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International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
International Journal of Educational Research Open
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijedro
Left behind? The eects of digital gaps on e-learning in rural secondary
schools and remote communities across Nigeria during the COVID19
pandemic
Gideon Seun Olanrewaju
a
, Seun Bunmi Adebayo
b , ∗
, Abiodun Yetunde Omotosho
a
,
Charles Falajiki Olajide
a
a
Aid for Rural Education Access Initiative (AREAi), Nigeria
b
National University of Ireland Galway, Ireland, England
Keywords:
Covid19
Digital gaps
SDG4
Digital needs
e-learning
The COVID19 pandemic has contributed to a digital economy by emphasising the importance of digital infras-
tructure while exposing the digital gaps between countries and communities. For example, during the period of
COVID19, schools were closed with no option of online learning due to a decit of infrastructure around ed-
ucational technologies. Inequalities in digital access have impeded educational gains made towards achieving
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Though signicant studies have been carried out on digital learning,
there is currently a dearth of knowledge on students’ digital gaps and needs in remote communities in Nigeria. To
this end, this research study explored the digital gaps and needs of rural secondary schools in remote communi-
ties and its implications on e-learning across 6 Nigerian states, namely Kwara, Ekiti, Ebonyi, Bayelsa, Adamawa,
and Kano during the COVID19 era. The study adopted a concurrent embedded mixed method design approach
to collect data from rural secondary schools from 6 Nigerian states. Findings from the study identied a lack of
ICT strategies and policies in Nigeria, socioeconomic status, poor internet connectivity, electricity, and a high
poverty level as the primary drivers of digital gaps in remote communities. Therefore, addressing the digital gaps
among students in remote parts of Nigeria will be crucial to achieving the targets of SDGs, particularly SDG 4:
Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all by 2030.
1. Introduction
Across the world, access to information and communication tech-
nologies (ICTs) and digital literacy, which is vital to knowledge em-
powerment, information generation, and utilisation, is unequally dis-
tributed both in terms of access to digital tools and infrastructure
( Ijeh et al., 2016 ). Despite the prominent role of ICTs in information
generation, processing and use in the 21st century, it can be argued
that widespread usage and adoption is still growing in several devel-
oping economies ( UNDESA, 2018 ). Within the sub-Saharan context, for
example, Ferri et al. (2020) highlight poor internet connectivity, poor
infrastructural facilities, lack of operational capabilities and low teacher
quality. These barriers have limited the applicability and integration
of ICT into key human capital development processes, such as learn-
ing and teaching within school environments. This is consistent with
Buabeng-Andoh (2012) ndings, who argued that the lack of sustainable
investments in ICT infrastructure perpetuates digital exclusion despite
technological advancements. Clearly, the global economy continues to
∗ Corresponding author:
E-mail addresses: lanre@areai4africa.org (G.S. Olanrewaju), s.adebayo2@nuigalway.ie (S.B. Adebayo).
thrive on digital innovation, and, this to a large extent, has led to ad-
vancement in sustainable development. Invariably, for countries whose
citizens cannot eectively and eciently deploy ICTs to access, process,
share, exchange, utilise or transmit knowledge or quality information,
attaining sustainable development will remain a mirage ( Ijeh et al.,
2016 ).
Globally, Africa is home to the largest population of individuals with-
out internet connectivity (88%), with Asia having the highest number
of people with access to the internet ( Google & International Finance
Corporation, 2020 ). Nigeria, one of Africa’s largest economies, has only
about 111.6 million internet users, about 46% of its estimated popu-
lation of 206.1 million people still lack access to internet connectivity
( Adeleke, 2021 ; Pontianus & Oruonye, 2021 ). Nevertheless, the digital
divide faced globally is not representative of just those who have and
do not have access to the internet ( International Telecommunications
Union, 2019 ). This gap also includes several other discrepancies, such
as internet connectivity speed, digital facilities and technological knowl-
edge available in remote areas ( Bahia & Suardi, 2019 ). We, therefore,
argue that the complexity around the digital divide is problematic. How-
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100092
Received 26 July 2021; Received in revised form 1 November 2021; Accepted 4 November 2021
2666-3740/© 2021 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ )
G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
Table 1
Socio-demographics of Respondents
Socio-demographics of Respondents
Average age of respondents 17.5 ± 1.5 years
Age of respondents < = 14 years (2.9%)15-19 years (89.9%) > = 20 (7.2%)
Sex Females (52.9%)Male (47.1%)
Class SS3 (67.7%)SS2 (24.2%)SS1 (8.1%)
Religion Christians (62.3%)Muslims (37.7%)
State Adamawa (27.5%)Bayelsa (29.0%)Ebonyi (14.5%)Kano (29.0%)
Table 2
Socio-demographic variables
Demographics Frequency Percentage (%)
Sex (n = 68) Male 32 47.1
Female 36 52.9
Religion (n = 69) ChristianMuslim 4326 62.337.7
Ethnicity (n = 69) IgboHausaBayelsaFulani 1211719 17.430.424.627.5
Class (n = 62) Jss3 5 8.1
SS2SS3 1542 24.267.7
States (n = 69 ) KanoAdamawaBayelsaEbonyi 20192010 29.027.529.014.5
Table 3
Identifying the digital needs of rural secondary school students
Reasons for not learning via the Govt. digital learning intervention Freq(%)
During the lockdown, did you know about the radio and television programme provided by the Govt.Yes 27(45.8)
No 32(54.2)
Did you learn via the radio and television programme provided by the Govt.?
Yes 19(28.4)
No 48(71.6)
What were the reasons why you could not participate in the virtual learning provided (Cost)
Yes 40(74.1)
No 14(25.9)
What were the reasons why you could not participate in the virtual learning provided (preference for face-to-face teaching)
Yes 27(61.4)
No 17(38.6)
ever, despite the extensive studies on the digital divide and its impact,
most developing countries are still looking for long-term solutions to ad-
dress it ( Afolayan, 2008 ; Katz, 2020 ; Scheerder et al., 2017 ). More so,
due to disparities in technology access between urban and rural areas,
countries struggle to leverage emerging advancements in Information
Technology (IT) for greater economic and social benets, and increased
global competitiveness ( Ohemeng & Ofosu-Adarkwa, 2014 ).
Evidence from previous studies and literature on measuring internet
access, mobile internet usage or technology adoption in sub-Saharan
Africa (SSA) ( Buabeng-Andoh, 2012; Calandro & Wang, 2012; Hart &
Laher, 2015 ) attributes unequal access to and dierentiated usage of
internet and digital technologies for information, communication and
professional development purposes to key individual characteristics and
household factors. As Frankfurter et al. (2020) posit, key determinants
include but are not limited to socioeconomic and demographic variables
like education and income levels and gender, age, and geographical lo-
cation. Consequently, as digital penetration continues to grow widely
globally and enables digital literacies for citizens of developed coun-
tries, aordability, accessibility, and digital technologies remain an un-
precedented challenge in African economies ( IMF, 2020 ). Undoubtedly,
the complex causative impact of cost and convenience on access and
usage are key adoption factors perpetuating the rural-urban digital di-
vide ( Reddick et al., 2020 ). This digital poverty and social marginality
is the reality of millions of children from poorer socioeconomic back-
grounds in Nigeria who have limited access to internet connectivity
or lack essential digital technologies such as laptops and smartphones
( Adeleke, 2021 ). Unarguably, if internet access and digital tools are
readily available, easily accessible and aordable to a maximal extent,
there would be increased digital adoption and prociency with digital
technology and online communications for more individuals and house-
holds. Furthermore, exploring digital gaps most signicantly in a pan-
demic context has gained the interest of eld experts and development
practitioners ( Ramalingam & Prabhu, 2020 ; World Bank, 2020 ).
At the onset of the COVID19 pandemic, and as a response to massive
school closures globally, the continuity of teaching and learning within
formal educational systems became signicantly dependent on the abil-
ity to engage in online learning activities or an access to educational
materials digitally ( Dhawan, 2020 ). The emergent trend in electronic
teaching and learning presents new opportunities as well as grave im-
plications. As traditional classroom teaching transitions to online learn-
ing delivery, bridging existing digital gaps between students and teach-
ers and those who are not connected became imminent and pertinent
( Dayagbil et al., 2021 ; UNESCO, 2020 ). In Nigeria, over 39,440,016
learners in elementary and secondary schools and makeshift learning
centres in internally displaced persons (IDP) camps could not access
learning opportunities in mainstream settings. The immediate urgency
to close schools to contain the spread of COVID19 did not match up
with the expected pro-active mobilisation of support for educational
access through digital means. Although school closures at rst led to
a perceived proliferation of online learning, it is arguable that the ef-
forts made by the federal and state governments across Nigeria to en-
sure that learning continues for every child did not full the set ob-
jectives ( Adegoke et al., 2020 ). According to UNICEF (2020 , p. 1),
the proportion of students unable to benet from "digital and broad-
cast remote learning policies is the highest in SSA: at least 48 per cent
in West and Central Africa and 49 per cent in Eastern and Southern
Africa." McBurnie, Adam and Kaye (2020) argued that the disparities
in technology-supported learning across several West African countries
are widespread amidst marginalised students who have little access to
online learning tools. OECD (2020) also posited that as many countries
2
G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
continue to leverage digital pedagogical tools for online learning inter-
actions between students and their teachers, attention needs to shift to
marginalised students as they require additional support in accessing
learning opportunities. According to The Education Partnership (TEP)
centre in a 2020 study on learning during the pandemic, of the estimated
34 million Nigerian students missing out on learning opportunities dur-
ing the COVID19 pandemic, about 70% do not have access to essential
digital devices. Additionally, not all teachers have the technical capacity
to facilitate e-learning with competence varying across rural and urban
locations.
To ensure equitable technology-supported educational provision
during current and future humanitarian emergencies and educational
crises, there needs to be an in-depth understanding of the digital inequal-
ities at the individual, household, or communal levels. As a response to
this logical necessity, this study is set to explore the digital gaps and
needs of secondary schools in remote communities across 6 Nigerian
states using the New Psychological model within a digital divide and
inclusion framework ( Abah, 2019 ).
Therefore, this research paper is guided by the following research
questions:
1 What are the causes of digital gaps in rural secondary schools and
remote communities across 6 Nigerian states?
2 What are the digital needs of students in rural secondary schools and
remote communities across 6 Nigerian states?
3 What is the eect of digital gaps on e-learning in rural secondary
schools and remote communities across 6 Nigerian states during the
COVID19 pandemic?
This paper is divided into seven sections. Section one above describes
the background of the study and research questions. Sections two and
three address the review of the literature on digital learning with spe-
cial reference to Nigeria and the theoretical framework adopted for this
study. Section four discusses the methodology employed in this study,
sections ve and six cover the results, discussion and implications, and
section seven presents the limitations and conclusion.
2. Literature Review
2.1. Digital learning during COVID19 era
No doubt, the COVID19 pandemic brought about a new era within
education sectors across the world by highlighting the importance of e-
learning ( Azubuike, Adegboye & Quadri, 2020 ). E-Learning is focused
on delivering instructional design principles that are well-designed and
learner-centred while providing interactive learning environments to
anyone, any place, and at any time ( Eze, Chinedu-Eze, & Bello, 2018;
Hedge & Hayward, 2004 ), e-learning refers to information and telecom-
munications technologies and digital resources for teaching and learn-
ing activities. In most developed countries, e-learning has been adopted
to provide learning for individuals living in hard-to-reach communities
because of time, distance, and cost ( Hedge & Hayward, 2004 ). This
e-learning strategy has provided high-quality content delivery for ev-
ery individual’s needs ( Obuekwe & Eze, 2017 ) while aiding retention
among teachers and learners due to its immediate feedback mechanism.
All over the world, e-learning continues to be an innovative way to
bridge the digital divide, learning loss and advancement of develop-
ment ( Obuekwe & Eze, 2017 ). More so, it is believed that e-learning
solutions and strategies are often less expensive to deliver, self-paced,
provides consistent content, faster access with features that work any-
where and anytime ( Obuekwe & Eze, 2017 ). However, in Nigeria, the
level of e-learning adoption is still in its infancy, majorly due to poor
commitment to its full implementation across all levels of education
( Akinrinola, Adebayo, Onakpoya, & Nwaozuru, 2020 ). Although when
fully implemented in Nigeria, e-learning will change the concept of a
digital divide to digital opportunities ( Nwegbu et al., 2011 ).
The term "digital divide" emerged in the 21st century because of
emergent innovations in ICTs. It has become the universally accepted
term explaining unequal access to and usage of ICT ( Rallet & Roche-
landet, 2007 ). As further described by OECD (2000 , p.10), the digi-
tal divide exists as a "gap between individuals, households, businesses
and geographical areas at dierent socioeconomic levels with regard"
to their opportunities to access the internet or digital tools and use
such for a variety of purposes. This inequality manifests as social and
physical barriers, from never having seen a computer to the absence of
electricity infrastructure and the cost of internet connectivity ( Esteban-
Navarro et al., 2020 ). Drori (2010) , in a review of literature on globali-
sation and technology divides, observed that globally, the digital divide
follows the lines of gender, wealth, education, race, minority designa-
tion, whereas, between countries, it follows the lines of national wealth,
literacy, and democracy. Recent studies on the digital divide and its re-
sultant eects in Nigeria highlights infrastructural inadequacies, lack
of computer skills, poor internet access, disparities in internet usage,
unreliable electricity as leading determinants ( Akanbi & Akanbi, 2012 ;
Tayo, Thompson, & Thompson 2015 ). These ndings are also consis-
tent with Adeleke (2021) community-level survey of the experiences
of individuals across Nigeria with varying income and internet access
levels and how this reects as determinants of the digital divide. As
Wong et al. (2010) posit from the South Asian perspective, digital ex-
clusion is the new form of social exclusion, aecting people with lower
income, individuals living in geographically remote areas with poor ac-
cess to inadequate infrastructure coverage. This means that as the 21st
century continues to unfold, having access to and using the new tech-
nologies implies being an integral part of the society, and people with
limited access get outpaced by those with access ( Wong et al., 2010 ).
2.2. Consequences of digital gaps on learning during COVID19
In the wake of the COVID19 pandemic, over 181 countries imple-
mented a nationwide school closure as a preventive strategy to curtail
the spread of the virus ( United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cul-
tural Organisation (UNESCO), 2020 ). The ripple eect of this measure
resulted in over 1.5 billion students being out of school ( UNESCO, 2020 ).
In cushioning the eect of this strategy on learning, governments of
various countries and international agencies recommended the adop-
tion of e-learning worldwide ( UNESCO, 2020 ). Although the measure
to prevent learning disruption through the adoption of e-learning was
an applaudable strategy, it recorded poor outcomes in a certain context.
Massive school closures in Africa exposed the unequal access to digi-
tal technologies and the aws in the administrative processes necessary
for governments to eectively deliver online learning for their students
( McBurnie, Adam & Kaye, 2020 ; Lynch, Singhal & Francis 2020 ).
In Nigeria, the education system was severely aected because teach-
ing and learning could not be carried out via an e-learning platform,
especially for students attending public schools ( Azubuike, Adegboye &
Quadri, 2020 ). In 2020, the Digital Global Overview Report submitted
that about 60% of people from Nigeria do not have access to the inter-
net. Also, a report by United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural
Organisation. UNESCO (2020) found that about 89% of students in SSA
do not have access to computers, while 82% lack access to the internet.
It has been observed that access to internet connection being pivoted
towards households with higher socioeconomic status. As typically ex-
pected in rural areas across Nigeria, diculties with online learning
opportunities remain prevalent due to infrastructural inadequacies and
a lack of technical capabilities. As ( Ubi & Ofre, 2021 ) reported, students
in rural areas suered signicant neglect as government e-learning in-
terventions were out of reach because of poor internet access coverage
and a lack of radio and television devices. This was further bolstered
by Adarkwah (2021) and Azubuike, Adegboye, and Quadri (2020) , who
reported that in Africa, students with parents who are auent in the
society had better access to online learning experiences than their coun-
terparts from poor households.
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G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
Furthermore, education for many years continues to be a haven for
children as it provides hope for a brighter future in addition to safety
and protection. A prolonged lack of access leads to an increase in the
number of vulnerable and unprotected children, with an upshoot in the
likelihood of children who will be exposed to the risks of child labour,
forced marriage, and tracking ( Aborode et al., 2020 ). A similar study
in South Africa reported a long period of learning loss because of the
lockdown ( Mahaye, 2020 ). This further reinforces the ndings by Keki ć
and Miladinovi ć (2013) that reported the negative implications of any
pandemic on a country’s learning process for an extended period. Addi-
tionally, they found that this eventually leads to a chain reaction that
disrupts the educational system’s curriculum and increases out-of-school
children.
2.3. Challenges of e-learning in Nigeria
Education in Nigeria continues to suer various setbacks due to poor
budgetary allocation, corruption, and unpreparedness ( Adebayo & Ade-
bayo, 2017 ; Adeoye et al., 2020 ). An in-depth look at the budgetary
allocation of Nigeria to its education sector in the last 10 years shows
an unfavourable decline from the 15-20% recommended by UNESCO.
Against this backdrop, the inability of many public schools in Nigeria
to adopt e-learning cannot be overemphasised. This can be attributed
to the funding inadequacies that belittles signicant progress within the
education sector ( UNESCO, 2020 ).
Another fundamental challenge that hinders the widespread adop-
tion of e-learning is an unstable power supply ( Adeoye et al., 2020 ).
A study by Blimpo and Cosgrove-Davies (2019) on electricity access in
Nigeria estimated that most individuals living in rural and remote ar-
eas are not guaranteed a maximum of two hours of power supply daily.
Additionally, most rural areas in Nigeria are not even connected to the
National Grid ( Adeoye et al., 2020 ). Many students in rural communities
are constantly faced with total blackout or a limited supply of electric-
ity. Hence most digital tools such as mobile devices and computers have
not been powered ( Abdullahi et al., 2020 ). Realistically, most e-learning
platforms require ample internet data, and purchasing data bundles is
on the high side ( Budiman, 2020 ). This poses diculty for both students
and teachers in Nigeria, where more than half of her citizens live below
$1 per day ( Abdullahi et al., 2020 ).
Even in exceedingly rare cases where students have access to free
or inexpensive data, poor internet connectivity is a major cause of con-
cern ( Frankfurter et al., 2020 ). Also, considering the income level of
an average worker in Nigeria, the cost of purchasing most digital de-
vices such as computers and mobile phones is high impeding access to
digital learning ( Chair & De Lannoy, 2018 ). Although parents and care-
givers are believed to help school children with their learning during
the lockdown, most parents in rural areas have no formal education or
background in online learning to support students in remote communi-
ties ( Abdullahi et al., 2020 ; Akinrinmade, Ammani & Zuilkowski, 2021 ).
There will continue to be heightened risks of increased social inequal-
ities if digital technology remains inaccessible ( ILO, 2017 ). In summa-
tion, these identied challenges to e-learning in Nigeria compromises
accessibility to ICT infrastructure for educational purposes and widen
digital inequalities.
3. Theoretical Framework
3.1. New Psychological Model of e-adoption within the context of the
digital divide
Thatcher and Ndabeni (2011) developed a more comprehensive
model of e-adoption in the context of the Digital Divide, based on the
framework of existing technology-adoption models. This model is re-
ferred to as the New Psychological Model (NPM). The primary start-
ing point of this model focuses on the awareness about the existence
of technology and its positive impact on socioeconomic advancement
( Thatcher & Ndabeni, 2011 ). The perception of one’s socioeconomic
environment is either inuenced by its negative or positive impact
factors ( Thatcher & Ndabeni, 2011 ). While positive-impact factors in-
clude favourable perceptions towards technological infrastructure, em-
ployment levels, and education and training systems. Negative-impact
factors on the other hand, comprise negative perceptions of poverty,
corruption, bribery, and access to basic resources ( Thatcher & Nd-
abeni, 2011 ).
Highly negative-impact perceptions of the socioeconomic environ-
ment force people to meet basic needs (e.g. water, food, and shel-
ter) with a positive-impact perception. Also, giving room for a cogni-
tive space that makes people explore the new technological territory
( Thatcher & Ndabeni, 2011 ). Furthermore, Abah (2019) , who uses the
NPM in his study on digital inclusion among mathematics education in
Nigeria, nds that social pressure on students to use technology may
result from close relationships such as family, friends, and supervisors
and other social networking processes. Additionally, there is a mutual
relationship between this social pressure and the socio-economic envi-
ronment and the availability of a specic type of technology within a
particular social construct ( Thatcher & Ndabeni, 2011 ).
In understanding the digital needs of rural communities for e-
learning, this model provides insight for us to better understand the
causes of digital gaps in rural secondary schools and remote commu-
nities in Nigeria. We argue that it is imperative to understand that ev-
eryone’s needs depend on their socioeconomic environment, which is
majorly inuenced by their perception that either this technology has a
positive or negative impact on their well-being ( Abah, 2019 ; Thatcher &
Ndabeni, 2011 ). This means that in introducing any new technology, it
is necessary to have an in-depth knowledge of how this technology will
inuence learning, especially during the COVID19 pandemic ( Thatcher
& Ndabeni, 2011 ). No community will adopt any digital learning tech-
nology perceived to have a negative impact factor, such as poverty and
diculty in accessing the technology. This will force people to concen-
trate on meeting basic psychological needs, e.g. water, food and shel-
ter. For our research study, we engage the NPM by giving attention to
the need to understand the aspects of quantity, extent and quality of
the usage, and if it brings out the socioeconomic upliftment’s eect on
learners ( Thatcher & Ndabeni, 2011 ). Furthermore, using the NPM as a
theoretical lens for this study, we explore the relationship between so-
cioeconomic outcomes and digital gaps as well as the needs of students
in remote rural secondary schools across Nigeria during the COVID19
pandemic.
4. Research Methodology
4.1. Study design
The study adopted a concurrent embedded mixed-method design.
This is a type of study design where quantitative and qualitative data
are analysed simultaneously because the quantitative data alone would
not be sucient to answer the research question ( Creswell & Plano
Clark, 2011 ). The intent is for the qualitative data to provide additional
information based on the premise that the quantitative data will not
be sucient to answer the dierent research questions requiring an-
swers ( Creswell et al., 2003 ). Hence, the quantitative and qualitative
data was used to answer dierent research questions within the study
( Hanson et al., 2005 ). Using a mixed-methods design enables the prag-
matic understanding of the research phenomena from multiple realities
rather than eliciting responses from a singular perspective.
4.2. Study site
This study was conducted in Government-owned secondary schools
in 24 rural communities in Kwara, Ebonyi, Ekiti, Kano, Adamawa and
Bayelsa states.
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G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
The purposive selection of states, communities and schools was in-
formed by data from the Nigerian National Broad-Band Plan 2020-2025,
which ranks states according to levels of internet connectivity. Data ob-
tained on the state of digital exclusion in Nigeria shows that internet
bre reach per population in the states and communities of this study
was below 50%.
4.3. Data
The data for this study was obtained from a survey funded by the
Foreign Commonwealth Development Organization and conducted by
the Aid for Rural Education Access initiative between January 2021 and
February 2021. The survey sampled 90 respondents from 24 communi-
ties in the Kwara, Ebonyi, Ekiti, Kano, Adamawa and Bayelsa. The study
used both closed and open-ended questions to elicit information on the
causes of digital gaps in rural secondary schools, the digital needs of stu-
dents in these schools, the eect of digital gaps on e-learning processes in
these rural secondary schools during the COVID19 pandemic and strate-
gies to promote digital inclusion. Informed consent was obtained from
students. Before the interviews at the communities and school levels, we
organised an information session for school administrators and key com-
munity leaders. Parents provided written and verbal consent for children
below the age of 18. other respondents above the age of 18 signed o
consent forms.
4.4. Sample size determination
4.4.1. Qualitative data
A total of 20 eligible respondents who consent to voluntarily partic-
ipate in the research study were interviewed for the study as saturation
was attained with these numbers, i.e., where no new themes emerged
( Creswell et al., 2003 ). In recruiting those respondents, the focus was
on identifying respondents whose lived experiences of the digital divide
was consistent, reliable, uniform and objective in line with our research
inquiry.
As part of our duty to keep the participants’ information condential,
condentiality agreements were presented at the beginning of the data
collection process. As Crow et al. (2006) note, discussing the subject of
condentiality at the onset of data collection aids in acquiring informed
consent and helps build trust with the respondents.
4.4.2. Quantitative data
A purposive sampling technique ( Patton, 1990 ) was adopted to select
a total of 70 participants from 24 rural communities in 6 states selected
for this study.
4.5. Method for data collection
4.5.1. Qualitative data collection
An in-depth interview guide was used to obtain qualitative data. All
interviews were conducted in the English language. All the respondents
show they can read eciently, write clearly, listen precisely, and speak
uently in this language, rather than their local language. The inter-
views were semi-structured following the research questions and in-
cluded open-ended questions as well as "probe" questions. The in-depth
interview guide was used to elicit information on the eect of digital
gaps on e-learning in rural secondary schools during the COVID19 pan-
demic.
4.5.2. Quantitative data collection
A validated, semi-structured self-administered questionnaire was
used for data collection. The questionnaire was designed to obtain in-
formation on;
1 What are the causes of digital gaps in rural secondary schools and
remote communities across 6 Nigerian states?
2 What are the digital needs of students in rural secondary schools and
remote communities across 6 Nigerian states?
3 What is the eect of digital gaps on e-learning in rural secondary
schools and remote communities across 6 Nigerian states during the
COVID19 pandemic?
4.6. Inclusion and exclusion criteria
4.6.1. Inclusion criteria
The following group of participants were recruited for the study:
• Male and female secondary students who were between the ages of
14 and above
• Students attending a rural Government school
• Students who consented to participate in the study
4.6.2. Exclusion criteria
The following group of students were excluded from the study:
• Students who did not consent to participate in the study
• Students that could not speak the English language
4.7. Data analysis
Questionnaires were sorted, collated, serially numbered, and im-
puted into the computer. Descriptive analysis was done using the Statis-
tical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 26 software version. Data was
cleaned, and descriptive statistics such as frequency means and stan-
dard deviation were carried out to respond to the identied research
questions.
Qualitative data was rst transcribed verbatim, followed by a pre-
liminary familiarisation of data to get the general sense of the data and
reect on its meaning. Two researchers did this to ascertain intercoder
reliability. Following this, the two researchers developed the codes and
codebook. Thereafter, a more detailed analysis was performed, and data
was organised under dierent headings that depict a dierent segment
of the discussion. The analysis aimed to look for trends and patterns that
reappear within the interview. For data analysis, the thematic analysis
approach ( Braun & Clarke, 2006 ) was employed for the study. A list of
themes was generated, revised, and compiled into categories labelled as
key ndings. These key ndings were analysed to determine the inter-
connectedness of issues and conditions that may have given rise to the
categories. As such, there was high levels of agreement about these is-
sues and signicant consistency in how the issues were discussed among
the interviewees.
Additionally, the study’s rigour was ensured by noting the audit trail
on all decisions made during the study. Furthermore, intercoder relia-
bility was done by involving two or more independent coders using the
same coding scheme and then allowing the extent to which they agree
on the coding to inuence the analysis. Questions on reexivity, which
included reection on assumptions and preconceptions, were consid-
ered and stated. Finally, there was a triangulation of both qualitative
and quantitative data by analysing data independently and comparing
these data to understand how results from both methods inform each
other to increase the validity of the study.
5. Results
5.1. Socio-demographics of participants
The study showed that the average age of respondents was 17.5 ±
1.5 years, with the minimum age being 14 years and the maximum age
being 21 years. Majority (89.9%) were within the age group of 15 to19
years, with a little over half of the respondents being females (52.9%).
More than half of the respondents were in Senior Secondary level 3 (SS3)
(67.7%) and Christians (62.3%), with a little above one-quarter of the
participants being Hausa (30.4%).
5
G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
Fig. 1. Age of participants
5.2. Assessing the level of digital gaps in rural secondary schools
Fig. 2 below shows the level of digital gaps in rural secondary
schools. A higher proportion (63.1%) of students reported not having
access to digital learning tools prior to the pandemic. Majority (61.1%)
did not have access to a phone, 84.1% did not have access to a laptop,
and 75.4% did not have access to the internet. More than half (53.8%)
of the students did not have access to a radio, and 66.7% did not have
access to a television. Slightly over half (50.8%) of the participants re-
ported that they had their learning disrupted during the school closure.
As shown in the Fig. above, the majority (82.5%) of students that learnt
during the pandemic did not have access to any school online manage-
ment learning system, while 70.7% of the students stated that they did
not have access to any radio or television programme provided by the
government. Together, the results conrm the causative impact of the
lack of digital technologies at either home, community, or school levels
during the COVID19 pandemic. This reality suggests that the govern-
ment responses to digital access and delivery of e-learning opportunities
during emergencies must account for the availability of mobile learning
tools and infrastructural provision at community levels.
5.3. Identifying the digital needs of rural secondary schools
In identifying the digital needs of secondary school students in rural
communities, we asked participants questions relating to why students
could not participate in the digital learning intervention provided by the
government. We also explored what signicant factors impeded students
learning and strategies to improve digital learning in their communities.
Results from the study found that More than Half (54.2%) of the par-
ticipants were not aware of learning intervention provided by the gov-
ernment and for the few (45.8%) that were aware of the programme, the
majority (71.6%) did not learn via the radio and television programmes
with a little above half (51%) attributing lack of time as the reason, with
a high percentage (74.1%) stating cost and preference for face-to-face
learning (61.4%).
5.4. Factors impeding access to digital learning among students
The reported factors impeding digital learning among students were
lack of technical know-how (78%), nancial constraints (84.1%), pref-
erence for face-to-face learning (72.9%), electricity (85.3%), access to
digital learning tools (73%), and cost (88.2%). Only a few (24.2%) stu-
dents stated factors such as internet connectivity and lack of parental
support (49%) as a factor impeding their digital learning. Our nd-
ings reveal how poor access to technology, limited support networks
and contextual realities interfere with the experiences of rural students
in accessing e-learning opportunities during the pandemic. These rural
students’ experiences cast a new light on how observable or unobserv-
able disparities in demographic and socioeconomic realities contribute
to digital exclusion.
5.5. Strategies to promote digital inclusion in schools
From table 4 below, almost all (95.1%) of the students agreed that
access to digital information improves their digital literacy skills. Fur-
thermore, 97.1% of the students suggested the need for having ICT re-
lated subjects in schools. Majority (69.6%) of the students cannot aord
the cost of using digital learning tools, while 87% of the students believe
that there is a need for school-based ICT centres. All students mentioned
the need for an ICT teacher, with (98.5%) opining the need for students
training on ICT. A higher percentage of students (84.8%) and (93.8%)
preferred the provision of mobile phones access to internet connectivity.
In summary, our key ndings from the quantitative data reveal that
the lack of digital technologies in rural communities to ensure continu-
ous learning during the pandemic results from the poor socioeconomic
status of students and their families. Furthermore, the experiences of
rural students to access digital learning opportunities reects inherent
issues of equity and inclusion within Nigeria’s education system.
5.6. Effect of digital gaps on e-learning during the COVID19 pandemic
The eect of digital gap refers to the lack of benets of e-learning
opportunities, especially during the pandemic. Most of the participants
have reported the eect of e-learning in the areas of readiness to e-
learning, insucient knowledge and low level of awareness of digital
learning tools. Sub-themes from the qualitative data include inadequate
e-learning resources and unavailability of teachers to support students
on the use of e-learning.
5.6.1. Inadequate e-learning resources
Students in this study identied the lack of access to education tech-
nologies and insucient e-learning platforms disrupting their learning
during the pandemic. In the words of the students:
"Even before the lockdown, I had no access to phone, internet. I don’t
know how to use Google classroom, Zoom or WhatsApp" - Female, South
West.
"Although teachers have WhatsApp group to communicate with one an-
other, they did not share this group with us. In fact, we did not have any
online lesson, the purpose of not having this online lesson is because we are
not in a private school. Schools like REOMICHS had online lessons our
teachers were saying there was WhatsApp group. This WhatsApp group
cannot help us because if it was that we had a website and all of us can
go to that website. The website will show all the subjects that we have and
we can learn from it. But having a Facebook or WhatsApp group cannot
help us" - Male, SS3, North Central
"Because of the lockdown we had to just go home and when we resumed
there were things we could not recollect, and they had to start all over
again" - Female 17, North Central
5.6.2. Unavailability of teachers to support students on the use of e-learning
Data from students highlight the absence of skilled teachers to both
deliver digital learning as well support students using the available e-
learning platforms:
"Yes, because one of the challenges is the teachers are no longer teaching
us, I am on my own. I am even confused whenever I carry my book I
cannot be able to understand everything but with the help of the teachers
I can understand it very well"- Female, SS3, South East
"Number 1, learning on my own was boring because if I was learning
online, it will not be only me. And two again I might not be able to be
6
G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
Fig. 2. Assessing the level of digital gaps in rural secondary schools
Fig. 3. Factors impeding access to digital learning among students
exposed to some pictures about the things I might be reading and this
pictures and videos will be able to help me" - Male SS2, North Central
6. Discussions and Implications
This study presents ndings detailing the various challenges expe-
rienced by secondary school students in rural Nigeria in accessing e-
learning opportunities during the COVID19 pandemic. Our evidence
shows that the government did not respond adequately to support the
online learning aspirations of marginalised rural students across Nige-
ria. In all the rural schools and communities surveyed, the already ex-
isting ’digital divide’ between rural and urban students became more
pronounced at the onset and during the COVID19 pandemic. Despite
claims that online learning confers advantages in the absence of tra-
ditional classroom teaching and learning, we recount that during an
educational crisis such as the COVID19 pandemic, it can be an ac-
tive driver of educational exclusion. Our ndings on the implications
of digital inequalities on the online learning experiences of rural stu-
dents during the COVID19 pandemic is consistent with recent research
on the impact of COVID19 on students’ learning and access to educa-
7
G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
Table 4
Strategies to promote digital inclusion in schools
Strategies to promote digital inclusion Freq (%)
Do you think access to digital information can improve your digital literacy skills
Yes 58(95.1)
No 3(4.9)
Do you have interest in taking an ICT related subjects if provided
Yes 66(97.1)
No 2(2.9)
Can you aord the cost of using a digital tool for learning 54
Yes 21(30.4)
No 48(69.6)
Do you think your school can maintain a school-based ICT centre if provided
Yes 60(87)
No 9(13)
How do you think the govt can promote digital inclusion in your school (provision of a computer)
Yes 39(59.1)
No 27(40.9)
How do you think the govt can promote digital inclusion in your school
(provision of phones)
Yes 56(84.8)
No 10(15.2)
How do you think the govt can promote digital inclusion in your school (Training of students in ICT)
Yes 66(98.5)
No 1(1.5)
How do you think the govt can promote digital inclusion in your school (Recruitment and training of qualied teachers)
Yes 66(100)
No 0
How do you think the govt can promote digital inclusion in your school (Access to internet connectivity)
Yes 61(93.8)
No 4(6.2)
tional opportunities (
Belay, 2020 ; Dube, 2020 ; Esteban-Navarro et al.,
2020 ; Akinrinmade, Ammani & Zuilkowski, 2021 ; Azubuike, Adegboye,
& Quadri, 2020 ).
We revealed specic contextual factors that exacerbate the digital
gaps for students in rural communities: lack of digital awareness, -
nancial constraints, poor internet connection, an absence of parental
support, unstable power supply, lack of access to digital learning tools,
and inability to aord usage costs. Rural students’ online learning ex-
periences also depend on their school types and teachers’ capacity to
deliver online learning, as both are crucial to quality learning achieve-
ment during emergencies ( Akinrinmade, Ammani & Zuilkowski, 2021 ;
Azubuike, Adegboye & Quadri, 2020 ; TEP Centre, 2020 ). Our ndings
show that students in rural schools experienced both digital and educa-
tion exclusion during the COVID19 pandemic due to various technolog-
ical limitations, infrastructural inadequacies at home or schools’ levels,
and lack of digital capabilities. The statistical analysis of the critical fac-
tors highlighted that while the signicance of remote learning opportu-
nities to students’ learning outcomes is well understood, geographical
limitations, socioeconomic costs, household dynamics, and lack of ac-
cess to digital infrastructure to leverage online learning options remain
a considerable challenge. Furthermore, the statistically signicant re-
lationship between low level of readiness to e-learning adoption in ru-
ral communities with perceived benet of digital learning, insucient
knowledge and low level of awareness of digital learning tools show
the degree of marginalisation that continues to deepen social and ed-
ucational inequalities. At the same time, evidence from the qualitative
data reects teachers’ low capacity to deliver digital learning and sup-
port students engaging in e-learning platforms. Therefore, this study fur-
ther contributes to the knowledge base of the state of technology access
and usage for learning and teaching in Nigeria, specically during the
COVID-19 pandemic.
The adoption of digital technologies as a signicant element of re-
mote learning strategies during humanitarian emergencies such as the
COVID19 pandemic would require bold commitments from the govern-
ment. This will ensure that schools, children and/or teachers in rural
communities are not left out and can access school-based digital sup-
port and interventions ( TEP Centre, 2020 ). From our ndings, we ar-
gue that schools must endeavour to incorporate digital awareness into
learning activities for vulnerable children from remote communities to
know what technological tools are available, aordable, and accessible
for them. Within the context of Nigeria, we found that addressing infras-
tructural inadequacies is central to maximising the potential of remote
learning for rural students ( Amorighoye, 2020 ).
As a form of policy, the government can provide amenities such
as internet-enabled community e-learning centres and equip them with
computers that can ease physical access to technological tools and aid
the acquisition of digital literacy skills ( Aborode et al., 2020 ). As our
results demonstrate, internet access and connectivity in Nigeran rural
communities is a necessary accessory for social equality and must be pri-
oritised as a developmental necessity. Not only will the availability of in-
ternet services at community levels help improve students’ attitudes to-
ward learning, but it will also facilitate access to educational opportuni-
ties for community children, including older learners. Similarly, in their
study, Lawrence and Fakuade (2021) found that a digital revolution can
only happen in Nigeria when the education system provides equal op-
portunities to all learners accessing e-learning platforms. Therefore, we
propose the need for more public-private partnerships to enable path-
ways to aordable internet access and usage for learning through the
provision of low broadband services, zero-rated airtime support and sub-
sidised internet packages. These partnerships can be mobilised and coor-
dinated through the Ministry of Communications and Digital Economy,
National Information Technology Development Agency, National Com-
munications Commission, major internet service providers and mobile
network operators. Our ndings signicantly show that the role of fam-
ily members, community leaders and stakeholder groups in fostering ac-
cess to quality e-learning opportunities cannot be overemphasised. The
crucial roles of parental involvement in students continued learning via
e-learning platforms during a pandemic have been identied by other
studies ( Akinrinmade, Ammani & Zuilkowski, 2021 ; Azubuike, Adeg-
boye, & Quadri, 2020 ; Lawrence & Fakuade, 2021 ). To promote inclu-
sive access to digital learning opportunities, the government can develop
initiatives with local non-prots, community schools and faith-based or-
ganisations. These local stakeholders can help facilitate the delivery of
digital skills training and provision of school-based ICT hubs to expand
the reach of and access to national digital equity initiatives. Moreover,
in rural communities with limited technology access and internet con-
8
G.S. Olanrewaju, S.B. Adebayo, A.Y. Omotosho et al. International Journal of Educational Research Open 2–2 (2021) 100092
nectivity issues, government at various levels and schools can leverage
home learning kits, including printed study guides, reading lists and les-
son notes.
7. Limitations and Conclusion
It is important for us to state the limitations of our study as it is
often required of all studies. While this study was conducted during a
dicult time around the world, the study site could have been more
comprehensive in the sense of covering more rural communities chal-
lenged with access to e-learning during the pandemic. Furthermore, the
participants in this study are in 6 Nigerian states out of a total of 36
states. Therefore, generalisation from the research ndings will not be
advisable because students’ experiences in rural schools in other states
may be dierent from the students who participated in this study. How-