Tube Worm-Like Structures, Hematite, and Hydrothermal Vents on Mars: Support for, and Opposition to Joseph et al.

Abstract

The observation of tubular structures within Endurance Crater, Mars, has been reported by Joseph et al (2021a,b) who hypothesized these may be mineralized and fossilized remnants of tube worms that in the ancient and recent past flourished within lakes of water heated by thermal vents. The discovery of what may be spherical hematite in this same vicinity supports the hydrothermal vent scenario, whereas the claims by Joseph (2021; Joseph et al. 2021c) that these spherules are fungal puffballs does not. This evidence from Endurance Crater and associated mineralogy and chemistry is reviewed. We conclude that the ancient lakes of Endurance Crater may have been heated by thermal vents and inhabited by tubular organisms that became mineralized, as hypothesized by Joseph et al; and that these same hydrothermal vents formed hematite spherules as hypothesized by the rover Opportunity team.

Full text

Journal of Astrobiology
Tube Worm-Like Structures, Hematite, and Hydrothermal Vents on
Mars: Support for, and Opposition to Joseph et al.
1,*Aravinda Ravibhanu Suamanarathna, 2MajdaAouititen,
3Abdelouahed Lagnaoui,
1,2,3Department of Research & Innovation - South Asian Astrobiology & Earth Sciences Research Unit of Eco Astronomy Sri
Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
2Beijing Forestry University School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing, China.
3Interdisciplinary Research Laboratory in Sciences, Education and Training, Higher School of Education and Training
Berrechid (ESEFB), Hassan First University, Route de Casablanca Km 3.5, BP 539, 26100 Berrechid,
Grand-Casablanca, Morocco.
Journal of Astrobiology, Vol 10, 38-62, Published 11/18/2021
Editors-in-Chief: K. Wołowski, G. Bianciardi, R. del Gaudio
Abstract
The observation of tubular structures within Endurance Crater, Mars, has been reported by Joseph et al
(2021a,b) who hypothesized these may be mineralized and fossilized remnants of tube worms that in the
ancient and recent past flourished within lakes of water heated by thermal vents. The discovery of what
may be spherical hematite in this same vicinity supports the hydrothermal vent scenario, whereas the
claims by Joseph (2021; Joseph et al. 2021c) that these spherules are fungal puffballs does not. This
evidence from Endurance Crater and associated mineralogy and chemistry is reviewed. We conclude that
the ancient lakes of Endurance Crater may have been heated by thermal vents and inhabited by tubular
organisms that became mineralized, as hypothesized by Joseph et al; and that these same hydrothermal
vents formed hematite spherules as hypothesized by the rover Opportunity team.
Key Words: Tube Worms, Hydrothermal Vents, Evolution, Life on Mars, Mineralization, Chemistry,
Fossils, Gale Crater, Endurance Crater, Burns Formation, Fossils
*Corresponding email: a
r
avinda@ecoa
s
t
r
onomy.com
1. Tube Worms and the Evolution of Life on Mars?
A number of investigators have discussed the extreme environments of Mars, the limitations on
habitability, and the possibility various organisms could have inhabited the Red Planet in the recent or
ancient past (Cockell et al., 2005; Osman et al., 2008; Mahaney & Dohm, 2010; Sanchez et al., 2012;
Sumanarathna, 2015, 2018; Selbman et al., 2015; Pacelli et al., 2016; Schuerger et al., 2017). It is
believed that lack of liquid water, the extremely cold conditions that prevail in the winter and at night,
and the high levels of radiation that bombard the surface would have a profoundly negative impact on the
habitability of modern-day Mars (Dartnell, 2010). Joseph and colleagues (2020a,b, 2021c,d; Armstrong
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2021a; Latif et al. 2021) however, have presented evidence of formations and structures on Mars they
argue resemble living algae, fungi, and lichens that adapted to these harsh conditions and evolved the
ability to employ radiation as a nutrient and energy source (Joseph 2021). Joseph and colleagues have
hypothesized that the high levels of iron promote the production of melanin that protects organisms from
radiation, and that high levels of magnetization within craters located in the equator and southern
hemisphere also provides a protective shield thus promoting habitability and accounting for the
observation of what may be fungi, lichens, and algae within the Eagle and Gale Craters (Joseph et al.
2020a; 2021b). Endurance Crater is also located in the equatorial region and like Gale Crater long ago
hosted lakes that may have been heated by thermal vents that were colonized by tube worms and
associated bacteria and marine organisms (Armstrong 2021b; Joseph et al. 2020a, 2021a,b).
What may be fossilized tube worms were first observed by DiGregorio (2018) within the ancient
lake beds of Gale Crater. Comparative morphological analysis of these specimens has supported the tube
worm hypothesis (Armstrong 2021a; Baucon et al 2020; Joseph et al. 2020b; 2021b). Joseph et al.
(2021a,b) also observed numerous tubular specimens adjacent to vents and holes on the surface of
Endurance Crater, in the same general vicinity in which spherical formations have also been observed
(Christensen et al., 2004; Squyres & Knoll 2005). Although Joseph and colleagues (2020a, 2021c;
Joseph 2016, 2021; Armstrong 2021b; Dass 2017) have argued that these spheres are fungal puffballs and
have no resemblance to hematite, Christensen et al. (2004), Squyres et al. (2004) and Weitz et al., (2004)
argue that the 1mm to 4mm sized spherules, dubbed "blueberries" consist of hematite.
Hematite is an iron-oxide mineral. Because, on Earth, the gray crystalline variety forms mostly in
association with hot liquid water this had led the Opportunity team to hypothesize that Eagle and
Endurance Craters may have long ago been filled with water heated by hydrothermal vents (Squyres et al,
2004. Squyres & Knoll 2005). The hematite hypothesis, therefore, supports the findings of what may be
fossilized tube worms that long ago dwelled in briny lakes of water heated by thermal vents; whereas
Joseph (2014, 2016, 2021) and colleagues (Joseph et al. 2021c; Armstrong 2021b; Dass 2017) argument
in favor of fungal puffballs does not.
The hydrothermal vent hypothesis is also supported by the mineralogy and high levels of sulfur
detected in outcrops of Endurance crater, in the same are where tubular specimens have been observed in
close proximity to what may be vents on the surface (Joseph et al. 2020a). For example, based on the
analysis via mineralogy at Meridiani Planum from the Mini-TES experiment on the Opportunity Rover
high concentration of sulfur in the form of calcium and magnesium sulfates have been detected, as well
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as arekieserite, sulfate anhydrate, bassanite, hexahydrite, epsomite, and gypsum. Salts, such as halite,
bischofite, antarcticite, bloedite, vanthoffite, or gluberite may also be present (Christensen et al., 2004).
As pointed out by Joseph et al. (2021) many of these minerals including salts and sulfur are also found in
close proximity to hydrothermal vents. The waters in these lakes would also be salty; and salty brines are
a favored habit of tube worms.
The abundance of these minerals, including hematite, raises two possibilities as to what may or
may not be tube worms. Joseph et al. (2021a) believe these tubes are mineralized fossils. However, it is
also possible that what these scientists believed to be fossilized tube worms and crustaceans, may consist
entirely of minerals and may be pseudo-fossils. It is true, however, that Joseph et al. (2020, 2021b).
Baucon et al. (2020) and Armstrong (2021) have also presented statistical evidence which supports a
biological interpretation. If the statistical findings and the observations of what may be fossilized tube
worms and crustaceans are accepted as valid, this would indicate that life must have evolved on Mars.
That Mars has been inhabited and that life evolved is consistent with petrological data and eco astronomy
mechanics (Sumanarathna, 2018) and supported by geochemical analysis of mineralized substrates and
findings from Martian meteorite ALH 84001; i.e. that microbial life may have been proliferating on Mars
between 3000 Myr to 4200 Myr (McKay et al., 1996, 2009; Thomas-Keprta et al., 2009; Macey et al.,
2020). A number of investigators also agree that ancient Mars was habitable and harbored life (Squyres &
Knoll, 2006; Ehlmann et al., 2011; Vago et al., 2017) and have hypothesized that prokaryotic and
eukaryotic organisms may have become fossilized (Squyres et al., 2004; Grotzinger et al., 2014, 2015).
The observation of what may be fossilized algae (Bianciardi et al. 2021; Kaźmierczak 2016, 2020),
fossilized microbialites and stromatolites (Bianciardi et al. 2014; Joseph et al. 2020b; Elewa 2021),
fossilized tube worms in Gale and Endeavor Crater sediments (Armstrong, 2021a, Baucon et al. 2020;
DiGregorio, 2018; Joseph et al., 2020a, 2021ab) and what appear to be an assemblage of metazoan fossils
discovered in Gale Crater, support the hypothesis life evolved on Mars.
2. Source Data: Mineralogy and Tubular Specimens
The evidence pro and con in support of the evolutionary hypothesis is presented in a series of
Tables and Figures. Petrological data and analysis is also reviewed and found to be supportive of the
habitability hypothesis. Mineralogical conditions in Meridiani Planum is also summarized and a
hypothetical model of the biomineralization process is examined.
Specifically, Tables 1 and 3, presents a summary of the mineralogy and petrology as based on
outcrop spectra and ex-ray diffraction, whereas Table 2 summarizes the chemical composition. The
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geology and stratigraphy of the Burns formation which extends from Eagle to Endurance to Endeavor
Craters is summarized in Table 4 and depicted in Figure 1. The outcrops of the Burns formation has the
chemistry and mineralogy consistent with a large body of briny water that was heated by thermal vents. It
is within this same vicinity where what may be fungi, lichens, fungal puffballs, spherical hematite, and
fossilized tube worms have been observed. The tube worm hypothesis is supported by the assemblage of
tubular specimens discovered by Joseph et al., (2021ab), the comparative statistical analysis performed
by Armstrong (2021a) and Figure 2 which compares these tubular formations with those observed in Gale
Crater (see also Figure 3) and tube worms on Earth (see also Figures 4, 5, 6, 7). Figure 8 depicts spherical
formations that have been identified as fungal puffballs vs spherical hematite.
3. Figures, Tables, Analysis
Table 1: Analysis of microscopic images of non-linearized full frame EDR of Sols 177-199-299 and
1905 Mineralogy and Petrology. Numerical deconvolution results for Mini-TES outcrop spectra. The
volume abundances listed have been rounded to the nearest 5% from the values from the deconvolution
model (Christensen et al., 2004).
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Table 2: Chemical composition and proportion of XRD amorphous component in Rocknest Portage from
APXS and CheMin data(Blake et al., 2013).
Table 3: Mineralogy of Rocknest soil [CheMin x-ray diffraction (XRD)]and normative mineralogies of
basaltic materials from Gusev Crater and of martian meteorites (Blake et al., 2013).
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Table 4a: Bulk and residual compositions (weight %) for 20 Burn formations RATed targets and residual
compositions (Cino et al 2016).
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Table 4b: Bulk and residual compositions (weight %) for 20 Burn formations RATed targets and residual
compositions (Cino et al 2016).
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Figure 1: Sample locations (a & c) and the stratigraphy (b) of the Burns formation in the vicinity of
Eagle crater and Endurance crater, Meridiani Planum, Mars (adapted from Grotzinger et al., 2005). Base
map taken from MRO HiRISE image PSP_005423_1780_RED. The location of Eagle crater, the landing
site (c), is 1.9462 °S and 354.4734 °E relative to the International Astronomical Union 20 0 0 body-
centered coordinate frame (Squyres et al., 2006; Cino et al.,2016). Joseph and colleagues (2021a,b)
identified tubular formations within Endurance Crater. Squyres et al., (2004) hypothesized that this area
once hosted a large briny body of water, and was habitable in the ancient past.
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Figure 2: (Left). Joseph et al. (2021a,b) discovered these tubular specimens within Endurance Crater,
that resemble (Right) terrestrial tube worms (D,E,G) and tubular fossils observed in Gale Crater (F).
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Figure 2 Analysis: Joseph et al. (2021a,b) discovered these tubular specimens within Endurance
Crater and hypothesized these are tube worms that had been dwelling within hydrothermal vents when
the cater was filled with water. Microscopic images of Non-linearized Full frame EDR ©NASA | Stitcher
and assembling ©Eco Astronomy Inc. (Right) | Julie, 1985; Sun j et al., 2012; Kupriyanova et al., 2015;
Baucon et al., 2020). A. Most probably borehole and type of tube worm opercula at Endurance Crater.
Comparing sizing via pictorial matrix and extrema conditions, it can be like Spirobranchus and
Coprinisphaera combination of process of borrowing. Coprinisphaera is one of the most common trace
fossils in the Tertiary palaeosols of South America, and it was appropriately one of the first recorded
insect trace fossils and considered as nests of dung-beetles or scarabs (Frenguelli 1938; Roselli 1939).
Coprinisphaera are mostly related to the presence and position of a small chamber (interpreted as the
original egg chamber) with respect to a large chamber (provision chamber) and emergence hole. We note
that the occurrence of at least 2 circular to subcircular holes, or paraboloid external pits in the walls of
chamber-like could be compared with the ichnogenus Tombownichnus (Mikulas and Genise 2003). The
structure described herein consists of isolated, pear-shaped structure. it is composed of two clustered
subspherical chamber-like; large main chamber-like and a secondary small one (about 1/3 of the main
chamber-like) located in the upper protuberance of the structure. Chamber-like structure is surrounded by
a discrete constructed wall, with at least two holes; one in the centre and second one in the margin. The
filling of both spheres could not be examined, but it looks a passively filled chamber. This pear-shaped
structure presents the diagnosis external morphological features of the ichnogenus Coprinisphaera (Sauer
1955. Thus, four ichnospecies of Coprinisphaera show the pear-shaped morphology, which are:
Coprinisphaera akatanka (Cantil et al., 2013), Coprinisphaera cotiae (Sánchez and Genise 2015),
Coprinisphaera lazai (Sánchez et al., 2013), Coprinisphaera tonnii (Laza 2006). C. akatanka, and C.
tonnii are internally composed of a main spherical chamber separated from a secondary, smaller one.
However, in C. akatanka, both spherical chambers are clearly distinguishable by an external deep neck,
whereas in C. tonnii, this constriction is absent showing a pear-shaped external aspect. In addition, C.
akatanka has a thin wall in contrast to the thicker one of C. tonnii. C. cotiae differs from the other
ichnospecies by the elongated protuberance that is internally crossed by a conduit that ends in a very tiny
pore (Laza 2006; Cantil et al. 2013; Sánchez et al. 2013). The internal features could be examined;
therefore, we can tentatively compare these structures with the ichnogenus Coprinisphaera (Sauer 1955).
B1 - Most probably survival or feeding trace effected by micro boring or borrows. Sometimes
possible to occur via living mood habitat of tubular specimen and not compulsory to fossilized stage as a
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stabilize formation. B2 – A tubular structure presented is approximately similar sizing to trace. B3 - Rich
sulfates micro chimney mound as a part of hydrothermal vent (Colín-García M, 2016). C. Most probably
like unaltered tubular structured of worm which can be primitively adopt via extreme of paleo
hydrothermal vent at Endurance Crater, Mars (H Julie et al., 1985; Kuhn et al., 2003; Christensen et al.,
2004; M Thomas et al., 2005; Sun j et al., 2012; Blake et al., 2013; Kupriyanova et al., 2015; Magdalena
et al., 2019). D. Opercula of fixed specimens, AM W.21678 ( Kupriyanova et al., 2015). E1, E2. Opercula
of Spirobranchus dennisdevaneyi (H Julie et al., 1985). F. This is Sol 1905, Outcrop imaged by rover
Curiosity using MAHLI at Vera Rubin Ridge, Mars presented mold likes Ichno fossils. (Baucon et al.,
2020; Joseph et al., 2020a, 2021a,b). The structure reported here is simple flattened, branched, oblong, to
sub rectangular in cross section. This structure consists of a Hypichnial semi-relief zigzag meanders,
associated with short horizontal branched twig-like segments. Joined points of segments start from the
middle part of the tube not from the V-point of the zigzag. With of the tube-structure is not the same
along the specimen. This whole zigzag morphology shows similarities with the ichnospecies Belorhaphe
zickzack (Heer, 1877), but the subhorizontal, zigzag, subcylindrical trail froked at each angle are typical
features of the ichnogenus Treptichnus (Miller, 1889). The zigzag morphology in ichnology indicates a
deposit-feeding or a farming and trapping life strategy (Rindsberg and Kopaska-Merkel, 2005). The
deposit-feeding strategy consists of the shifting from from one segment to the next as it feeds on the
sediment, maintaining probably the last segment as a bioirrigated open hole, while in the trapping
strategy, the open segments play the role of a trap to catch meiofauna, or playing the role a farm for
microbes that are periodically scraped from the walls (Rindsberg and Kopaska-Merkel, 2005). The
structure reported herein could be a piece of evidence of the potential presence of organism able to
migrate laterally and perhaps vertically to reach food resources. G. Sp. corrugatus, live animals removed
from their tubes, stn. G246 SAM and AM W.43887 respectively (Kupriyanova et al., 2015).
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Figure 3: Tubular like structures at Vera Rubin Ridge, and pictorial data points employed by Baucon et
al., (2020).
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Figure 3 Analysis: Tubular like structures at Vera Rubin Ridge, Mars and processing to Length
analysis map. (Baucon et al., 2020). Sol 1905, Outcrop imaged by rover Curiosity using MAHLI at Vera
Rubin Ridge, Mars presented Labels indicate individual specimens of stick-like structures (Baucon et al.,
2020). Anyhow, further analysis regards same specimen interpreted as mold likes Ichno fossils (Sun et al.,
2012; Magdalena et al., 2019; Joseph et al., 2020a, 2021). Image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.
The odd tubular structures that Curiosity has been investigating lately were probably formed by
crystal growth that can be suspected. Considering the mineralogical context (Table 2,3,4); it is likely
minerals contributed to the extreme fossilized process (Christensen et al., 2004; Blake et al., 2013;
Baucon et al., 2020). Therefore, mineralization may have led to the compartmental crystal formation in
the body of the tube worms on Mars (Joseph et al. 2021a,b) as well as Earth (Chan, 2015).
Figure 4: Tube worms from Earth: Eoalvinellodes annulatus, Silurian, Yaman Kasy, Russia. A–C,
NHMUK OR1388a, NHMUK VF52 and NHMUK VF53, respectively, hand specimens of gently curving
tubes with folded fabric-like tube wall texture. D, E, UL YKB1, transverse sections of tubes showing
thick walls with thick, possibly multi-layered walls. F, UL YKB1, detail of tube wall in transverse section
showing preservation by colloform pyrite many layers thick. Scale bars: A, B =2mm | C =1mm D & E=
500
μ
m ; F= 100
μ
m. (Sun j et al., 2012; Magdalena et al., 2019).
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Figure 5: Tube worms and worm tubes from Earth: Morphology of tubes made by annelid lineages
occurring at modern hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. A, disorganized tubes of Alvinella spp.
(Alvinellidae). B, agglutinated tube of Mesochaetopterus taylori (Chaetopteridae). C, agglutinated
Sabellidae tube. D, branched tube of Phyllochaetopterus claparedii (Chaetopteridae). E, segmented tubes
of Spiochaetopterus costarum (Chaetopteridae). F, Phyllochaetopterus polus (Chaetopteridae) tubes
bearing short collars and wrinkled-fabric ornamentation. G, collared Serpulidae tubes (likely Serpula
narconensis). H, collared tubes of Serpula vermicularis (Serpulidae). I, large tube of the vestimentiferan
Riftia pachyptila (Siboglinidae). Scale bars: A, B =2mm | C =1mm D & E= 500
μ
m ; F= 100
μ
m. (Sun
j.et al., presented mold likes Ichno fossils. (Baucon et al., 2020; Joseph et al., 2020a, 2021a).
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Figure 6: Tube worms and worm tubes from Earth: Tubes from the Turonian of Cyprus. A–C, ‘Troodos
collared tubes’; A, B, Kambia 4061 and Memi 212b2, respectively, sinuous worm tubes with collars; C,
Kambia 401b, worm tube with collar attached at an oblique angle. D, E, ‘Troodos wrinkled tubes’,
Kapedhes 2101 and 204b, respectively, worm tubes bearing longitudinal and transverse wrinkles. F, G,
‘Troodos attached tubes’, Memi 2021 and Kinousa 2023, respectively, sinuous tubes that appear attached
to a surface, tubes in F bearing fine parallel transverse wrinkles. Scale bars: A–D, F,G = 1 mm; E = 0. 5
mm. (Sun J et al., 2012; Magdalena et al., 2019).
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Figure 7: Tube worm in Earth as an analog: A hypothetical model of the compartmental crystal
formation in the body of the tube worm (Chan, 2015).
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Figure 8: Spherical formations that have been identified as hematite spheres, tektites, lapilli, and fungal
puffballs. Photographed on a rocky outcrop at Eagle Crater (NASA/JPL/Cornell/USGS 2008).
Figure 8 Analysis: Spherical specimens upon the surface were photographed by the rover
Opportunity which Squyres et al., (2004) and Christianson (2004) identified as spherical hematite. Other
investigators have disputed this interpretation and suggested these spheres may include tektites, lapili,
soil concretions (Robbins, 2021) and spherical puffballs (Armstrong, 2021a; Dass, 2017; Joseph et al.
2020a,b,, 2021c; Joseph 2014, 2016, 2021). It is well stablished that terrestrial tektites, lapilli, soil
concretions and hematite are infiltrated with bacteria and fungi (Joseph et al. 2019; Robbins, 2021).
The shape of spherules is presented in Figure 8, can also be result of weathering erosion and
deposition. There is also evidence of a Spirobranchus sp and Coprinisphaera sp. process of borrowing of
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structural formation like a “berries” as a part of habitat? The same may be true of some of the tubular
specimens identified by Joseph et al. (2021). The spheres and the tubular structures may be contaminated
or consist of anhydrite, kieserite, hexahydrite, bischofite, vanthoffite like minerals as a primary formation
and includes CaO, MgO (Tables 2 & 4). However, the tubular formations are completely different from
what may be hematite spherules. Moreover, whereas many of these minerals are associated with the
biological activity of tube worms that have colonized hydrothermal vents, hematite is a major iron-
bearing element, which, however, are also formed in heated pools of water (Misra et al., 2018). If the
spheres are hematite, they support the hypothesis that Eagle and Endeavor Crater hosted lakes of water
that were heated by hydrothermal vents that may have been colonized by tube worms.
4. Discussion: Mineralogy, Chemistry, Hydrothermal Vents, Tube Worm Fossils on Mars
Baucon et al., (2017) have critically reviewed the concepts of ichnological fossils and the tools
necessary for the search for extra-terrestrial life, highlighting a new direction of astrobiological research.
They argued that these and other biogenic-like structures may serve as biosignatures for past and present
extra-terrestrials life. Subsequently, following the observation of what may be tubular fossils in Gale
Crater by DiGregorio (2018), Baucon et al., (2020), Joseph et al. (2020a, 2021b) and Armstrong (2021a)
performed complex comparative analysis of these specimens and those of Earth and concluded they were
similar to terrestrial fossils. Moreover, Joseph et al. (2021a) summarized and documented that the
mineralogy and chemistry of Endurance Crater and its outcrops, is similar and in many respects identical
to that of terrestrial hydrothermal vents that have been colonized by tube worms and their symbiotes.
Therefore, these are likely tube worms that have been mineralized and fossilized.
CheMin data (Tables 2-4) at Meridiani Planum, shows concentration mean value abundancy of
associate sulfur and hematite is approximately 49.2% from 13 numbered samples (Christensen et al.,
2004). Therefore, the conditions in Meridiani Planum are ideal for the preservation of micro fossils via
association of sulfurization and ionization and synchronizing with SiO2(45.7) CaO (6.93), MgO (7.38)
(Tables 1-4). Joseph et al (2021) argues that this mineralogy is also typical of hydrothermal vents that
have been colonized by tube worms. Christensen et al., (2004) and Squyers et al. (2004) also believe this
area once hosted lakes and hydrothermal vents that were inhabited. Joseph et al. (2021) has suggested
that the tubular formations are in fact tube worms and worm tubes, and that the former may be “dormant”
“mineralized” or “pickled” by their salty briny watery environment. Based on the petrological analysis
and summation of minerals reported here, we concur that Endurance crater was habitable and inhabited
by tubular organisms that became mineralized and fossilized. Further, as based on Table1, 2 & 4
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(Ulyanova et al., 2015), the high concentration of sulfur in the form of calcium and magnesium sulfates
and given the history of Endeavor crater, we hypothesize that tube worms flourished and became
fossilized in the ancient past; and we note the resemblance to fossil worm tubes of Cretaceous age
preserved in the Bayda massive sulfide deposit of the Samail ophiolite, Oman (Haymon, 1984;
McNamara ME, 2016). The substates and crustose-like rocks in this area are also similar to those of Earth
and typical of tube-worm fossilized strata. (Wilson & Jones, 1983).
If there is and/or was life on Mars, there should be substantial evidence of organics. Unfortunately,
destruction or transformation of organic compounds may occur in the near-surface environment of Mars
either by oxidants present in the regolith that can permeate the subsurface (Biemann et al., 1977;
Kounaves et al., 2014) or by ultraviolet and ionizing radiation (Oro & Holzer, 1979; Pavlov et al., 2012).
Based on numerous reports of the sedimentary structures, and what may be organic compounds in
ancient sedimentary rocks on Mars that may include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, it is not
unreasonable to assume that this refractory organic material, either formed on Mars from igneous,
hydrothermal, atmospheric, or biological processes (Shock, 1990; Steele et al., 2012; Sumanarathna,
2019, 2020a,b). Or alternatively, delivered directly to Mars via meteorites, comets, or interplanetary dust
particles (Gibson, 1992; Sephton, 2012; Sumanarathna, 2020c).
The ability to detect organic compounds in Martian sedimentary rocks with SAM is a function of
their initial abundance and entrainment as the rock formed, the extent of subsequent degradation during
diagenesis, exhumation, and exposure to the surface and near-surface, and the volatility/polarity and
minimal combustion of products released during pyrolysis (Anderson et al., 2015; Freissinet et al., 2015).
It has been postulated that organic compounds in near-surface rocks may undergo successive
oxidation reactions that eventually form metastable benzene carboxylates, including phthalic and mellitic
acids (Benner et al., 2000). Energetic cosmic rays can further degrade organics in the top 2 m of the
surface (Pavlov et al., 2012). SAM measurements of the abundance of noble gas isotopes in the CB
sample (Organic molecules in the Sheepbed Mudstone, Gale Crater, Mars), produced by spallation and
neutron capture, established that the mudstone analyzed was exposed to cosmic radiation for ~78 Ma
(Farley et al., 2014; Freissinet et al., 2015), which could have reduced the abundance of organic matter
originally present in sample of CB(Oro & Holzer, 1979; Freissinet et al., 2015).
The widespread presence of chlorine on Mars (Keller et al., 2006) and the detection of perchlorate
and/or oxychlorine compounds at two very different locations (Hecht et al., 2009; Glavin et al., 2013) and
findings from EETA79001 meteorite (Kounaves et al., 2014) support the hypothesis that oxychlorine
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compounds may be widely distributed in the regolith of Mars (Christensen et al., 2004; Blake et al., 2013;
Sumanarathna, 2020). How much of this material is due to biological process or purely geological
activity, is unknown.
5. Conclusions
A number of investigators have provided evidence of what they interpret to be the fossilized
remains of tube worms and other metazoans (Armstrong, 2021a; DiGregorio, 2018; Baucon et al., 2020;
Elewa, 2021; Joseph et al. 2020a,b, 2021a,b). Many of the compounds ubiquitous on the Martian surface
could have played a critical role in the organic preservation state, especially in Meridiani Planum and
Gale Crater; the same areas in which these “fossilized” impressions have been discovered. Although these
fossilized structures resemble those from Earth, and have been found to be statistically similar,
morphologically, if these are in fact fossilized organisms is unknown. What is required is extraction and
direct biochemical analysis to confirm the existence of tubular specimen at Meridiani Planum.
There is great debate as to the exact identify of the spherical structures photographed in Meridiani
Planum. If they are hematite, this supports the hypothesis that Eagle and Endeavor Crater were inhabited
thermally heated lakes. Likewise, the discovery of what be tube worm fossils also support the
hydrothermal vent hypothesis (Joseph et al. 2021a,b) whereas the fungal puffball hypothesis (Joseph
2016, 2021a; Dass, 2017; Armstrong 2021b) does not. It is true that Joseph (2021) has shown that the
spherules of Mars do not resemble the hematite spherules of Earth. However, this does not rule out or
negate the substantial evidence of hematite in the surface. It is also true that some of the important
observations of Martian spherules cannot be explained by a concretion model and they have no
resemblance to terrestrial hematite. Here, these observations include the following: (1) spherules are size
limited, (2) they are located only on the top soil (Figure 8), (3) they show no internal structure, and (4)
they lack grains of the host matrix. However, white color eroded-spherules formation that around the area
of tubular structure is not similar to hematite spherules due to trace fragments of Figure 2 (Figure 2
interpretation based on data of figure 4,5,6,7 and table 1,2,3,4). It is possible that the spherules include
hematite, tektites and lapilli and soil concretions (Robbins, 2021). Moreover, if Joseph et al (2021a,b) is
correct in their identification of what may be tube worms, then it is logical to assume that hematite
spherules were also fashioned in these hydrothermal vents, and were formed via the accretion and
rotation of solid particles with the liquid water (Hypothesis of “Weli-Thalapa” formation on Mars).
We conclude that the evidence supports the hypothesis that hematite spherules were fashioned
within thermally heated bodies of water which were inhabited by tube worms.
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