questionnaire for students at the beginning of the research to find out the challenges in learning
chemical bonds material for 10-grade students. Second, there are three other questionnaires for experts,
teachers, and students to assess the Augmented Reality learning media feasibility.
The steps for developing Augmented Reality learning media on chemical bonding materials include
five steps of the ADDIE model, which are analysing, designing, developing, implementing, and
evaluating stages [14, 15]. At the analysis stage in this study, involvingneeds analysis, curriculum
analysis and analysis of the characteristics of students. This is to find out the problems that occur in
learning chemistry, particularly on chemical bond material. The results of the analysis phase serve as
the basis for making Augmented Reality learning media. at the designing stage do compiling material,
making a flowchart, and making storyboards. In addition, at this stage, a research instrument was also
developed for the feasibility assessment of the Augmented Reality learning media developed. At the
stage of development, flowchart, material, storyboards that have been compiledwere embedded into
media. To develop Augmented Reality learning media, Unity3D 2017.3.0f3 software is used as the main
software, while Microsoft PowerPoint 2010, the 2015 Adobe Illustrator CC and Adobe Photoshop CS4
as supporting software. In the design and development stages, evaluations were also carried out by
experts, so that the developed media received corrections and inputs to correct a misconception in
learning. In the implementation stage, learning media were declared worthy of trial by material and
language expert lecturers and media expert lecturers, tested to students in two different schools and one
chemistry teacher. Furthermore, at the evaluation stage, formative evaluation is carried out, because this
type of evaluation relates to the stages of development research to improve the products produced. The
evaluation was carried out at each stage of development by researchers with the aid of experts. The
evaluation is in the form of input and revision at the each stage of design and development.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. The challenges in learning chemical bonding material for 10-grade students
Needs analysis is done by distributing questionnaires to 33 10-grade students in one of the public high
schools in Jakarta who has studied chemical bonding material. In addition, a questionnaire was also
given to two chemistry teachers. The result is that 54.5% of students stated that chemical bonding
material is a difficult material. According to students, the difficulty of the chemical bond material is
determining the type of chemical bond that occurs, because these chemical bonds are abstract material
and extremely full of memorization. The alternative used by students to overcome the difficulties of
understanding chemical bonding material is by multiplying reading books, increasing practice questions,
utilizing smartphones as a source of learning and watching learning videos. This is similar to what the
4th Annual Applied Science and Engineering Conference
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1402 (2019) 055058
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1402/5/055058
3
teacher said that chemical bonding material is difficult because the material is extremely abstract for
students.
3.2. Design and develop the Augmented Reality learning media
At this stage, chemical bond material is produced which will be inserted in Augmented Reality learning
media. In addition, a complete picture of the media that will be created is produced at this stage. Starting
from the display design, image, animation, video, features, and flow of media usage. At this stage, media
assessment questionnaires were produced which was validated by experts.
3.3. The feasibility of the Augmented Reality learning media developed
3.3.1. The Augmented Reality learning media assessment by the experts. Based on the results of media
validation conducted by three chemistry lecturers, learning media were declared valid with revisions
according to their input and suggestions. Data from the feasibility test questionnaire by material and
language expert lecturers are presented in table 1.
Table 1. Feasibility test results by material and language experts.
No
Aspect
Items
Average Percentage
1
Content validity
1, 2 and 3
89%
2
Concept conformity
4 and 5
88%
3
Language compatibility
6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12
90%
Overall Average Media Rating
89%
In addition, validation was carried out by media experts. Based on the results of media validation,
Augmented Reality learning media is declared valid with revisions according to input and suggestions.
Revised aspects, particularly in terms of media design. Data from the feasibility test questionnaire by
media expert lecturers are presented in table 2.
Table 2. Feasibility test results by media experts.
No
Aspect
Item(s)
Average Percentage
Criteria
1
Easy to see
1, 2, 3 and 4
90%
Very good
2
Attractive
5 and 6
96%
Very good
3
Simple
7 and 8
100%
Very good
4
Usefulness
9
100%
Very good
5
Valid and can be accounted for
10, 11 and 12
94%
Very good
6
Design
13, 14, 15 and 16
96%
Very good
Overall Average Media Rating
96%
Very good
3.3.2. The Augmented Reality learning media assessment by the teachers. Based on the results of
teacher assessment in table 3, it can be seen that the average assessment of the Augmented Reality
learning media as a whole is 90% with very good criteria indicating that the teacher can accept the use
of Augmented Reality learning media as a learning medium that can support chemistry learning on
chemical bonding topic.
Table 3. Feasibility test results by the teachers.
No
Aspect
Item(s)
Average Percentage
Criteria
1
Content validity
1, 2 and 3
92%
Very good
2
Concept conformity
4 and 5
88%
Very good
3
Easy to see
6, 7 and 8
86%
Very good
4
Attractive
9 and 10
96%
Very good
5
Simple
11 and 12
92%
Very good
6
Usefulness
13
92%
Very good
7
Valid and can be accounted for
14, 15 and 16
89%
Very good
8
Design
17, 18, 19 and 20
85%
Very good
Overall Average Media Rating
90%
Very good
4th Annual Applied Science and Engineering Conference
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1402 (2019) 055058
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1402/5/055058
4
3.3.3. The Augmented Reality learning media assessment by the students. After the media is validated
by experts and teachers, the media is tested on students to find out whether Augmented Reality learning
media can be used by students to support their understanding of chemical bonding topic. The results of
the test produced an average percentage in each aspect worth 90% which can be seen in table 4. The
data shows that the media developed is very good and can be used to support the learning process on the
chemical bonding topic.
Table 4. Feasibility test results by the students.
No
Aspect
Item(s)
Average Percentage
Criteria
1
Content validity
1 and 2
91%
Very good
2
Easy to see
3,4,5 and 6
92%
Very good
3
Attractive
7 and 8
91%
Very good
4
Simple
9, 10, 11 and 12
88%
Very good
5
Design
13, 14, 15 and 16
89%
Very good
Overall Average Media Rating
90%
Very good
The following figures are the final results of Augmented Reality media that have been developed based
on the assessment and suggestions of experts, teachers, and students which can be seen in figure 1-4,
including: screenshot of display on the loading menu (figure 1), display on the application’s main menu
(figure 2), display starts the AR camera (figure 3), and simulation of 3D molecules on ionic bonds (figure
4).
Figure 1. Display on the loading menu.
Figure 2. Display on the application's main
menu.
Figure 3. The display starts the AR camera.
Figure 4. Display simulation of 3D molecules on
ionic bonds.
4. Conclusion
Based on the results of the research described above, the Augmented Reality learning media developed
has a good quality, viewed from the results of the appraisal by material and language experts as well as
appraisal by media experts and trials conducted on teachers and students. Thus, it can be concluded that
4th Annual Applied Science and Engineering Conference
Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1402 (2019) 055058
IOP Publishing
doi:10.1088/1742-6596/1402/5/055058
5
this study produced Augmented Reality learning media on the material of chemical bonds that are
worthy for being used as learning media to support the chemistry learning process.
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One of the learning media that needs to be developed is Macromedia Flash-based learning media the purpose of this study was to develop mathematics learning media in the form of a Macromedia application in solid Geometry for fifth-grade students of SDN Paseban 01 Pagi. The development research method used is Research and Development (R&D), with the ADDIE development model. At the analysis stage, a problem analysis and needs analysis are carried out. At the design stage, an initial design is made which is then validated by material experts and media experts. At the implementation stage, the design of instructional media was tested on 24 students of SDN Paseban 01 Pagi. The evaluation stage aims to analyze expert validation data and student trials. The data collected using the observation method were qualitatively analyzed. The validation data were then evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively in summary. The results showed that Macromedia flashed on space building materials that had been developed based on expert media assessments in terms of display feasibility 85% with highly viable categories, 83% writing learning design with highly feasible categories, engineering and software aspects with highly feasible categories so that the overall assessment of 83% with categories was very feasible. Material expert assessment in terms of feasibility of displaying 90% material with very decent category, 93% learning media utilization aspect with very decent category, quiz aspect 90% with the category is very feasible so overall assessment 91% with the category is very feasible. The trial of the learners was obtained as a result of the 84% display feasibility aspect with a very decent category, the presentation aspect of the material 81% with a very decent category, the aspect to the engineering and software appeal 83% with the category is very feasible so the overall assessment of 83% with the category is very feasible. Based on the results of this acquisition, it can be concluded that the Macromedia Flash application on spatial geometry material is very suitable for use as a learning medium in mathematics subjects.
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... The questionnaire in this study was divided into four types, namely (1) validation test instruments by media experts, (2) validation test instruments by material experts, (3) product feasibility tests for grade IV teachers, and (4) product feasibility tests for users or grade IV students. This study adapted the ADDIE development model with five steps (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation) [17]. ...
Analytical Effectiveness using Adobe Flash in Learning Energy Source at Primary School
Article
Full-text available
  • Feb 2021
Information and communication technology in today’s world is developing so rapidly and bringing changes to all fields, especially in education. Learning innovations in education are carried out by teachers and students to get a fair learning process. This study aimed to determine the results of student acceptance in using interactive learning media using adobe flash on the energy source material used in the learning process in grade IV primary school. The research method used was quantitative methods with survey techniques and ADDIE development models. The initial stage of the media’s validity and feasibility test was carried out by three media experts, three material experts, and 5 class teachers from five different region schools. The number of samples in this study was 156 students from five different region schools. Data were taken using a questionnaire with a Likert scale of 1 to 5. Based on the data obtained, it showed the following values: (1) the average media expert test is (90.56%) including the criteria “Very Valid,” (2) the average material expert test score is (83.65%) including the criteria of “Very Valid,” (3) the average value of the product feasibility trial to grade IV teachers is (92%) including the “Very Valid,” and (4) the average value of product feasibility trials to users or grade IV students is (85.55%) including the criteria of “Very Good.” The conclusion was that interactive learning media using adobe flash on energy sources is very feasible and very well used in theme 9, “Kayanya Negeriku,” focusing on science lessons on energy sources in grade IV motivates students in learning. For the next research, the development model can be done in the future.
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Pengembangan Modul Berbasis Multipel Representasi dengan Bantuan Teknologi Augmented Reality untuk Membantu Siswa Memahami Konsep Ikatan Kimia
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  • Dec 2021
A good understanding of the three levels of chemical representations is required to understand the concepts of chemical bonding. However, most students are difficult to understand chemical bonding topics due to the abstract concepts and the learning resources used don’t fully integrate the three levels of chemical representations. Therefore, learning resources that cover all of the chemical representations and visualize the abstract concepts are needed. The purpose of this study is to determine the level of validity and responses of teachers and students to the developed chemical bonding module based on multiple representations assisted by AR technology. This type of research is research and development that refers to the ADDIE instructional design model. The instrument used in this research is the sheet of validity and the response questionnaire. The collected data were analyzed using percentage analysis techniques. The product of this research is a chemical bond module based on multiple representations and an augmented reality chemistry simulator of chemical bonding application. The results of the expert's validation show that the average percentage of content, media, and language validity respectively are 99, 95, and 97% with very valid criteria, so that it can be used in the learning process. In addition, teachers and students gave a very good response to the product with a percentage of 90 and 87% consecutively. These findings indicate that the modules assisted by AR technology could support the chemistry teachers to explain the chemical bonding topic and help students visualize the abstract concepts of chemical bonds
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Augmented Reality (AR) Technology on The Android Operating System in Chemistry Learning
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  • Jan 2018
Augmented Reality (AR) is considered one of the most sophisticated technologies in virtual reality research and effective as a learning medium especially in chemistry. This study was aimed to describe the stages of AR manufacture technology-based learning media on the molecular geometry. The Research and Development had produced products in the form of AR technology-based learning media on the concept of molecular geometry. The stages of the research were carried out by design development and making the application on Android operating system and analyzing the results of a limited trial. This study shows that the manufacture of AR-based learning media on this android system has the potential to be applied to the learning of chemistry especially on molecular geometry subject.
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Reconsidering learning difficulties and misconceptions in chemistry: Emergence in chemistry and its implications for chemical education
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Identifying students’ misconceptions and learning difficulties, and finding effective ways of addressing them has been one of the major concerns in chemistry education. However, the chemistry education community has paid little attention to determining discipline-specific aspects of chemistry that can lead to learning difficulties and misconceptions. In this article, it is argued that emergence plays a critical role in the epistemology and the ontology of chemistry and hence it should be taken into account for understanding learning difficulties and finding ways of addressing them in chemistry. It is particularly argued that one of the fundamental source of learning difficulties and chemical misconceptions is learners’ failure to understand the emergent nature of chemical entities, their properties, and interactions. In the article, an interpretive analysis framework is suggested for identifying specific learning demands and the sources of learners’ misconceptions about the emergent chemical properties and phenomena. Findings from previous research on learners’ misconceptions regarding emergent chemical properties are reanalyzed and interpreted through this framework. Inadequacies of typical teaching practices and their consequences are discussed from an emergentist perspective. Finally, implications of the emergentist perspective for more meaningful chemical education are discussed.
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Augmented Chemistry: Interactive Education System
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  • Jul 2012
Current knowledge delivery methods in education should move away from memory based learning to more motivated and creative education. This paper will emphasize on the advantages tangible interaction can bring to education. Augmented Chemistry provides an efficient way for designing and interacting with the molecules to understand the spatial relations between molecules. For Students it is very informative to see actual molecules representation 3D environment, inspect molecules from multiple viewpoints and control the interaction of molecules.We present in this paper an Augmented Reality system for teaching spatial relationships and chemical-reaction problem-solving skills to school-level students based on the VSEPR theory. Our system is based on inexpensive webcams and open-source software. We hope this willgenerate more ideas for educators and researcher to explore Augmented Reality technology in the field of interactive education.
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Prospective pedagogy for teaching chemical bonding for smart and sustainable learning
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As an important subject in the curriculum, many students find chemistry concepts difficult to learn and understand. Chemical bonding especially is important in understanding the compositions of chemical compounds and related concepts and research has shown that students struggle with this concept. In this theoretical paper based on analysis of relevant science education research, textbooks, and our classroom observations and teaching experiences, the authors argue that the difficulty in learning chemical bonding concepts is associated with the sequence (ionic, covalent and polar covalent bonding) in which students are taught because this sequence receives little support from constructivist theories of learning. Consequently, the paper proposes a sequence to teach chemical bonding (covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonding) for effective and sustainable learning. In this sequence, the concepts are developed with minimum reorganisation of previously learned information, using a format which is claimed to be easy for students to learn. For teaching these concepts, the use of electronegativity and the overlap of atomic orbitals for all types of bonding have also been stressed. The proposed sequence and emphasis on electronegativity and atomic orbital overlap meets the criteria for teaching and learning of concepts based on the psychology of learning including the theory of constructivism necessitating the construction of new knowledge using related prior knowledge. It also provides a better linkage between the bonding concepts learned at secondary and tertiary levels. Considering these proposed advantages for teaching, this sequence is recommended for further research into effective and sustainable teaching.
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A case study of Augmented Reality simulation system application in a chemistry course
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The comprehension of micro-worlds has always been the focus and the challenge of chemistry learning. Junior high school students’ imaginative abilities are not yet mature. As a result, they are not able to visualize microstructures correctly during the beginning stage of chemistry learning. This study targeted “the composition of substances” segment of junior high school chemistry classes and, furthermore, involved the design and development of a set of inquiry-based Augmented Reality learning tools. Students could control, combine and interact with a 3D model of micro-particles using markers and conduct a series of inquiry-based experiments. The AR tool was tested in practice at a junior high school in Shenzhen, China. Through data analysis and discussion, we conclude that (a) the AR tool has a significant supplemental learning effect as a computer-assisted learning tool; (b) the AR tool is more effective for low-achieving students than high-achieving ones; (c) students generally have positive attitudes toward this software; and (d) students’ learning attitudes are positively correlated with their evaluation of the software.
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Factors contributing to students’ misconceptions in learning covalent bonds: FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS
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This study aims to identify students’ misconceptions regarding covalent bonds. Seventy-seven graduate students in the middle of Indonesia participated in the study. Data were collected in three stages. First, misconceptions were identified by using the Semi Open Diagnostic Test. Ten students who experienced the worst misconceptions were interviewed. Lastly, textbooks were reviewed. Content analysis was used to analyze the misconception data. We identified eight primary misconceptions, namely: (i) a covalent bond is formed between two atoms with a pair of free electrons; (ii) each atom in a stable molecule must follow the octet rules; (iii) a covalent bond is polar if the electron affinity of two bonded atoms is different; (iv) the form of the molecule depends on the number of atoms bonded to the central atom; (v) nonpolar molecules have a dipole moment µ > 0; (vi) all bonds in polar molecules are polar, while all bonds in non-polar molecules are non-polar; (vii) the number of bonds depends on the electronegativity of the atoms; and (viii) bond length depends on the type of bond. The main causes of student misconceptions are as follows: (i) incomplete information; (ii) difficulty understanding basic concepts regarding covalent bonds; and (iii) lack of effective communication between students and teachers. The results suggested the following implications for teaching: the teacher should identify misconceptions about prior knowledge or concepts prior to teaching the basics, identify reference book learning, and facilitate effective communication so that information received by the student is complete and correct. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 9999:XX–XX, 2016
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Is the oxygen atom static or dynamic? The effect of generating animations on students’ mental models of atomic structure
Article
Visualizing the chemical structure and dynamics of particles has been challenging for many students; therefore, various visualizations and tools have been used in chemistry education. For science educators, it has been important to understand how students visualize and represent particular phenomena – i.e., their mental models– to design more effective learning environments. This study aimed to investigate and compare students' static and dynamic representations of mental models for a fundamental concept of chemistry, atomic structure. Static representations of mental models were expressed as drawings and explanations given on paper, with dynamic ones being generated by using animation-developing software. This mixed-method study was implemented in three parts. A total of 523 10th (N = 277) and 11th (246) grade high school students participated in a workshop where they first learned how to use one of three animation-developing software programs (K-Sketch, Chemsense or Pencil; N = 162, 204, 157, respectively), and then prepared an animation of an oxygen atom using that program. Before and after creating the animation, students were asked to draw the structure of the atom and to storyboard the oxygen atom for three seconds. After students generated their animations they were asked to explain their animations in 2–3 minute interviews (N = 324). The static and dynamic representations of mental models were compared statistically by the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test within each group, and they were compared by the Kruskall Wallis Test between the groups. The results of the analysis showed that in all the groups, a significant difference (p = 0.000) between the initial and final static representations of mental models suggested that students modified their mental models towards a more refined and accurate representation of the atomic structure. Regardless of the software program used, students included significantly more dynamic features (p = 0.000) in their static representations of mental models after generating animations than they did initially. No significant difference (p > 0.05) between any of the features was conveyed in static representations of mental models of students who worked with different software programs. In addition, student-generated animations revealed some misconceptions, such as the movement of the parts of the atom or the atom itself besides electrons, which were not detected on paper.
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Upper Secondary Teachers' Knowledge for Teaching Chemical Bonding Models
Article
  • Feb 2016
Researchers have shown a growing interest in science teachers’ professional knowledge in recent decades. The article focuses on how chemistry teachers impart chemical bonding, one of the most important topics covered in upper secondary school chemistry courses. Chemical bonding is primarily taught using models, which are key for understanding science. However, many studies have determined that the use of models in science education can contribute to students’ difficulties understanding the topic, and that students generally find chemical bonding a challenging topic. The aim of this study is to investigate teachers’ knowledge of teaching chemical bonding. The study focuses on three essential components of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK): (1) the students’ understanding, (2) representations, and (3) instructional strategies. We analyzed lesson plans about chemical bonding generated by 10 chemistry teachers with whom we also conducted semi-structured interviews about their teaching. Our results revealed that the teachers were generally unaware of how the representations of models they used affected student comprehension. The teachers had trouble specifying students’ difficulties in understanding. Moreover, most of the instructional strategies described were generic and insufficient for promoting student understanding. Additionally, the teachers’ rationale for choosing a specific representation or activity was seldom directed at addressing students’ understanding. Our results indicate that both PCK components require improvement, and suggest that the two components should be connected. Implications for the professional development of pre-service and in-service teachers are discussed.
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Students' Understanding of Chemical Formulae: A review of empirical research
Article
  • Jan 2014
The fluent use of the chemical language is a major tool for successfully passing chemistry courses at school or university as well as for working as a chemist, since chemical formulae are both a descriptive and a heuristic tool. However, numerous studies have revealed remarkable difficulties of students with chemical formulae both at school and at university. Although analysed for decades, current studies and practical experiences indicate that the misinterpretation of symbolic representations by students is still an ongoing problem. This review intends not only to summarize but also to categorize students' problems and difficulties when dealing with chemical formulae as reported in empirical studies. For this purpose, two categories of descriptive character were deduced from the empirical data: the type of chemical formulae and the operational activities that were required in the tasks of the studies. All in all, 38 articles were analysed on the basis of these categories. Students' problems and difficulties are then reflected based on three main problem areas: language-based problems, problems due to conceptual understanding, and problems due to inadequate selection and interpretation of formulae. These three areas call for a broader perspective in the interpretation of students' problems and thus lead to a discussion of implications for further research and changes in teaching practice.
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Development of the Bonding Representations Inventory To Identify Student Misconceptions about Covalent and Ionic Bonding Representations
Article
  • Feb 2014
Teachers use multiple representations to communicate the concepts of bonding, including Lewis structures, formulas, space-filling models, and 3D manipulatives. As students learn to interpret these multiple representations, they may develop misconceptions that can create problems in further learning of chemistry. Interviews were conducted with 28 high school physical science, high school chemistry, and general chemistry students. The interviews focused on identifying student understanding of, and misconceptions about, covalent and ionic bonding representations through analysis of both student-created and expert-generated representations. Misconceptions about bonding representations were identified regarding four themes: (i) periodic trends, (ii) electrostatic interactions, (iii) the octet rule, and (iv) surface features. The Bonding Representations Inventory (BRI) was developed to quantify the prevalence of these misconceptions. The BRI was administered to 1072 high school chemistry, advanced placement chemistry, and general chemistry students across the United States. Content validity was determined through expert validation of the items, and concurrent validity was established by comparing the three groups of students. Reliability was determined through individual item analysis and through Ferguson’s δ. Suggestions are offered for using the BRI in high school and general chemistry classrooms to inform the teaching of both bonding and representations.
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