No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Distribution update, male genitalia, natural history, and conservation of the stump-tailed porcupine Coendou rufescens in South America
Mammalia
Abstract
The stump-tailed porcupine, Coendou rufescens , is a widely distributed but scarcely documented species inhabiting the Andean region of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and an isolated population in Bolivia. Despite the wide distribution different aspects on its biology and ecology are still unknown. We present an update to the distribution of C. rufescens , and recent observations on the anatomy, natural history, and conservation in Colombia. For this, we described the male genitalia and present data on reproductive periods, plants used and consumed, and threats. The distribution of C. rufescens comprises 12 ecoregions in an area of 376,225 km ² for the northern group (Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru) and 393 km ² for the southern group (Bolivia). The highest elevational record is in Ecuador (4387 m), being the porcupine inhabiting at highest elevations. The anatomy of the glans is similar to that observed in Coendou quichua and constitutes the second species of Coendou with available information on glans morphology. C. rufescens consumes fruits and leaves of potato cider ( Sechium edule : Cucurbitaceae) and woody shrub ( Bejaria : Ericacea), and usually perches even in exotic species such as pines. Finally, common treats for the species in Colombia are related to hunting pressures, predation by domestic dogs, and roadkills.
Supplementary resource (1)
... Additional interactions of night monkeys with other mammals include a case of possible predation of A. brumbacki by Sapajus apella in the Colombian Llanos (Carretero-Pinzón et al. 2008) and other agonistic encounters were recorded at feeding sites between A. lemurinus and P. flavus in the Central Andes of Colombia . For porcupines, agonistic encounters with exotic animals such as dogs have been reported for species such as C. longicaudatus (as C. prehensilis), C. rufescens and C. vestitus in the Andean region of Colombia (Cortés-Suárez et al. 2021;Rios-Soto et al. 2021;Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2022), as well as a predation event on C. longicaudatus by Leopardus pardalis in the Peruvian Amazon (Griffiths et al. 2020), and C. rufescens by Puma concolor in the Andes of Colombia (Muñoz-Castillo et al. 2020;Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2022). Furthermore, information on the natural history of porcupines in Colombia and throughout their distribution is still limited (e.g., Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2020, 2022. ...
... Additional interactions of night monkeys with other mammals include a case of possible predation of A. brumbacki by Sapajus apella in the Colombian Llanos (Carretero-Pinzón et al. 2008) and other agonistic encounters were recorded at feeding sites between A. lemurinus and P. flavus in the Central Andes of Colombia . For porcupines, agonistic encounters with exotic animals such as dogs have been reported for species such as C. longicaudatus (as C. prehensilis), C. rufescens and C. vestitus in the Andean region of Colombia (Cortés-Suárez et al. 2021;Rios-Soto et al. 2021;Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2022), as well as a predation event on C. longicaudatus by Leopardus pardalis in the Peruvian Amazon (Griffiths et al. 2020), and C. rufescens by Puma concolor in the Andes of Colombia (Muñoz-Castillo et al. 2020;Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2022). Furthermore, information on the natural history of porcupines in Colombia and throughout their distribution is still limited (e.g., Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2020, 2022. ...
... For porcupines, agonistic encounters with exotic animals such as dogs have been reported for species such as C. longicaudatus (as C. prehensilis), C. rufescens and C. vestitus in the Andean region of Colombia (Cortés-Suárez et al. 2021;Rios-Soto et al. 2021;Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2022), as well as a predation event on C. longicaudatus by Leopardus pardalis in the Peruvian Amazon (Griffiths et al. 2020), and C. rufescens by Puma concolor in the Andes of Colombia (Muñoz-Castillo et al. 2020;Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2022). Furthermore, information on the natural history of porcupines in Colombia and throughout their distribution is still limited (e.g., Ramírez-Chaves et al. 2020, 2022. ...
Tree cavities used as sleeping sites are a limited resource for arboreal mammals. The shared use of arboreal cavities as sleeping sites between Neotropical mammals is rarely observed and has been little studied. We documented an event of sleeping site sharing between two medium-sized mammals, the Caribbean night monkey (Aotus griseimembra) and the Quichua porcupine (Coendou quichua), recorded in the humid lowland forests of the inter-Andean basin of the Magdalena River in the eastern part of the Department of Caldas, Colombia. The sleeping site sharing occurred in an avocado tree (Persea americana) over a period of three days and included an agonistic encounter between the two species. The group of Caribbean night monkeys was always near one of the two cavity entrances, entering near sunrise and leaving near sunset, while the two Quichua porcupines were inside the cavity, in different positions, and remained in the sleeping site even after dusk and before dawn. This study provides new information on the interaction between night monkeys and porcupines, and on the sharing of tree cavities as sleeping sites.
... Se han registrado cambios en la riqueza de especies de 34 en 1986 (Cuervo Díaz et al., 1986) a 39 en la actualidad . De las 15 especies incluidas en este atlas (familias Caviidae, Cuniculidae Dasyproctidae, Dinomyidae y Erethizontidae) se han desarrollado varias investigaciones sobre su anatomía (Osbahr y Azumendi 2009;; Leon-Alvarado y Ramírez-Chaves 2017; Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2022), taxonomía (Zúñiga et al., 2002;Ramírez-Chaves y Solari 2014;Torres-Martínez et al., 2019), biogeografía (Saavedra-Rodríguez et al., 2012;2019, 2020aRacero-Casarrubia et al., 2016;Torres-Martínez et al., 2019), parasitología (Rausch et al., 1981;Osbahr 2003;Gonzalez-Astudillo et al., 2018;Busi-Quijano et al., 2022), conservación (Saavedra-Rodríguez et al., 2012b;Torres-Martínez et al., 2021a;Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2022), e historia natural (Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2020b;Cortés-Suárez et al., 2021;Torres-Martínez et al., 2021b). Sin embargo, aún existen vacíos importantes en temáticas como la sistemática, distribución y ecología de la mayoría de las especies presentes en Colombia. ...
... Se han registrado cambios en la riqueza de especies de 34 en 1986 (Cuervo Díaz et al., 1986) a 39 en la actualidad . De las 15 especies incluidas en este atlas (familias Caviidae, Cuniculidae Dasyproctidae, Dinomyidae y Erethizontidae) se han desarrollado varias investigaciones sobre su anatomía (Osbahr y Azumendi 2009;; Leon-Alvarado y Ramírez-Chaves 2017; Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2022), taxonomía (Zúñiga et al., 2002;Ramírez-Chaves y Solari 2014;Torres-Martínez et al., 2019), biogeografía (Saavedra-Rodríguez et al., 2012;2019, 2020aRacero-Casarrubia et al., 2016;Torres-Martínez et al., 2019), parasitología (Rausch et al., 1981;Osbahr 2003;Gonzalez-Astudillo et al., 2018;Busi-Quijano et al., 2022), conservación (Saavedra-Rodríguez et al., 2012b;Torres-Martínez et al., 2021a;Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2022), e historia natural (Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2020b;Cortés-Suárez et al., 2021;Torres-Martínez et al., 2021b). Sin embargo, aún existen vacíos importantes en temáticas como la sistemática, distribución y ecología de la mayoría de las especies presentes en Colombia. ...
... Saavedra et al., 2012a;Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2016), o restringidos a pequeñas áreas de una única región como los Andes(Torres-Martínez et al., 2021a, b;Ramírez-Chaves et al., 2022) ...
... Si bien en años recientes se ha incrementado el número de publicaciones relacionadas con los puercoespines de Colombia, como C. longicaudatus (Menezes et al., 2021;Torres et al., 2019;Ramírez et al. 2020a), C. quichua (Racero et al., 2016León & Ramírez, 2017), C. rufescens (Ramírez et al., 2020b;Ramírez et al., 2022), C. vestitus (Cortés et al., 2021Torres et al., 2021) y C. ichillus (Ramírez et al., 2020c, con respecto a C. pruinosus solo se dispone de la revisión hecha por Ramírez et al. (2016), donde reportan dos nuevas localidades y medidas morfométricas asociadas a tres especímenes revisados. No obstante, esta publicación abordó de manera general a los Coendou colombianos, sin que hasta la fecha existan trabajos dedicados a esta especie en el país. ...
... La especie también está expuesta a riesgos como el atropellamiento vehicular, el consumo o el tráfico (Racero et al., 2016;Ramírez et al., 2020a;Ramírez et al., 2022) (aunque no se cuenta aún con evidencias de estos eventos), y experimenta conflictos con perros, tal como se describe en el registro 9 (Pamplonita, túnel). En la región, cada tanto se reportan canes con espinas en la boca y el hocico (La Opinión, 2017). ...
El puercoespín canoso (Coendou pruinosus) es un roedor arborícola presente en Colombia y Venezuela desde los 54 hasta los 2600 m s. n. m. Sin embargo, debido a su aparente rareza, se sabe muy poco sobre sus amenazas, distribución e historia natural. Para Colombia, se validaron recientemente solo seis localidades de registro y cuatro especímenes en las colecciones biológicas nacionales. Desde entonces, no se cuenta con más reportes o revisiones sobre la especie. En esta investigación se presentan doce nuevos registros de C. pruinosus en Colombia, basados en especímenes y fotografías. A su vez, se descartan cuatro registros mencionados en publicaciones y bases de datos, al tratarse de identificaciones erróneas o dudosas, con lo cual se actualiza el número de localidades a 16. Se reporta la especie por primera vez para los departamentos del Cesar y Santander, así como la extensión de la distribución altitudinal hasta los 2801 m s. n. m. en el departamento de Norte de Santander. También se aportan datos concernientes a su etapa neonatal, hábitat y posibles riesgos locales.
New World porcupines (Erethizontinae) originated in South America and dispersed into North America as part of the Great American Biotic Interchange (GABI) 3-4 million years ago. Extant prehensile-tailed porcupines (Coendou) today live in tropical forests of Central and South America. In contrast, North American porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum) are thought to be ecologically adapted to higher-latitude temperate forests, with a larger body, shorter tail, and diet that includes bark. Limited fossils have hindered our
understanding of the timing of this ecological differentiation relative to intercontinental dispersal during the GABI and expansion into temperate habitats. Here, we describe functionally important features of the skeleton of the extinct Erethizon poyeri, the oldest nearly complete porcupine skeleton documented from North America, found in the early Pleistocene of Florida. It differs from extant E. dorsatum in having a long, prehensile tail, grasping foot, and lacking dental specializations for bark gnawing, similar to tropical Coendou. Results from phylogenetic analysis suggest that the more arboreal characteristics found in E. poyeri are ancestral for erethizontines. Only after it expanded into temperate, Nearctic habitats did Erethizon acquire the characteristic features that it is known for today. When combined with molecular estimates of divergence times, results suggest that Erethizon was ecologically similar to a larger species of Coendou when it crossed the Isthmus of Panama by the early Pleistocene. It is likely that the range of this more tropically adapted form was limited to a continuous forested biome that extended from South America through the Gulf Coast.
Los puercoespines (Coendou, Erethizontidae), son uno de los mamíferos menos estudiados por sus hábitos arborícolas y nocturnos. Se tiene confirmada la presencia de tres especies para Bolivia: Coendou longicaudatus boliviensis, C. bicolor y C. rufescens. Se tiene poca información sobre la ecología, historia natural y distribución de estas especies en Bolivia, con solo seis registros de puerco espín de cola corta (C. rufescens) en los departamentos de Santa Cruz y Cochabamba. Este trabajo reporta la presencia y el patrón de actividad de C. rufescens en el departamento de La Paz en el Valle de Acero Marka, Bolivia. Se instalaron 62 estaciones de cámaras trampa, acumulando un esfuerzo de muestreo de 3.696,81 trampas noche, obteniendo un total de 66 fotografías y 10 eventos independientes. Este estudio es el primero para el departamento de La Paz y amplía la distribución de C. rufescens hacia el oeste de Bolivia específicamente a orillas del río Aceromarka en los Yungas, a una altitud de 3.195 m. Además, reportamos un patrón de actividad predominantemente nocturno con registros entre las 20:26 h y 02:24 h.
The New World porcupines of the genus Coendou comprise 16 species of arboreal nocturnal rodents. Some of these species are poorly known and have not been included in phy-logenetic analyses. Based on recently collected specimens with associated tissue from the Brazilian Amazonia, we investigate the distribution and phylogenetic relationships of Roosmalens' dwarf porcupine, Coendou roosmalenorum, using an integrative approach using mitochondrial gene sequences and morphological data from new specimens and localities. Our results recovered C. roosmalenorum in the subgenus Caaporamys. However, analyses of our molecular and combined datasets produced different topologies. The new record shows the presence of C. roosmalenorum 480 km to the southeast of the Rio Madeira and 95 km away from Rio Juruena in Mato Grosso state, indicating a wider distribution in southern Amazonia than suspected. All known records of C. roosmalenorum are in the Madeira biogeographical province, to which it might be endemic.
Porcupines of the genus Coendou are among the least studied mammals in the Neotropics. The Stump-tailed Porcupine, Coendou rufescens, is distributed in the Andean region from Colombia and south to Bolivia. Despite its wide distribution, nothing is known about its natural history, besides observation of banana consumption in captivity. Here we present new observations on the feeding habits, diurnal activity, and the use of the tail for support during feeding obtained by means of collaborative (citizen) science. We also comment on its locomotion on land and in trees. We observed five diurnal events of C. rufescens feeding on infructescences of trumpet tree (Cecropia angustifolia Trécul). During the feeding activities, the Stump-tailed Porcupine used the tail for stability and support. These are the first observations of such behavior in the wild for this species and suggest a more diurnal activity for this species which belongs to a group of rodents traditionally considered to be predominantly nocturnal.
Land clearing and ecosystem degradation are primary causes of loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services worldwide, putting at risk sustainable options for Earth and humankind. According to recent global estimates, degraded lands already account for at least 1 and up to 6 billion ha. Given high rates of habitat degradation and loss of biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes with high levels of ecosystem transformation, conventional approaches to conservation such as setting aside lands in protected areas, are not enough; in combination with ecosystem protection, ecological restoration is essential to ensure the conservation of biodiversity and delivery of ecosystem services. Despite recognition of the role of ecological restoration, the planning of restoration at the landscape scale remains a major challenge. Specifically, more studies are needed on developing restoration plans that maximize conservation and provisioning of ecosystem services, while minimizing competition with high-productivity land uses. We use Colombia, one of the world's mega-diversity countries in which ca. 25 % of ecosystems are listed as critically endangered (CR), as a test case for exploring the potential advantages of including the Red List of Ecosystems, a newly developed tool for assessing conservation value, in restoration planning. We identified restoration priorities focused on both high-risk ecosystems and low-productivity lands, to maximize conservation value and minimize land-use conflicts. This approach allowed us to identify over 6 M ha of priority areas for restoration, targeting the restoration of 31 (75 %) of the country's endangered ecosystems. Eight of the Regional Administrative Environmental Planning Areas (CARs) had greater than 20 % of their area identified as restoration priorities. We roughly estimated that the cost of restoring the prioritized areas with restoration through natural regeneration, using payment for ecosystem services (PES), would equal less than 50 % of the annual budget of the CARs. Our results are in sharp contrast (only 12 % agreement) with the priorities identified under the current National Restoration Strategy of Colombia, and highlight the potential contribution of the Red List of Ecosystems in refining and improving restoration planning strategies at both national and sub-national levels.
The feeding habits of the cougar have been scarcely studied in Colombia, despite its importance in the ecosystems it inhabits. In this study, we analysed the diet of the cougar using 53 feces samples collected from several sites in the Central Andes of Colombia's Coffee Growing Region. To identify prey species, we examined and compared bone fragments and hairs found in each sample with descriptions published in relevant literature and with specimens from the Natural History Museum of the Universidad de Caldas, Colombia. We found that rabbits (Sylvilagus sp.) provided half of the relative biomass consumed by the cougar (50%). Other preys identified belong to representatives of medium and large mammals such as marsupials (Didelphis: 10%), sloths (Choloepus: 9%), rodents (Coendou: 10%, Cuniculus: 9%), and deer (Mazama: 9%). Of the preys, Coendou rufescens has not, to our knowledge, been previously included in cougar diet literature. The curve of accumulation of species indicated that the number of samples obtained in this work fully describe the diet of this feline. Neither domestic species were recorded in this work, nor were there any relationships between the dry or rainy seasons and the consumption of prey species. The comparison of the information reported in this study and others carried out in the Andes may indicate the general nature of this feline's diet and its adaptability to the prey species found in each area, since these vary in each one of them. It is probable that the obtained trophic niche value (0.33) is due to the abundance of rabbits present in the study area. It is also probable that the cougar has not consumed domestic species since, although it is close to cattle ranches, it has enough of wild prey in the area to supply its needs. The results of this study may help to improve our understanding of the feeding habits of this predator and its interaction with other species in this important region of Colombia. This will, in turn, promote major comprehension of the role of cougars in the Colombian Cordilleras and lead actions for their conservation.
The Ocelot, Leopardus pardalis is a carnivore with wide distribution in South
America. In Ecuador, most of the records come from lowland tropical forests and
foothills of the Andes (<900 m at sea level), where this species has a variety of
prey, particularly small mammals. However, in the high Andean regions, neither
their occurrence nor their diet is known. On November 8, 2016 an adult male of
L. pardalis was collected dead in the Usho locality, province of Cañar; the record is
located in the high-Andean region in south of Ecuador at 2818 meters to sea level.
During the evaluation of the specimen, several digested barbs were found and these
were associated with the species of short-tailed porcupine, Coendou rufescens. This
record shows that L. pardalis occurs at least seasonally in the high-Andean region of
Ecuador; It also shows predation on the high-Andean species in their eating habits.
In anthropogenically transformed habitats, some birds of prey feed on domestic animals, triggering conflict between people and predators. To manage this conflict, it is important to understand the ecological circumstances associated with the predation of domestic animals. We studied variation in the diet of the endangered Black-and-chestnut Eagle (Spizaetus isidori) in four different Andean landscapes in Colombia. We analyzed 261 prey items brought to five S. isidori nests during the period when the nestlings were being raised. Domestic fowl are relatively frequent prey in the diet of S. isidori in three of the four localities studied (frequency: 9.3%–36%), representing 12.2% to 37.1% of the total biomass of prey consumed. In terms of biomass, in Ciudad Bol ıvar, Jard ın, and Campohermoso, the sites with the greatest forest cover, mammals were the most important prey in the diet of S. isidori, while in Gachala ́, the most deforested site, domestic fowl were the most important prey. We recommend that forest cover be maintained and increased to provide habitat for wild prey in the breeding territories of S. isidori using the landscape management tools best suited to the specific socioecological contexts of this eagle’s territories. We also suggest that the management of domestic fowl under controlled conditions or the use of some deterrent be examined as strategies to mitigate or prevent conflict between people and S. isidori. Socioecological research and educational programs should be carried out to increase the public’s understanding of this eagle and its benefits to the ecosystem.
Apex predators are in widespread decline, in many occasions as a consequence of the demise of their prey. Harpy Eagles (Harpia harpyja) are the largest extant eagles on Earth and keystone predators in the tropical forests they inhabit. Although Harpy Eagle prey composition has been described by a number of studies, diet data from primary forests are rare on the literature. Here, I describe the diet of Harpy Eagles living in the Central Suriname Reserve primary forests and review literature data to provide an accessible reference to all known reports of Harpy Eagle prey species. In Central Suriname Nature Reserve, Harpy Eagles made frequent use of game prey such as large primates, large birds, and terrestrial animals, besides what is considered their staple prey, sloths. Nine new prey species were recorded, most of them game animals. This totals 102 prey species when summed with literature data. This information provides new insights into the autecology of Harpy Eagles in Neotropical forests, enabling a better understanding of the ecological effects of apex predator.
En el presente trabajo, reportamos nuevas ocurrencias geográficas del puerco espín coli corto, C. rufescens, en el bosque yungueño y tucumano-boliviano de la región central de los Andes tropicales de Bolivia, ampliando su distribución actual en 117.5 km al Sur de la previamente conocida para el país. Los registros obtenidos son basados en especímenes depositados en la colección científica de Mastozoología del Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado (MHNNKM), levantamiento de datos in situ por el Fray Andrés Ma Langer y un registro fotográfico realizado por un medio de información impreso de carácter nacional.
The stump-tailed porcupine (Coendou rufescens) is a medium-sized species that inhabits subtropical, temperate and High-Andean forests of the northern Andes, at 800 to 3,650 m asl. This species is characterized by a short non-prehensile tail and a distinctive reddish color. Here, we report new localities for Coendou rufescens in Ecuador based on direct field sightings and the revision of mammal collections. In addition, we conducted a review of literature records of C. rufescens throughout its distribution range. A total of 52 georeferenced records were modeled for the potential distribution at the regional level
(Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru) based on 19 bioclimatic variables. Finally, we overlaid the
layers of vegetation remnants and state protected areas. We report 10 new localities for Coendou rufescens in Ecuador; these records are concentrated to southern Ecuador
between 1,120 to 4,387 masl. Fifty two records found that the bioclimatic variables Temperature Seasonality (BIO4) and Minimum Temperature of the Coldest Month (BIO6) associated with the type of habitat made the greatest significant contribution to the
distribution model of C. rufescens. The suitable habitat for the species spans across ~ 448,820 km, with 50.4 % in Colombia. These findings indicate that the locality Camino del Inca in Sangay National Park, at 4,387 m asl, is considered the highest-elevation record for C. rufescens and the family Erethizontidae. Colombia and Peru include the highest proportion of potential habitat across its range (40.2 % and 32.7 %) based on remnant vegetation; however, Ecuador maintains the largest proportion of the porcupine distribution within protected areas (35.5%), with a larger extent of landscape connectivity, essential for the conservation of C. rufescens.
The Quichua porcupine (Coendou quichua) is a neotropical rodent with uncertain taxonomic and conservation
status. Two Quichua porcupines with severe hyperkeratosis and alopecia were found in the Magdalena River
Basin of Colombia. Sarcoptes scabiei, the mite causing mange, a disease carried mainly by domestic animals, was confirmed via parasitological and molecular methods. This is the first report of mange in neotropical porcupines to date. The population-level impact of mange in Coendou spp., related mammals and predators in Colombia might represent a threat and needs further investigation.
Aberrant pelage color patterns such as albinism have been reported in some mammal groups including rodents, but in spite of the group’s richness, the phenomenon is relatively poorly documented in the literature. Albino specimens are reported in <2% of the species of rodents, four records of neotropical species were found (Delomys dorsalis, Heteromys anomalus, Octodon degus, Phyllotis andium). Of New World porcupines (Erethizontidae), albinism was documented only in the North American species Erethizon dorsatum. Here we report the first albino record from the Neotropics for this group, a stumptailed porcupine (Coendou rufescens) in northern Ecuador.
Keywords: color aberration; hypopigmentation; neotropical mammals; northern Ecuador; stump-tailed porcupine.
External morphology of the glans and baculum are important characters for specific delimitation, especially for rodents (Simson et al. 1995). However, for Erethizontidae there are few descriptive works; in fact, for Neotropical porcupines of the genus Coendou there is just one brief contribution for an indeterminate species by Pocock in 1922. In this work, the morphology of the glans and baculum of Coendou quichua is
described. The specimen was collected at the municipality of San Vicente de Chucurí, Santander, Colombia. The penis was dissected and fixed in formaldehyde for one day, and later preserved in ethanol. The baculum was extracted and cleared with potassium hydroxide to be visualized, photographed and measured. The glans and baculum were compared with the description of others porcupines (Erethizon dorsatum and Hystrix
brachyura) available in literature, and three additional Neotropical caviomorph rodents (Cuniculus paca, Dasyprocta punctata and Cavia tschudii). The glans length is almost twice the glans head width (Table 1) and comprises the third part of the total penis length. The penis presents a tenuous dark coloration on the head and small tegumentary protuberances formed by 3-4 small spines (Figure 1A). As in other hystricomorph
rodents, the glans exhibits an invagination at its tip (sacculus urethralis) which has corrugated walls and presents two conspicuous spikes at the bottom (Figure 1C). Furthermore, the baculum is as large as the C. quichua glans, dorsally concave and ventrally convex (Figure 1B). Although the glans and baculum of C. quichua and E. dorsatum are similar, the latter presents larger glans (Table 1), and the sacculus urethralis lacks of corrugated walls and spiny protuberances. When comparing C. quichua and H. brachyura, the only difference is that the bottom of the sacculus urethralis, near to the spikes is smooth, without spiny protuberances. In contrast, the glans of three other Neotropical caviomorphs are remarkable different from C. quichua, where they present more complex and densely distributed tegumentary protuberances above the glans. Overall, the baculum is the most varying structure for all species, with marked differences in length and width (Table 1) and the shape of the ends. Although the family Erethizontidae is more closed related to the Cavioidea than to Hystricidae, the glans of individuals of the family Erethizontidae are more similar to the glans of the Hystricidae. In addition, for these species, both glans and baculum present important characters that might be used for taxonomic identification. However, the differences of both structures within Coendou are unknown, therefore it is necessary the description of the genitalia of additional species.
We report the first eight documented localities for the Stump-tailed Porcupine Coendou rufescens (Erethizontidae, Rodentia) in northwestern Peru (Piura and Lambayeque departments). Pristine mountain forest, montane scrub, agricultural lands and secondary montane forest from 1700 to 2700 masl were the main habitats for our records. Opportunistic hunting and local trapping threaten the species. The present report increases the knowledge about this elusive and rare species, but there are still several knowledge gaps that need to be studied.
Diversity determinants have mostly been evaluated in high diversity areas, leaving behind regions with less species diversity such as drylands. Here we aim to analyze the patterns of plant diversity in tropical drylands in the southern Central Andes, and determine the importance of water, energy, and environmental heterogeneity as diversity determinants of the arid and semi-arid adapted flora. We examined the distribution of 645 native species from lowlands to 6000 m.a.s.l. in the north-western region of Argentina (NWA) and define hotspots of diversity within each NWA ecoregion. Diversity is concentrated in regions of middle elevation with intermediate values of water and energy, at the transition between arid and semi-arid regions. Furthermore, we showed that in tropical drylands energy input is as fundamental for plant diversity as water input is and, we found that the effects of these variables varied with elevation and, also with aridity. Water variables had the strongest effect on the flora in the arid high Andean ecoregions, where an increase in precipitation during the growing season stimulated species diversity. Energy only became more important than water when the arid adapted flora entered the low and semi-arid regions where energy increments reduce species diversity. Our analysis provides strong quantitative support for climate variables as the main determinants of plant diversity across different ecoregions of the southern Central Andes. Given the present climate change events, knowing how these variables affect the distribution of the arid adapted flora is crucial for planning strategies for achieve their present and future conservation.
The diets of the jaguar (Panthera onca), the puma (Felis concolor) and the ocelot (Felis pardalis) were studied in a tropical rainforest in Corcovado National Park, South Pacific belt of Costa Rica, from August 1993 to June 1994. A total of 50 Km of trails were examined monthly for fecal material. Analysis of relative frequency of ocurrence and relative estimation biomass in the fecal samples showed that mammals were the main preys of the three felids, while reptiles and birds were less important. The preys of jaguar and puma have body weights above 2500g, and the preys of ocelot, whose main prey was the spiny rat, Proechimys semispinosus, less than 2500g. There were no important changes in food habits during the study, although trophic diversity of jaguar and ocelot increase during the dry seasons.
Morphological variation in the glans penis of the six genera and most species of octodontid rodents was studied and compared to members of the Abrocomidae and Ctenomyidae. Most specimens of Octodon degus, O. lunatus, O. bridgesi, Octodontomys gliroides, Aconaemys fuscus, and A. sagei presented two spikes on each side at the bottom of the intromitent sac (2-2 pattern), although the number of spikes varies from 1-2 to 4-5. The largest variability in number of spikes was shown by Spalacopus cyanus, ranging from 1-1 to 4-5; although they were rather short. The 1-1 pattern characterized Tympanoctomys barrerae and Octomys mimax. This pattern was found in the species of the genera Abrocoma and Ctenomys, which belong to the related families Abrocomidae and Ctenomyidae. Our results support the view that the 1-1 pattern is ancestral and that other patterns are derived states. Within the octodontids, only Tympanoctomys barrerae and Octomys mimax showed the ancestral condition shared with Ctenomyidae and Abrocomidae. All other octodontid genera share the derived state 2-2 or modifications of it.
In spite of previous reviews, there is still no consensus on the information associated to the richness of the genus Coendou in Colombia. To clarify some issues concerning the distribution and the taxonomic identity of the species of Coendou in the country, we reviewed specimens from five natural history collections. We introduce the first record of Coendou ichillus from the Orinoco river basin of the country, extending the distribution of the species by more than 600 km to the north from previous known localities in Ecuador and Peru. Additionally, we present new records of C. pruinosus and C. quichua from the Amazonia and inter-Andean valleys, respectively. Only one skull presents the diagnostic characters of C. bicolor; thus, previous records of this species for the country were based on misidentifications. Coendou is distributed in seven of the nine geographic provinces of Colombia. Coendou prehensilis was found in five provinces and is expected to be present in the Amazonia, whereas C. pruinosus was documented in three provinces (North Andean, Orinoco and Guyana). The rest of the species of Coendou were distributed in one or two provinces. The richest provinces were North Andean and Orinoco with six and four Coendou species, respectively. The elevational ranges of C. prehensilis and C. pruinosus are revised to 0–1975 and 90–2200 m, respectively.
El Águila Arpía (Harpia harpyja Linnaeus) es la rapaz de mayor tamaño que habita los bosques amazónicos, sin embargo en el Perú, es muy poco lo que se sabe de esta especie. Desde 1996 a 2001, realizó una investigación en la Comunidad Nativa de Infi erno para obtener información sobre la biología de la especie mediante la localización y observación de nidos activos y abandonados. La investigación permitió encontrar los primeros nidos activos descritos para el Águila Arpía en Perú e indicarían una cierta preferencia para anidar en castañales. Así mismo, la información recogida ha permitido establecer que el área de anidamiento de una pareja de Águilas Arpía en la zona de estudio es de aproximadamente 4300 hectáreas. El análisis de los restos de las presas consumidas y de las egagrópilas recolectadas dentro y alrededor de la base de los nidos nos han permitido hacer una primera descripción de la dieta de la especie, la cual está compuesta principalmente por mamíferos arbóreos.
El Escobero (Envigado, Antioquia) en un periodo de seis años (2000-2006). Los mamíferos más observados fueron los marsupiales (34,6%), los roedores (34,5%) y los carnívoros (20,6%). Se sugiere un programa de evaluación de muerte de fauna en las carreteras del país. Además se motiva a las autoridades ambientales a realizar: i) campañas educativas sobre la desconocida fauna local; y ii) señalización de la carretera del Escobero para que los conductores adviertan la presencia de fauna silvestre. Abstract Vertebrate roadkills is a generalized problem around the world but scarcely documented on Colombian roads. Here it is described roadway mortality of mammals in a six year-period (2000-2006) on the El Escobero road (Envigado, Antioquia). Mammal groups that presented the greatest frequencies of road mortality were marsupials (34.6%), rodents (34.5%) and carnivores (20.6%). It is suggested an evaluation of wildlife mortality on Colombian roads. Additionally environmental authorities are motived to carry out: i) educational programs about the unknown local fauna; and ii) place signposts along the El Escobero road to notify drivers of the presence of wild fauna.
We update the list of Colombian mammal species based upon a new revision of specimens in the major collections within and outside the country and a compilation of recent taxonomic changes of species present in the country. The result of these changes is a total of 492 native species, which represents a net increment of 62 species with respect to the previous list published in the year 2000, and this exceeds similar updates in other Neotropical countries. Although the level of knowledge differs greatly between groups, we provide some general indicators, as diversity on the level of orders, endemism, patterns of distribution, and conservation state. The greatest species richness occurs in the orders Chiroptera (198 spp.) and Rodentia (122 spp.), but there are 23 endemic species of rodents in contrast to only seven endemic bats. According to the nature and scale of the evaluations, between 39 (MAVDT) and 52 (IUCN) species of Colombian mammals are considered to be endangered. The major threats are still deforestation, hunting and illegal commerce.
To obtain floristic and forest structural data from the threatened seasonally dry forests in northwestern Peru, part of the Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena biodiversity hotspot, we inventoried all plants with dbh ≥ 1 cm in one hectare of forest in the Chaparri Ecological Reserve. We recorded 1255 individuals, representing 24 species, 19 genera and 12 families. The most abundant species was Cordia lutea (Boraginaceae, 249 individuals), the most diverse genus Capparis (Capparaceae) and the most diverse family Leguminosae. These results show that the forest plot in Chaparri represents an impoverished version of the seasonally dry forests in the region and is most similar, compositionally and in structure, to the seasonally dry forests located on the lower western slopes of the northern Peruvian Andes. Exploratory spatial pattern analyses of the most abundant species suggest that their dispersal properties were primarily responsible for the different observed patterns.
With the word Zygomycosis (ZM) are designating a group of diseases caused by fungi of the class Zygomicetes, the orders Mucorales and Entomophthorales, of several genera and species. The presentation of ZM in animals occurs sporadically in many species both in domestic and wild animals (including marine mammals), and are checked few cases of isolation and identification of the causative agent. Few fungi are considered to be neurotropic because they tend to be located in the CNS after invading the host; however, most cases of meningitis or meningoencephalomyelitis are part of systemic fungal infection such as Candidiasis, Cryptococcosis, Aspergillosis or ZM. This paper documents the discovery of a zigomicotic meningoencephalomyelitis secondary to a head trauma in a prehensile-tailed porcupine (Coendou prehensilis), being a rare disease infrequent in the central nervous system both in human and animals and additionally without previous reports in this specie.
In this study, histological and macroanatomical structures of porcupine penis were examined on 3 adult male porcupines. The non-erectile position of porcupine penis was directed to caudal. There was an obvious collum penis. Glans penis with a black colour was easily distinguished from corpus penis which had a white color. There were cornified papillae covering on both the glans penis and corpus penis. Two small nail symmetrical structures were noted in connective tissue just behind of glans penis, and under the urethra of the corpus penis were distinguished. Histological examinations indicated that these structures histologically fulfilled completely to the name as the nail contained an inner and an outer layer, namely, connective tissue and keratin, respectively. Histological evaluations also showed that it is suitable to categorize the porcupines penis as vascular type. In conclusion, the anatomy of porcupine penis was initially examined in the present study. Our findings will make an important contribution to the knowledge of similar subjects.
Biodiversity characterization at the landscape level based on remote sensing and geographic information systems data has become increasingly important for conservation planning. We present the results of a study of the fragmentation of Andean forests and other ecosystems and an assessment of the representativeness at the ecosystem level of protected natural areas in the eastern Andes of Colombia. We used satellite remote sensing data to characterize ecosystems and undertook ground truthing at six sites. The 11 identified ecosystem types were analyzed within existing protected areas to assess the representativeness of these sites within the region. Five ecosystems were well-represented and six of them had < 10% of their area protected. Highland ecosystems were the best represented in protected areas due to the preponderance of highland parks in the eastern Andes. However Andean and sub Andean forests have less than 4.5 and 6.4% of their original pre-Columbian extent currently protected. Fragmentation parameters such as patch size, patch shape, number of patches, mean nearest neighbor distance and landscape shape index were also analyzed. Andean, sub Andean and dry forests are highly fragmented ecosystems but there is a clear latitudinal gradient of fragmentation. Our findings suggested that conservation efforts should be directed first toward the conservation of dry and oak forests in the center of the eastern Andes, and then Andean and sub Andean montane forests toward the south near the border with Ecuador.
Resumen Se presenta información sobre 60 especies de mamíferos registradas para el municipio de Popayán. De estas, 46 cuentan con ejemplares testigo depositados en diferentes colecciones de referencia nacionales. Se incluyen anotaciones sobre la presencia actual, los nombres comunes utilizados, las fuentes principales de amenaza y el uso que en algunos sectores del municipio se les da a ciertas especies. Igualmente se presenta una lista de las localidades de registro y se resalta la importancia del desarrollo de estudios mastozoológicos en esta región del país. Palabras clave Mamíferos, riqueza, zona urbana, zona rural, nombres comunes, usos. Abstract Information concerning 60 mammal species from the Popayan municipality is presented. From these, 46 species have voucher specimens housed in reference national collections. Notes on the actual presence, local names, principal sources of danger and their uses in different parts of the municipality are included. Additionally, the text shows a list of localities and the importance of developing new studies on mammals in this region of Colombia is highlighted.
The erethizontid rodent genus Coendou (including Echinoprocta and Sphiggurus) contains 13 valid species that live in tropical and subtropical forests from Mexico to Uruguay. This report tabulates information about the type material of all Recent nominal taxa referred to the genus, provides synonymies of all species recognized as valid, describes geographic distributions based on examined specimens, cites published descriptions of external and craniodental morphology, summarizes information that supports recommended binomial usage, and suggests where future taxonomic research is likely to be productive. Among other novel results, the nominal taxa richardsoni J.A. Allen, 1913, and rothschildi Thomas, 1902, are synonymized with C. quichua Thomas, 1899; a Paraguayan neotype is designated for C. spinosus (E Cuvier, 1823); and a specimen of C. rufescens is reported from Bolivia, extending the range of that species by 1800 km. Additionally, morphometric data are tabulated for several species not treated in previous reports of this series, including C. bicolor, C. mexicanus, C. prehensilis, C. quichua, C. rufescens, and C. spinosus.
The deforestation rate associated with the production of opium is around 0.5% per year. If the illegal plantation of P. somniferum is not controlled most of the remaining montane forests of Colombia, or at least those in and around the Nevado del Huila National Park, where most of the deforestation is taking place, will disappear well before the end of the century. -from Authors
Jaguars Panthera onca coexist with pumas Puma concolor across their entire range. In areas where they occur together their coexistence may be facilitated by differences in diet. This study compared food habits of jaguars and pumas in Belize, Central America, across a protected lowland rainforest and the neighbouring human-influenced landscape. Diets were determined from 362 jaguar scats and 135 puma scats, identified by genetic analysis. In the protected forest, dietary breadths were low for jaguars and pumas and showed little overlap. In this habitat each relied heavily on a single medium-sized (5–10 kg) prey species: armadillos Dasypus novemcinctus for jaguars, and pacas Agouti paca for pumas. Both cats also took larger prey (>10 kg), mainly white-lipped peccaries Tayassu pecari by jaguars and red brocket deer Mazama americana by pumas. In unprotected fragmented lands, jaguar scats rarely contained large wild prey species; rather, a diet of relatively small wild prey was supplemented with larger domestic species. Pumas did not take domestic species and were scarce outside the protected forest, possibly indicating competition with humans for pacas and deer, which are also prized game species in the region. This study is the largest analysis to date of sympatric jaguar and puma diets in both forest and farmland. We suggest that jaguar predation on cattle may be reduced by ensuring that game hunting is sustainable and potentially by augmenting forests within the human matrix with large wild ungulates. The supplementation could benefit both of the cat species, and the local game hunting economy.
GeoCAT is an open source, browser based tool that performs rapid geospatial analysis to ease the process of Red Listing taxa. Developed to utilise spatially referenced primary occurrence data, the analysis focuses on two aspects of the geographic range of a taxon: the extent of occurrence (EOO) and the area of occupancy (AOO). These metrics form part of the IUCN Red List categories and criteria and have often proved challenging to obtain in an accurate, consistent and repeatable way. Within a familiar Google Maps environment, GeoCAT users can quickly and easily combine data from multiple sources such as GBIF, Flickr and Scratchpads as well as user generated occurrence data. Analysis is done with the click of a button and is visualised instantly, providing an indication of the Red List threat rating, subject to meeting the full requirements of the criteria. Outputs including the results, data and parameters used for analysis are stored in a GeoCAT file that can be easily reloaded or shared with collaborators. GeoCAT is a first step toward automating the data handling process of Red List assessing and provides a valuable hub from which further developments and enhancements can be spawned.
In this study, the structures of penises of eight sexually mature male greater cane rats were examined at both macroscopic and histological levels. Each animal was sacrificed after anaesthesia with ether and then dissected open with the penis exposed from its root. The penises were first grossly examined, measured, and then prepared for histological examination. From this study it was observed that the body size has no allometry with penile size, but the testicular weight correlated with Os penis length in the greater cane rat. Grossly, the penis which was whitish in colour, with a mean length of 5.46 ± 0.36 cm, has no obvious collum penis but a flexura that turns it caudo-ventral and separates the corpus and glans penis. There was the presence of cornified papillae covering parts of the corpus and glans penis as well as a blind sac sacculus urethralis under the urethra on the glans penis. Histologically, the corpora cavernosa penis were completely separated by a connective tissue septum which sent the trabeculae network into the cavernous tissues and replaced the caverns as it moves from corpus to glans penis. The Os penis formed through endochondral ossification after 42 months of age in this animal. Therefore, from a histological standpoint, the cane rat penis belongs to the intermediate type. In conclusion, these findings provide vital information on the penile anatomy of the greater cane rat, which will serve as a basis for comparing penile morphology among the suborder hystricomorpha and expand knowledge of the reproductive biology in this animal.
We used fecal analyses to document the diet of ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) and puma (Puma concolor )a t 2 sites in central Panama. We detected puma on Barro Colorado Island (BCI) nearly every month during the study but never found evidence of jaguars (Panthera onca) at either site. Both ocelots and puma fed predominantly on mammalian prey, but consumed a diversity of species. Collared peccaries (Pecari tajacu) and Central American red brocket (Mazama temama) were the most important food items for puma, whereas Central American agoutis (Dasyprocta punctata) and sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni and Bradypus variegatus) were the most important for ocelots. Considerable overlap in diet was found between populations and species, but the diet of puma on BCI was significantly different from the 2 ocelot populations in containing more large prey, suggesting that dietary differences between these predator species are chiefly related to their relative body size. Comparing across larger scales, both populations of ocelots in our study ate larger prey than elsewhere in their range, suggesting that their fundamental niche includes more medium-sized prey than their realized niche in other sites. Puma on BCI ate proportionally more peccaries and deer than in most other populations. These unusual diets in the wake of a recent decline or local extinction of jaguars are consistent with a prey shift in response to competitive release.
This study demonstrates that ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) extensively use primates as a food resource at the Caratinga Biological Station (CBS) in Southeast Brazil. Analysis of 60 fecal samples collected over 4 years revealed predation upon the brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba), the muriqui (Brachyteles hypoxanthus), and the brown capuchin monkey (Cebus apella). The most frequent items found in the fecal samples analyzed were Calomys (n=16) and non-identified Aves (n=15), followed by A. guariba (n=12). Although Rodentia was the most common group consumed (n=52) Primates were found in 27% of total fecal samples and were the third most consumed group in relation to the total items. Particularly, predation of A. guariba by ocelots (20% of the total fecal samples) was not an isolated event; our results showed that this species was preyed on across several months. Predation on primates was far higher at CBS than at other sites where comparable studies have been carried out.
Rural roads promote economic development, but they also facilitate deforestation. To explore this tradeoff, this article develops a spatially explicit model of land use and estimates probabilities of alternative land uses as a function of land characteristics and distance to market using a multinomial logit specification of this model. Controls are incorporated for the endogeneity of road placement. The model is applied to data for southern Belize, an area experiencing rapid expansion of both subsistence and commercial agriculture using geographic information system (GIS) techniques to select sample points at 1-kilometer intervals. Market access, land quality, and tenure status affect the probability of agricultural land use synergistically, having differential effects on the likelihood of commercial versus semisubsistence farming. The results suggest that road building in areas with agriculturally poor soils and low population densities may be a "lose-lose" proposition, causing habitat fragmentation and providing low economic returns. Copyright 1996 by Oxford University Press.
El estudio de siete muestras fecales de tigrillo, Leopardus pardalis, encontradas en un bosque andino colombiano, entre 2200 y 2900m de altitud, permitió obtener una visión preliminar de los hábitos alimentarios de este felino. Leopardus pardalis consumió principalmente mamíferos, ˜90% de las presas y también aves. Entre los mamíferos, los de <400 g y de > 400 g representaron ˜52% y ˜38% de las presas, respectivamente. La frecuencia relativa de presas de < 400 g es alta comparada con lo presentado por otros estudios; posiblemente, se deba a que depredadores de mayor tamaño han desaparecido del área de estudio, lo que permite al tigrillo ampliar su rango de tamaño de presas, al convertirse en el mayor depredador del bosque.
Abstract A huge road network with vehicles ramifies across the land, representing a surprising frontier of ecology. Species-rich roadsides are conduits for few species. Roadkills are a premier mortality source, yet except for local spots, rates rarely limit population size. Road avoidance, especially due to traffic noise, has a greater ecological impact. The still-more-important barrier effect subdivides populations, with demographic and probably genetic consequences. Road networks crossing landscapes cause local hydrologic and erosion effects, whereas stream networks and distant valleys receive major peak-flow and sediment impacts. Chemical effects mainly occur near roads. Road networks interrupt horizontal ecological flows, alter landscape spatial pattern, and therefore inhibit important interior species. Thus, road density and network structure are informative landscape ecology assays. Australia has huge road-reserve networks of native vegetation, whereas the Dutch have tunnels and overpasses perforating road barriers to enhance ecological flows. Based on road-effect zones, an estimated 15–20% of the United States is ecologically impacted by roads.
This review examines the ecol&cal effects of roads and utility corridors such as powerlines, pipelines, canals and raihvay l i e s on undisturbed h a b i i and native wildlife. Public concern about roads in natural areas is increasing, as shown by the public protests against forest roads in the Central Highlands of Victoria and the IYational Estate areas in the south-east forests of New South Wales. The Daintree Road through Queensland's tropical rainforest created an international protest and remains Australia's most notorious road. The original Very Fast Train (VFT) proposal favoured a route which would have divided the two major wilderness areas of the Giipsland forests in Victoria by creating a fenced impenetrable barrier to some wildlife. Planning authorities need to address the anpacts of hagmentation of natural h a b i i by such developments. Although it is diflicult to draw conclusions from a comparison of studies covering m e r e n t countries* species and habits, areas of concern for wildlife consewation and management emerge, including increased mortal@, divided populations and invasions of common species. There is a need for studies on the effects of these linear e c t s on Australian wildlife.
Subsistence hunting and commercial exploitation directly influence wildlife populations in many regions of Central and South America. Where prey populations are exploited, the foraging ecology of top-level predators can be effected negatively. This study assessed the food habits and prey selection of jaguar Panthera
onca and puma Puma
concolor within hunted and non-hunted segments of the Maya Biosphere Reserve (MBR), Guatemala. Food habits were determined from analysis of 76 jaguar and 145 puma scats collected within hunted and non-hunted areas of the MBR from February 2000 to August 2001. Diets of jaguar and puma were compared (1) within species between areas with and without hunting to evaluate effects of subsistence hunting, and (2) between species to evaluate resource partitioning between these sympatric carnivores. Origin of predator scats was determined from mitochondrial DNA, diets were determined from prey remnants found within scats, and frequency of prey in scats was compared to expected values based on prey density estimates to test the hypothesis that diets of jaguar and puma were selective. Densities of major prey species were estimated using line-transect sampling. White-lipped peccary Tayassu
pecari, collared peccary Tayassu
tajacu and brocket deer Mazama sp. were less abundant, and coatis Nasua
nasua more abundant, in the hunted area than in the non-hunted area. Jaguar and puma in both hunted and non-hunted sites obtained similar dietary contributions from large prey to their respective diets despite differences in the abundance of these prey species. Diets of jaguar and puma, as measured by percentage biomass occurrence of prey species, did not differ between hunted and non-hunted areas. Jaguar diets were dominated by medium-sized prey, particularly armadillos Dasypus
novemcinctus and coatis, in both hunted and non-hunted areas. Medium-sized mammals also were prominent in puma diets, but large mammals constituted approximately 50% of prey biomass in both hunted and non-hunted areas. Deer Odocoileus
virginianus and Mazama sp. and large rodents Agouti
paca and Dasyprocta
punctata were the most important prey of puma. Dietary overlap between jaguar and puma in both hunted and non-hunted areas was low.
A huge road network with vehicles ramifies across the land, representing a surprising frontier of ecology. Species-rich roadsides are conduits for few species. Roadkills are a premier mortality source, yet except for local spots, rates rarely limit population size. Road avoidance, especially due to traffic noise, has a greater ecological impact. The still-more-important barrier effect subdivides populations, with demographic and probably genetic consequences. Road networks crossing landscapes cause local hydrologic and erosion effects, whereas stream networks and distant valleys receive major peak-flow and sediment impacts. Chemical effects mainly occur near roads. Road networks interrupt horizontal ecological flows, alter landscape spatial pattern, and therefore inhibit important interior species. Thus, road density and network structure are informative landscape ecology assays. Australia has huge road-reserve networks of native vegetation, whereas the Dutch have tunnels and overpasses perforating road barriers to enhance ecological flows. Based on road-effect zones, an estimated 15-20% of the United States is ecologically impacted by roads.
http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/57059/1/OP623.pdf
Aporte sobre la taxonomía y distribución de los puercoespines (Rodentia: Erethizontidae) en Colombia
- M Alberico
- V Rojas-Díaz
- J G Moreno
Alberico, M., Rojas-Díaz, V., and Moreno, J.G. (1999). Aporte sobre la
taxonomía y distribución de los puercoespines (Rodentia:
Erethizontidae) en Colombia. Rev. Acad. Colomb. Cienc. Exact.
Fis. Nat. 23 (Supl. especial) 23: 595-612.