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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Consumption of coffee and tea and risk of
developing stroke, dementia, and poststroke
dementia: A cohort study in the UK Biobank
Yuan Zhang
1
, Hongxi Yang
1,2
, Shu LiID
1
, Wei-dong LiID
3
, Yaogang WangID
1
*
1School of Public Health, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China, 2Department of Biostatistics, Yale
School of Public Health, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America, 3Department
of Genetics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Tianjin Medical University, Tianjin, China
*YaogangWANG@tmu.edu.cn
Abstract
Background
AU :Pleaseconfirmthatallheadinglevelsarerepresentedcorrectly:Previous studies have revealed the involvement of coffee and tea in the development of
stroke and dementia. However, little is known about the association between the combina-
tion of coffee and tea and the risk of stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia. Therefore,
we aimed to investigate the associations of coffee and tea separately and in combination
with the risk of developing stroke and dementia.
Methods and findings
This prospective cohort study included 365,682 participants (50 to 74 years old) from the UK
Biobank. Participants joined the study from 2006 to 2010 and were followed up until 2020.
We used Cox proportional hazards models to estimate the associations between coffee/tea
consumption and incident stroke and dementia, adjusting for sex, age, ethnicity, qualifica-
tion, income, body mass index (BMI), physical activity, alcohol status, smoking status, diet
pattern, consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-
density lipoprotein (LDL), history of cancer, history of diabetes, history of cardiovascular
arterial disease (CAD), and hypertension. Coffee and tea consumption was assessed at
baseline. During a median follow-up of 11.4 years for new onset disease, 5,079 participants
developed dementia, and 10,053 participants developed stroke. The associations of coffee
and tea with stroke and dementia were nonlinear (Pfor nonlinear <0.01), and coffee intake
of 2 to 3 cups/d or tea intake of 3 to 5 cups/d or their combination intake of 4 to 6 cups/d
were linked with the lowest hazard ratio (HR) of incident stroke and dementia. Compared
with those who did not drink tea and coffee, drinking 2 to 3 cups of coffee and 2 to 3 cups of
tea per day was associated with a 32% (HR 0.68, 95% CI, 0.59 to 0.79; P<0.001) lower risk
of stroke and a 28% (HR, 0.72, 95% CI, 0.59 to 0.89; P= 0.002) lower risk of dementia.
Moreover, the combination of coffee and tea consumption was associated with lower risk of
ischemic stroke and vascular dementia. Additionally, the combination of tea and coffee was
associated with a lower risk of poststroke dementia, with the lowest risk of incident post-
stroke dementia at a daily consumption level of 3 to 6 cups of coffee and tea (HR, 0.52, 95%
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OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Zhang Y, Yang H, Li S, Li W-d, Wang Y
(2021) Consumption of coffee and tea and risk of
developing stroke, dementia, and poststroke
dementia: A cohort study in the UK Biobank. PLoS
Med 18(11): e1003830. https://doi.org/10.1371/
journal.pmed.1003830
Academic Editor: Joshua Z. Willey, Columbia
University, UNITED STATES
Received: February 1, 2021
Accepted: September 30, 2021
Published: November 16, 2021
Peer Review History: PLOS recognizes the
benefits of transparency in the peer review
process; therefore, we enable the publication of
all of the content of peer review and author
responses alongside final, published articles. The
editorial history of this article is available here:
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003830
Copyright: ©2021 Zhang et al. This is an open
access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: Data from the UK
Biobank cannot be shared publicly, however, data
are available from the UK Biobank Institutional Data
Access / Ethics Committee (contact via http://www.
CI, 0.32 to 0.83; P= 0.007). The main limitations were that coffee and tea intake was self-
reported at baseline and may not reflect long-term consumption patterns, unmeasured con-
founders in observational studies may result in biased effect estimates, and UK Biobank
participants are not representative of the whole United Kingdom population.
Conclusions
We found that drinking coffee and tea separately or in combination were associated with
lower risk of stroke and dementia. Intake of coffee alone or in combination with tea was
associated with lower risk of poststroke dementia.
Author summary
Why was this study done?
• Stroke and dementia become an increasing global health concern and bring a heavy eco-
nomic and social burden worldwide.
• Considerable controversy exists on the association of coffee and tea consumption with
stroke and dementia.
• Little is known about the association between the combination of tea and coffee and the
risk of stroke and dementia and poststroke dementia.
What did the researchers do and find?
• This study included 365,682 participants (50 to 74 years old) from the UK Biobank who
reported their coffee and tea consumption.
• We found that coffee intake of 2 to 3 cups/d or tea intake of 3 to 5 cups/d or their combi-
nation intake of 4 to 6 cups/d were linked with the lowest hazard ratio (HR) of incident
stroke and dementia.
• Drinking 2 to 3 cups of coffee with 2 to 3 cups of tea daily were associated with a 32%
lower risk of stroke and a 28% lower risk of dementia.
• Intake of coffee alone or in combination with tea was associated with lower risk of post-
stroke dementia.
What do these findings mean?
• These findings highlight a potential beneficial relationship between coffee and tea con-
sumption and risk of stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia, although causality can-
not be inferred.
• These findings may be of interest to clinicians involved in the prevention and treatment
of stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia.
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ukbiobank.ac.uk/ or contact by email at
access@ukbiobank.ac.uk) for researchers who
meet the criteria for access to confidential data.
Funding: This study was funded by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
91746205: http://www.nsfc.gov.cn/english/site_1/
index.html), received by YW. The funders had no
role in study design, data collection and analysis,
decision to publish, or preparation of the
manuscript.
Competing interests: The authors have declared
that no competing interests exist.
Abbreviations: AU :Anabbreviationlisthasbeencompiledforthoseusedthroughoutthetext:Pleaseverifythatallentriesarecorrect:A, Advanced; ANOVA, analysis of
variance; AS, Advanced Subsidiary; BMI, body
mass index; CAD, cardiovascular arterial disease;
CSE, Certificate of Secondary Education; CVD,
cardiovascular disease; DBP, diastolic blood
pressure; GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary
Education; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HNC,
Higher National Certificate; HND, Higher National
Diploma; HR, hazard ratio; ICD-10, International
Classification of Diseases-10th revision; LDL, low-
density lipoprotein; NHS, National Health Service;
NVQ, National Vocational Qualification; O, Ordinary;
SBP, systolic blood pressure; SD, standard
deviation; STROBE, Strengthening the Reporting of
Observational Studies in Epidemiology.
Introduction
Dementia is characterized by a progressive and unrelenting deterioration of mental capacity
that inevitably compromises independent living [1]. AAU :PleasenotethatasperPLOSstyle;eponymictermsshouldnotbepossessive:Hence;allinstancesof AlzheimersdiseasehavebeenreplacedwithAlzheimerdiseasethroughoutthetext:lzheimer disease and vascular dementia
are the 2 main subtypes of dementia. Dementia is more of a clinical symptom than a specific
disease and can be induced by cerebral degeneration, cerebrovascular diseases, traumatic
brain injury, brain tumors, intracranial infection, metabolic diseases, and poisons. With the
aging population trend, dementia has become an increasing global health concern and brought
a heavy economic and social burden. Globally, over 50 million individuals had dementia in
2019. This number is anticipated to increase to 152 million by 2050 [2]. Given the limited ther-
apeutic value of drugs currently used for treating dementia, identifying the preventable risk
factors of dementia is of high priority.
Stroke, accounting for 10% of all deaths globally [3], is a leading cause of all disability-
adjusted life years [4]. Although the age-standardized incidence and mortality of stroke have
decreased globally in the past 2 decades, the absolute numbers of stroke cases and deaths have
increased [5]. Stroke and dementia confer risks for each other and share some of the same,
largely modifiable, risk and protective factors. A population-based longitudinal study found
that stroke and dementia shared about 60% risk and protective factors [6]. In principle, 90% of
strokes and 35% of dementia have been estimated to be preventable [7–10]. Because a stroke
doubles the chance of developing dementia and stroke is more common than dementia, more
than a third of dementia cases could be prevented by preventing stroke [10].
Coffee and tea are among the most widely consumed beverages, both in the UK and world-
wide. Coffee contains caffeine and is a rich source of antioxidants and other bioactive com-
pounds [11]. Tea containing caffeine, catechin polyphenols, and flavonoids has been reported
to play neuroprotective roles, such as antioxidative stress, anti-inflammation, inhibition of
amyloid-beta aggregation, and an antiapoptotic effect [12]. Coffee consumption is closely
related to tea consumption. A prospective cohort study reported that approximately 70% of
participants consumed both coffee and tea [13]. Coffee and tea are distinct beverages with
overlapping components, such as caffeine, and different biologically active constituents,
including epigallocatechin gallate and chlorogenic acid [14]. These constituents appeared to
share common mechanisms—reactive oxygen species, on the other hand, different constitu-
ents also have different target molecules and therefore different biological effects [14]. Further-
more, genetic polymorphisms in enzymes that involved in uptake, metabolism, and excretion
of tea and coffee components were also associated with the differential biological activities of
the 2 beverages [15]. Additionally, studies have found the interaction between green tea and
coffee on health outcomes in the Japanese population [13,16]. The Japan public health center-
based study cohort reported that there was a multiplicative interaction between green tea and
coffee that was associated with a lower risk of intracerebral hemorrhage [16]. A prospective
study demonstrated that there appear to be an additive interaction between green tea and cof-
fee on mortality in Japanese patients with type 2 diabetes [13]. Epidemiological and clinical
studies have shown the benefits of coffee and tea separately in preventing dementia [17–22].
However, little is known about the association between the combination of coffee and tea and
the risk of dementia. Therefore, we aimed to explore the association between the combination
of coffee and tea, which could be multiplicative or additive interaction, and the risk of stroke
and dementia.
Poststroke dementia refers to any dementia occurring after stroke [23]. Poststroke demen-
tia poses a significant public health problem, with 30% of stroke survivors suffering from
dementia [23,24]. Thus, identifying and preventing the influencing factors of poststroke
dementia are quite important. Epidemiological studies have found inverse associations
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between coffee and tea and incident stroke and dementia [25–28], but the associations between
coffee and tea intake and incident poststroke dementia remain unclear. Therefore, the purpose
of this study was to investigate the associations of coffee and tea separately and in combination
with the risk of developing stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia based on data from a
large population-based cohort.
Methods
This study is reported as per the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epi-
demiology (STROBE) guideline (S1 Checklist). UK Biobank has ethics approval from the
North West Multi-Centre Research Ethics Committee (11/NW/0382). Appropriate informed
consent was obtained from participants, and ethical approval was covered by the UK Biobank.
This research has been conducted using the UK Biobank Resource under the project number
of 45676. The analysis plan was drafted prospectively in February 2020 (S1 Text).
Study design and population
The UK Biobank comprises data from a population-based cohort study that recruited more
than 500,000 participants (39 to 74 years old) who attended 1 of the 22 assessment centers
across the UK between 2006 and 2010 [29]. The analyses were restricted to individuals who
were at least 50 years old at baseline (because most incident dementia and stroke cases occur
in older adults). Participants provided extensive information via questionnaires, interviews,
health records, physical measures, and blood samples. Data from individuals with self-reported
prevalent stroke or dementia at baseline or a diagnosis of stroke or dementia identified in hos-
pital records were excluded from analyses in our present study. Data from 365,682 individuals
were available for analyses in our present study.
Exposure assessment
Coffee intake was assessed at baseline using a touchscreen questionnaire. Participants were
asked, “How many cups of coffee do you drink each day (including decaffeinated coffee)?” Par-
ticipants selected one of the following: “Less than one,” “Do not know,” “Prefer not to answer,”
or specific number of cups of coffee drinking per day. If participants reported drinking more
than 10 cups each day, they were asked to confirm their response. In addition, coffee drinkers
were also asked “what type of coffee do you usually drink?” and were then instructed to select
1 of 6 mutually exclusive responses, as follows: “Decaffeinated coffee (any type),” “Instant cof-
fee,” “Ground coffee (include espresso and filtered coffee), “other type of coffee,” “Do not
know,” or “prefer not to answer.” We then analyzed the associations among different coffee
types and the risk of incident stroke and dementia.
Tea intake was assessed at baseline using a touchscreen questionnaire. Participants were
asked, “How many cups of tea do you drink each day (including black and green tea)?” Partici-
pants selected one of the following: “Less than one,” “Do not know,” “Prefer not to answer,” or
specific number of cups of tea drinking per day. If participants reported drinking more than
10 cups each day, they were asked to confirm their response.
Incident stroke and dementia outcomes
Outcomes were ascertained using hospital inpatient records containing data on admissions
and diagnoses obtained from the Hospital Episode Statistics for England, the Scottish Morbid-
ity Record data for Scotland, and the Patient Episode Database for Wales. Diagnoses were
recorded using the International Classification of Diseases-10th revision (ICD-10) coding
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system. The primary outcomes in this study were incident stroke and its 2 major component
end points—ischemic stroke and hemorrhage stroke, dementia, and its 2 major component
end points—Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia. Furthermore, outcomes of incident
Alzheimer disease, vascular dementia, ischemic stroke, and hemorrhagic stroke were assessed
separately. We defined outcomes according to the ICD-10: stroke (I60, I61, I62.9, I63, I64,
I67.8, I69.0, and I69.3), ischemic stroke (I63), hemorrhagic stroke (I60 and I62.9), dementia
(F00, F01, F02, F03, F05.1, G30, G31.1, and G31.8), Alzheimer disease (F00 and G30), and vas-
cular dementia (F01).
Covariates
In the present study, the selection of covariates based on (1) demographic variables, including
sex, age, ethnicity background, education level, and income; and (2) a priori knowledge of
potential confounding factors associated with incident stroke and dementia [30,31]. Covariates
were documented including sex, age, ethnicity (White, Asian or Asian British, Black or Black
British, and Other ethnic group), qualification (college or university degree, Advanced [A] lev-
els/Advanced Subsidiary [AS] levels or equivalent, Ordinary [O] levels/General Certificate of
Secondary Education [GCSE] or equivalent, Certificate of Secondary Education [CSE] or
equivalent, National Vocational Qualification [NVQ] or Higher National Diploma [HND] or
Higher National Certificate [HNC] or equivalent, other professional qualifications, or none of
the above), income (less than £18,000, 18,000 to 30,999, 31,000 to 51,999, 52,000 to 100,000,
and greater than 100,000), BMI (<25, 25 to <30, 30 to <35, and 35 kg/m
2
), smoking status
(never, former, and current), alcohol status (never, former, and current), physical activity
(low, moderate, and high), consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, history of diabetes, his-
tory of coronary artery disease, high-density lipoprotein (HDL), low-density lipoprotein
(LDL), and diet pattern (healthy and unhealthy, healthy diet was based on consumption of at
least 4 of 7 dietary components: (1) fruits: 3 servings/day; (2) vegetables: 3 servings/day; (3)
fish: 2 servings/week; (4) processed meats: 1 serving/week; (5) unprocessed red meats:
1.5 servings/week; (6) whole grains: 3 servings/day; (7) refined grains: 1.5 servings/day
[32–35]) (S1 Table).
Information on cardiovascular arterial disease (CAD) was derived from medical records
(ICD-10 codes I20 to I25). Diabetes was ascertained on the basis of medical records (ICD-10
codes E10 to E14), glycated hemoglobin 6.5%, and the use of antidiabetic drugs. Hyperten-
sion was defined as systolic blood pressure (SBP) 140 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure
(DBP) 90 mm Hg, use of antihypertension agents, or medical records (ICD-10 codes I10 to
I13 and I15). Cancer was identified through linkage to the National Health Service (NHS) Cen-
tral Register (ICD-10 codes C00 to C97).
Statistical analyses
Baseline characteristics of the samples were summarized across tea and coffee intake as per-
centages for categorical variables and means and standard deviations (SDs) for continuous
variables. Baseline characteristics of the study population were compared across coffee or tea
intake categories using analysis of variance (ANOVA) or Mann–Whitney U test for continu-
ous variables and chi-squared tests for categorical variables. Restricted cubic spline models
were used to evaluate the relationship between coffee, tea, and their combination and incident
stroke and dementia, with 4 knots at the 25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th centiles. In the spline mod-
els, we adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity, education, income, body mass index (BMI), physical
activity, alcohol status, smoking status, diet pattern, consumption of sugar-sweetened bever-
ages, HDL, LDL, history of cancer, history of diabetes, history of CAD, and hypertension;
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further, we adjusted for coffee in tea analysis or tea in coffee analysis. To analyze the associa-
tion between coffee and tea intake categories and new onset outcomes, we defined coffee and
tea intake into the following categories: 0, 0.5 to 1, 2 to 3, and 4 cups/day. We used Cox pro-
portional hazard models to estimate the associations of coffee and tea intake categories with
the incidence of stroke and dementia. The proportional hazards assumptions for the Cox
model were tested using Schoenfeld residuals method; no violation of the assumption was
observed. The duration of follow-up was calculated as a timescale between the baseline assess-
ment and the first event of stroke or dementia, death, loss of follow-up, or on June 31, 2020,
which was the last hospital admission date. Cox regression models were adjusted for sex, age,
ethnicity, qualification, income, BMI, physical activity, alcohol status, smoking status, history
of cancer, history of diabetes, history of CAD, HDL, LDL, diet pattern, consumption of sugar-
sweetened beverages, and hypertension, and we adjusted for coffee in tea analysis or for tea in
coffee analysis. If covariate information was missing (<20%), we used multiple imputations
based on 5 replications and a chained equation method in the R MI procedure to account for
missing data. Detailed information on missing data was shown in S2 Table. We also used Cox
regression to assess the association of coffee and tea with dementia among individuals with
stroke. The P-value used for heterogeneity corresponded to the chi-squared test statistic for
the likelihood ratio test comparing models with and without interaction between coffee and
tea.
Several additional analyses were performed to assess the robustness of our study results.
First, we used stratification analysis to examine whether the association between tea and coffee
and the risk of stroke and dementia varied by age (<65 versus 65 years), sex, smoking status,
alcohol status, physical activity, BMI, and diet pattern. The risks of incident stroke and demen-
tia were explored in a series of sensitivity analyses by excluding participants with major prior
diseases (e.g., diabetes, CAD, and cancer) at baseline and excluding events occurring during
the first 2 years of follow-up. Additionally, we performed the analysis by including participants
younger than 50 years old and conducted the analysis with additional more detail adjustment
for smoking (never smokers, former smokers quitted >5 years ago, former smokers quitted
5 years, current smokers <10 cigarettes per day, current smokers 10 to 20 cigarettes per day,
and current smokers 20+ cigarettes per day) and alcohol status (never drinkers, former drink-
ers, current drinkers <7 g per day, current drinkers 7 to 16 g per day, and current drinkers
>16 g per day). Finally, we assessed the competing risk of nonstroke or nondementia death on
the association between the combination of tea and coffee and the risks of stroke and dementia
using the subdistribution method proposed by Fine and Grey [36]. All P-values were 2 sided,
with statistical significance set at less than 0.05. All the analyses were performed using R soft-
ware, version 3.6.1, and STATA 15.
Results
At baseline, 502, 507 participants were assessed. After excluding participants younger than 50
years old (n= 132,168), without information on tea or coffee intake (n= 2,074), with prevalent
stroke or dementia (n= 2,583), 365,682 participants were ultimately included in the present
study to assess associations of coffee and tea with stroke and dementia (S1A Fig). Of 502,507
participants, after excluding participants with no incidence of stroke up to June 31, 2020
(n= 488,581), without information on tea or coffee intake (n= 114), and incident dementia
before stroke (n= 460), 13,352 participants were ultimately included in this study to assess the
association of coffee and tea with poststroke dementia (S1B Fig).
Of the 365,682 participants, the mean age was 60.4 ±5.1 years, and 167,060 (45.7%) were
males. In total, 75,986 (20.8%) participants were noncoffee drinkers, and 50,009 (13.7%)
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participants were nontea drinkers. The distribution of the combination of coffee and tea intake
is shown in S2 Fig. Of the 365,682 participants, 59,558 (16.29%) participants reported drinking
0.5 to 1 cup of coffee and 4 cups of tea per day, accounting for the largest proportion, fol-
lowed by 50,015 (13.68%) participants reported drinking 0 cup of coffee and 4 cups of tea
per day; besides, 44,868 (12.27%) participants reported drinking 2 to 3 cups of coffee and 2 to
3 of tea per day. The baseline characteristics of the participants are provided in Table 1. Com-
pared to the characteristics of participants who did not drink coffee, coffee drinkers were more
likely to be male, white, former smokers, current drinkers, have a university degree, and have a
high income. Likewise, as compared to nontea drinkers, tea drinkers were more likely to be
males, never smokers, and current drinkers, with a university degree, and high physical activ-
ity. Furthermore, compared to participants who drank neither coffee nor tea, those who drank
both beverages were more likely to be older adults, males, white, former smokers, current
drinkers, have a university degree, and have a high income (S3 Table). Coffee intake (cups/
day) was related to tea intake (r = −0.337, P<0.001). Both coffee and tea drinking were related
to sex, age, ethnicity, qualification, income, BMI, physical activity, alcohol status, smoking sta-
tus, consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, LDL, cancer, diabetes, and CAD, but not
related to HDL (S4 Table). During a median follow-up of 11.35 years for new onset disease,
10,053 participants (2.8%) developed stroke (5,630 ischemic strokes and 1,815 hemorrhagic
strokes), and 5,079 participants (1.4%) developed dementia (2,128 Alzheimer disease and
1,223 vascular dementia).
Nonlinear association
Restricted cubic spline models were used to evaluate the relationship between coffee, tea, and
their combination with stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia. In both unadjusted (S3
Fig) and multiadjusted models (Fig 1), the combination of coffee and tea was associated with
stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia. In multiadjusted models, the associations of coffee
and tea with stroke and dementia were nonlinear (Pfor nonlinear <0.001), and coffee intake
of 2 to 3 cups/d or tea intake of 3 to 5 cups/d separately or both coffee and tea intake of 4 to 6
cups/d were linked with the lowest hazard ratio (HR) of incident stroke and dementia. Besides,
the combination of tea and coffee was associated with lower risk of poststroke dementia, with
the lowest risk of incident poststroke dementia at a daily consumption level of 3 to 6 cups of
coffee and tea (HR, 0.52, 95% CI, 0.32 to 0.83; P= 0.007).
Coffee and tea with stroke risk
To analyze the association between coffee and tea intake and new onset outcomes, we defined
coffee and tea intake into the following categories: 0, 0.5 to 1, 2 to 3, and 4 cups/day. We
investigated the association of each coffee and tea intake with stroke and its subtypes (Fig 2).
In unadjusted Cox models, coffee and tea intakes were associated with lower risk of stroke (S5
Table). After multivariable adjustment, coffee intake was associated with lower risk of stroke.
Compared to that of noncoffee drinkers, HRs (95% CI) for coffee intake of 0.5 to 1, 2 to 3, and
4 cups/d were 0.90 (95% CI, 0.85 to 0.95; P<0.001), 0.88 (95% CI, 0.84 to 0.94; P<0.001),
and 0.92 (95% CI, 0.86 to 0.98; P= 0.009), respectively. Likewise, after multivariable adjust-
ment for confounding factors, tea intake was associated with lower risk of stroke. HRs (95%
CI) of stroke for tea intake of 0.5 to 1, 2 to 3, and 4 cups/d were 0.97 (95% CI, 0.89 to 1.04;
P= 0.386), 0.84 (95% CI, 0.79 to 0.90; P<0.001), and 0.84 (95% CI, 0.79 to 0.90; P<0.001),
respectively. In addition, each coffee and tea were associated with lower risk of ischemic stroke,
but not with hemorrhagic stroke (P>0.05).
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Table 1. Baseline characteristics by coffee and tea intake in the UK Biobank cohort.
Coffee intake, cups/day, No. (%) Tea intake, cups/day, No. (%)
Characteristic 0 0.5 to 1 2 to 3 4 0 0.5 to 1 2 to 3 4
No. (%) 75,986 (20.78) 102,404 (28.00) 116,844 (31.95) 70,448 (19.26) 50,009 (13.68) 39,311 (10.75) 107,931 (29.51) 168,431 (46.06)
Age, mean (SD), y 59.99 (5.25) 60.71 (5.16) 60.71 (5.12) 60.17 (5.14) 60.04 (5.16) 60.18 (5.21) 60.59 (5.17) 60.55 (5.15)
Sex, male 32,568 (42.86) 44,785 (43.73) 54,281 (46.46) 35,426 (50.29) 21,436 (42.86) 18,715 (47.61) 49,676 (46.03) 77,233 (45.85)
Coffee intake, mean (SD) 0 0.87 (0.22) 2.39 (0.49) 5.20 (1.59) 3.53 (2.49) 2.83 (2.01) 2.00 (1.61) 1.37 (1.59)
Tea intake, mean (SD) 4.60 (2.77) 4.10 (2.34) 3.02 (2.22) 2.03 (2.42) 0 0.87 (0.22) 2.52 (0.50) 5.69 (1.91)
HDL, mean (SD), mmol/L 1.43 (0.38) 1.48 (0.39) 1.48 (0.39) 1.43 (0.38) 1.45 (0.39) 1.47 (0.39) 1.48 (0.39) 1.46 (0.39)
LDL, mean (SD), mmol/L 3.53 (0.89) 3.59 (0.88) 3.63 (0.88) 3.64 (0.90) 3.63 (0.92) 3.62 (0.89) 3.61 (0.88) 3.58 (0.88)
Diet
Unhealthy 42,647 (56.12) 57,836 (56.48) 65,553 (56.10) 39,629 (56.25) 27,922 (55.83) 22,108 (56.24) 60,784 (56.32) 94,851 (56.31)
Healthy 33,339 (43.88) 44,568 (43.52) 51,291 (43.9) 30,819 (43.75) 22,087 (44.17) 17,203 (43.76) 47,147 (43.68) 73,580 (43.69)
Hypertension
No 51,855 (68.24) 69,997 (68.35) 80,305 (68.73) 48,215 (68.44) 34,493 (68.97) 26,790 (68.15) 73,786 (68.36) 115,303 (68.46)
Yes 24,131 (31.76) 32,407 (31.65) 36,539 (31.27) 22,233 (31.56) 15,516 (31.03) 12,521 (31.85) 34,145 (31.64) 53,128 (31.54)
Ethnicity
White 70,149 (92.32) 97,785 (95.49) 114,020 (97.58) 69,447 (98.58) 48,522 (97.03) 37,127 (94.44) 101,700 (94.23) 164,052 (97.40)
Asian or Asian British 377 (0.50) 438 (0.43) 406 (0.35) 215 (0.31) 232 (0.46) 203 (0.52) 447 (0.41) 554 (0.33)
Black or Black British 2,694 (3.55) 1,791 (1.75) 841 (0.72) 245 (0.35) 330 (0.66) 741 (1.88) 2,864 (2.65) 1,636 (0.97)
Other ethnic group 1,665 (2.19) 1,277 (1.25) 761 (0.65) 237 (0.34) 542 (1.08) 699 (1.78) 1,632 (1.51) 1,067 (0.63)
BMI (kg/m
2
)
<25 23,545 (30.99) 35,274 (34.45) 37,321 (31.94) 18,510 (26.27) 13,824 (27.64) 12,377 (31.48) 35,644 (33.02) 52,805 (31.35)
25 to <30 31,997 (42.11) 43,818 (42.79) 51,863 (44.39) 31,418 (44.60) 20,508 (41.01) 16,970 (43.17) 47,117 (43.65) 74,501 (44.23)
30 to <35 14,415 (18.97) 16,882 (16.49) 20,492 (17.54) 14,671 (20.83) 10,576 (21.15) 7,145 (18.18) 18,524 (17.16) 30,215 (17.94)
35 6,029 (7.93) 6,430 (6.28) 7,168 (6.13) 5,849 (8.30) 5,101 (10.20) 2,819 (7.17) 6,646 (6.16) 10,910 (6.48)
Smoking status
Never 42,038 (55.32) 57,098 (55.76) 61,791 (52.88) 31,171 (44.25) 24,644 (49.28) 20,406 (51.91) 58,572 (54.27) 88,476 (52.53)
Former 27,086 (35.65) 38,425 (37.52) 45,564 (39) 28,176 (40.00) 19,185 (38.36) 15,109 (38.43) 41,426 (38.38) 63,531 (37.72)
Current 6,862 (9.03) 6,881 (6.72) 9,489 (8.12) 11,101 (15.76) 6,180 (12.36) 3,796 (9.66) 7,933 (7.35) 16,424 (9.75)
Alcohol status
Never 6,565 (8.64) 3,947 (3.85) 3,312 (2.83) 2,226 (3.16) 2,787 (5.57) 1,535 (3.9) 4,531 (4.20) 7,197 (4.27)
Former 4,731 (6.23) 2,957 (2.89) 3,053 (2.61) 2,898 (4.11) 2,682 (5.36) 1,204 (3.06) 2,995 (2.77) 6,758 (4.01)
Current 64,690 (85.13) 95,500 (93.26) 110,479 (94.55) 65,324 (92.73) 44,540 (89.06) 36,572 (93.03) 100,405 (93.03) 154,476 (91.71)
Physical activity
Low 15,066 (19.83) 18,129 (17.70) 20,682 (17.70) 14,166 (20.11) 10,321 (20.64) 7,720 (19.64) 19,474 (18.04) 30,528 (18.12)
Moderate 36,352 (47.84) 52,140 (50.92) 60,312 (51.62) 34,609 (49.13) 24,349 (48.69) 20,324 (51.7) 55,925 (51.82) 82,815 (49.17)
High 24,568 (32.33) 32,135 (31.38) 35,850 (30.68) 21,673 (30.76) 15,339 (30.67) 11,267 (28.66) 32,532 (30.14) 55,088 (32.71)
Qualification
College or University 18,156 (23.89) 31,838 (31.09) 39,816 (34.08) 21,166 (30.04) 14,119 (28.23) 14,996 (38.15) 35,453 (32.85) 46,408 (27.55)
A levels/AS levels 7,032 (9.25) 10,969 (10.71) 12,755 (10.92) 7,201 (10.22) 5,358 (10.71) 4,660 (11.85) 11,525 (10.68) 16,414 (9.75)
O levels/GCSEs 15,379 (20.24) 21,616 (21.11) 24,201 (20.71) 14,444 (20.50) 10,778 (21.55) 7,909 (20.12) 22,547 (20.89) 34,406 (20.43)
CSEs or equivalent 3,530 (4.65) 3,671 (3.58) 4,025 (3.44) 2,807 (3.98) 2,033 (4.07) 1,211 (3.08) 3,965 (3.67) 6,824 (4.05)
NVQ or HND or HNC 5,987 (7.88) 7,096 (6.93) 7,638 (6.54) 5,502 (7.81) 3,636 (7.27) 2,329 (5.92) 7,147 (6.62) 13,111 (7.78)
None of the above 21,259 (27.98) 20,891 (20.40) 21,167 (18.12) 14,995 (21.29) 10,974 (21.94) 5,980 (15.21) 20,809 (19.28) 40,549 (24.07)
Income
Less than £18,000 25,578 (33.66) 28,916 (28.24) 28,975 (24.80) 19,008 (26.98) 14,582 (29.16) 9,285 (23.62) 27,803 (25.76) 50,807 (30.16)
18,000 to 30,999 21,365 (28.12) 29,647 (28.95) 33,384 (28.57) 19,568 (27.78) 14,204 (28.40) 10,581 (26.92) 30,692 (28.44) 48,487 (28.79)
31,000 to 51,999 16,641 (21.90) 24,072 (23.51) 29,232 (25.02) 17,027 (24.17) 11,713 (23.42) 9,919 (25.23) 26,401 (24.46) 38,939 (23.12)
(Continued )
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Coffee, tea, stroke, dementia, and post-stroke dementia
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Furthermore, we examined the joint association of coffee and tea intake with stroke and its
subtypes (Fig 2). We found that both in unadjusted (S5 Table) and multiadjusted models (Fig
2), the combination of coffee and tea was associated with lower risk of stroke and ischemic
stroke. In multiadjusted models, compared with those who did not drink tea and coffee, HRs
of drinking 2 to 3 cups of coffee and 2 to 3 cups of tea per day were 0.68 (95% CI, 0.59 to 0.79;
P<0.001) and 0.62 (95% CI, 0.51 to 0.75; P<0.001) for stroke and ischemic stroke, respec-
tively. However, no association was observed for coffee and tea with a hemorrhagic stroke.
There was a statistical interaction between tea and coffee intake on stroke (P<0.001).
Coffee and tea with dementia risk
We assessed the association of each coffee and tea with dementia and its subtypes (Fig 3). In
unadjusted Cox models, intake of coffee, tea, and their combination were associated with
lower risk of dementia and vascular dementia, but not with Alzheimer disease (S6 Table).
After multivariable adjustment for confounding factors, coffee intake was associated with
lower risk of dementia and vascular dementia, but not with Alzheimer disease. Likewise, after
multivariable adjustment, tea intake was associated with lower risk of dementia and vascular
dementia, but not with Alzheimer disease. Next, we assessed the joint association of coffee and
tea intake with dementia and its subtypes. We found that the lowest risk of incident dementia
at a daily consumption level of 0.5 to 1 cup of coffee and 4 cups of tea. Compared with those
who did not drink coffee and tea, HR (95% CI) for drinking 0.5 to 1 cup of coffee and 4 cups
of tea per day was 0.70 (95% CI, 0.58 to 0.86; P<0.001), and HR (95% CI) for drinking 2 to 3
cups of coffee and 2 to 3 cups of tea per day was 0.72 (95% CI, 0.59 to 0.89; P= 0.002). There
was a statistical interaction between tea and coffee intake on dementia and vascular dementia
(P= 0.0127). Furthermore, the combination of coffee and tea intake was associated with lower
risk of vascular dementia, but not with Alzheimer disease.
Additionally, we evaluate the HRs of participants who drank both coffee and tea compared
to those who only drank either coffee or tea (S7 Table). After adjustment for confounders,
compared with participants who only drank either coffee or tea, those who drank both coffee
and tea was associated with lower risk of stroke (HR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.86 to 0.93; P<0.001),
ischemic stroke (HR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.84 to 0.94; P<0.001), dementia (HR, 0.92; 95% CI, 0.87
to 0.98; P= 0.001), and vascular dementia (HR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.72 to 0.92; P<0.001).
Coffee and tea with poststroke dementia risk
We further studied the association of coffee and tea with dementia and its subtypes among
participants with stroke (S4 Fig). Of 13,352 participants with stroke, during a median follow-
up of 7.07 years, 646 participants (4.8%) developed dementia (119 Alzheimer disease and 315
vascular dementia). In unadjusted Cox models, coffee and the combination of coffee and tea
Table 1. (Continued)
Coffee intake, cups/day, No. (%) Tea intake, cups/day, No. (%)
Characteristic 0 0.5 to 1 2 to 3 4 0 0.5 to 1 2 to 3 4
52,000 to 100,000 10,295 (13.55) 15,875 (15.50) 19,866 (17.00) 11,871 (16.85) 7,684 (15.37) 7,299 (18.57) 18,249 (16.91) 24,675 (14.65)
Greater than 100,000 2,107 (2.77) 3,894 (3.80) 5,387 (4.61) 2,974 (4.22) 1,826 (3.65) 2,227 (5.67) 4,786 (4.43) 5,523 (3.28)
A, Advanced; AS, Advanced Subsidiary; BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); CSE, Certificate of Secondary
Education; GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary Education; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HNC, Higher National Certificate; HND, Higher National Diploma;
LDL, low-density lipoprotein; NVQ, National Vocational Qualification; O, Ordinary; SD, standard deviation; UK Biobank, United Kingdom Biobank.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003830.t001
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were associated with lower risk of dementia (S8 Table). After multivariable adjustment, com-
pared with noncoffee drinkers, participants who had a daily consumption level of 2 to 3 cups
of coffee were associated with a lower (HR, 0.80; 95% CI, 0.64 to 0.99; P= 0.044) risk of
dementia, but not with Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia. In addition, compared to
nontea drinking, tea intake was not associated with dementia and its subtypes among partici-
pants with stroke. Next, we assessed the combination of coffee and tea intake on dementia and
its subtypes among participants with stroke. We found that the combination of coffee and tea
Fig 1. Restricted cubic spline models for the relationship between coffee, tea, and their combination with stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia. (A1)
Coffee and stroke. (A2) Tea and stroke. (A3) Combination of coffee and tea on stroke. (B1) Coffee and dementia. (B2) Tea and dementia. (B3) Combination of
coffee and tea on dementia. (C1) Coffee and poststroke dementia. (C2) Tea and poststroke dementia. (C3) Combination of coffee and tea on poststroke
dementia. The 95% CIs of the adjusted HRs are represented by the shaded area. Restricted cubic spline model is adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity, qualification,
income, BMI, smoking status, alcohol status, physical activity, diet pattern, consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, HDL, LDL, cancer, diabetes, CAD, and
hypertension, and we adjusted for coffee in tea analysis or for tea in coffee analysis. BAU :AbbreviationlistshavebeencompiledforthoseusedthroughoutFigs13:Pleaseverifythatallentriesarecorrect:MI, body mass index; CAD, cardiovascular arterial disease; HDL, high-
density lipoprotein; HR, hazard ratio; LDL, low-density lipoprotein.
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was associated with lower risk of poststroke dementia. Compared with those who did not
drink coffee and tea, HRs of drinking 0.5 to 1 cup of coffee and 2 to 3 cups of tea per day were
0.50 (95% CI, 0.31 to 0.82; P= 0.006) for poststroke dementia. However, no association was
observed between coffee and tea with Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia. There were no
interactions between tea and coffee intake on dementia and vascular dementia (P>0.05).
We also evaluated the associations of coffee types with stroke (S9 Table) and dementia (S10
Table). Among coffee drinkers, 160,741 (44.0%), 63,363 (17.3%), and 57,397 (15.7%) partici-
pants reported drinking instant, ground, and decaffeinated coffee, respectively. In multiad-
justed Cox regression models, compared to instant coffee, ground coffee was not associated
Fig 2. Association of coffee and tea intake with stroke and its subtypes. (A) Coffee and tea with stroke. (B) Coffee and tea with ischemic stroke. (C)
Coffee and tea with hemorrhage stroke. Multivariable model is adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity (White, Asian or Asian British, Black or Black British, and
Other ethnic group), qualification (college or university degree, A levels/AS levels or equivalent, O levels/GCSEs or equivalent, CSEs or equivalent, NVQ
or HND or HNC or equivalent, other professional qualifications, or none of the above), income (less than £18,000, 18,000 to 30,999, 31,000 to 51,999,
52,000 to 100,000, and greater than 100,000), BMI (<25, 25 to <30, 30 to <35, and 35 kg/m
2
), smoking status (never, former, and current), alcohol
status (never, former, and current), physical activity (low, moderate, and high), diet pattern (healthy and unhealthy, created by fruits, vegetables, fish,
processed meats, unprocessed red meats, whole grains, and refined grains), consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, HDL, LDL, cancer, diabetes,
CAD, and hypertension, and we adjusted for coffee in tea analysis or for tea in coffee analysis. A, Advanced; AS, Advanced Subsidiary; BMI, body mass
index; CAD, cardiovascular arterial disease; CSE, Certificate of Secondary Education; GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary Education; HDL, high-
density lipoprotein; HNC, Higher National Certificate; HND, Higher National Diploma; HR, hazard ratio; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; NVQ, National
Vocational Qualification; O, Ordinary.
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with stroke (HR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.93 to 1.04; P= 0.619) and its subtypes. Compared to decaf-
feinated coffee, instant coffee was not associated with stroke (HR, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.90 to 1.01;
P= 0.074) and its subtypes, while ground coffee was associated with a lower risk of stroke (HR,
0.90, 95% CI, 0.84 to 0.97; P= 0.006) and ischemic stroke (HR, 0.90, 95% CI, 0.82 to 1.00;
P= 0.045). For dementia, in multiadjusted Cox regression models, compared to instant coffee,
ground coffee was associated with a lower risk of dementia (HR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.77 to 0.89;
P<0.001), Alzheimer disease (HR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.69 to 0.87; P<0.001), and vascular demen-
tia (HR, 0.82; 95% CI, 0.70 to 0.96; P= 0.012). Compared to decaffeinated coffee, instant coffee
was associated with lower risk of dementia (HR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.79 to 0.92; P<0.001), Alzhei-
mer disease (HR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.72 to 0.91; P<0.001), and vascular dementia (HR, 0.84; 95%
Fig 3. Association of coffee and tea intake with dementia and its subtypes. (A) Coffee and tea with dementia. (B) Coffee and tea with Alzheimer disease.
(C) Coffee and tea with vascular dementia. Multivariable model is adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity (White, Asian or Asian British, Black or Black British, and
Other ethnic group), qualification (college or university degree, A levels/AS levels or equivalent, O levels/GCSEs or equivalent, CSEs or equivalent, NVQ or
HND or HNC or equivalent, other professional qualifications, or none of the above), income (less than £18,000, 18,000 to 30,999, 31,000 to 51,999, 52,000
to 100,000, and greater than 100,000), BMI (<25, 25 to <30, 30 to <35, and 35 kg/m
2
), smoking status (never, former, and current), alcohol status (never,
former, and current), physical activity (low, moderate, and high), diet pattern (healthy and unhealthy, created by fruits, vegetables, fish, processed meats,
unprocessed red meats, whole grains, and refined grains), consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, HDL, LDL, cancer, diabetes, CAD, and
hypertension, and we adjusted for coffee in tea analysis or for tea in coffee analysis. A, Advanced; AS, Advanced Subsidiary; BMI, body mass index; CAD,
cardiovascular arterial disease; CSE, Certificate of Secondary Education; GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary Education; HDL, high-density lipoprotein;
HNC, Higher National Certificate; HND, Higher National Diploma; HR, hazard ratio; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; NVQ, National Vocational
Qualification; O, Ordinary.
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CI, 0.72 to 0.99; P= 0.036); ground coffee was associated with lower risk of dementia (HR,
0.74; 95% CI, 0.66 to 0.82; P<0.001), Alzheimer disease (HR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.57 to 0.78;
P<0.001), and vascular dementia (HR, 0.74; 95% CI, 0.59 to 0.92; P= 0.008).
Sensitivity analyses
When analyses were stratified by age, the association between the combination of coffee and
tea and the risk of stroke was more pronounced in individuals aged 50 to 65 years old (Pfor
interaction = 0.044; S11 Table), but not dementia (Pfor interaction = 0.091; S12 Table). Asso-
ciations for coffee/tea intake with incident stroke and dementia did not meaningfully differ by
sex (S13 and S14 Tables), smoking status (S15 and S16 Tables), alcohol status (S17 and S18
Tables), physical activity (S19 and S20 Tables), BMI (S21 and S22 Tables), and diet pattern
(S23 and S24 Tables) (all Pfor interaction >0.05). The results were not much altered com-
pared with those from initial analyses when we repeated analyses: (1) excluding participants
with incident stroke or dementia during the first 2 years of follow-up (S25 and S26 Tables);
(2) excluding participants with major prior diseases (e.g., cancer, coronary artery disease, and
diabetes) at baseline (S27 and S28 Tables); (3) including participants younger than 50 years
old (S29 and S30 Tables); (4) with additional more detail adjustment for smoking and alcohol
statuses (S31 and S32 Tables); and (4) using a competing risk regression model (S33 and S34
Tables).
Discussion
In this large prospective cohort study, we found that (1) the separate and combined intake of
tea and coffee were associated with lower risk of stroke, ischemic stroke, dementia, and vascu-
lar dementia; (2) participants who reported drinking 2 to 3 cups of coffee with 2 to 3 cups of
tea per day were associated with about 30% lower risk of stroke and dementia; (3) the combi-
nation of coffee and tea seemed to correlate with lower risk of stroke and dementia compared
to coffee or tea separately; and (4) intake of coffee alone or in combination with tea was associ-
ated with lower risk of poststroke dementia.
Many studies have investigated the relationship between separate coffee and tea consump-
tion and stroke, but with inconsistent findings. Some reported inverse associations [37,38],
while others revealed positive or null connections [16,28,39–41]. Our findings supported that
tea and coffee consumption related to lower risk of stroke, in accord with a review that sum-
marized available evidence from experimental studies, prospective studies, and meta-analyses
reported that tea and coffee consumption might relate to lower risk of stroke [41]. The current
study also found a stronger association between the combination of tea and coffee and ische-
mic stroke compared to hemorrhagic stroke. Studies have reported that coffee and tea may
have a different impact upon different subtypes of stroke due to the different pathogenesis and
pathophysiology of the subtypes of stroke [42,43]. A possible mechanism for this relationship
is that coffee and tea are inversely associated with endothelial dysfunction, which is a major
cause of ischemic stroke [44–47]. Another potential mechanism may be that coffee contains
caffeine and is a rich source of antioxidants, and evidence demonstrated that coffee was
inversely associated with cardiometabolic risk, including cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2
diabetes, lipids, and hypertension [25,48,49]. Although these explanations are biologically
plausible, further studies are warranted to provide the exact underlying mechanisms of coffee
and tea intake in developing ischemic stroke.
The association of a combination of coffee and tea on stroke was supported by a previous
study. Kokubo and colleagues conducted a prospective study, including 82,369 Japanese indi-
viduals, aged 45 to 74 years, which found that higher green tea or coffee consumption was
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Coffee, tea, stroke, dementia, and post-stroke dementia
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associated with a lower risk of CVD and stroke subtypes (especially in intracerebral hemor-
rhage) [16]. The difference is that our findings suggested that coffee and tea intake were associ-
ated with ischemic stroke rather than hemorrhagic stroke. The cause of this difference might
be the study design, ethnic background, and classification of tea consumption. Further experi-
mental studies are needed to verify our findings. In addition, Gelber and colleagues conducted
the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study including 3,494 men, which found that coffee and caffeine
intake in midlife was not associated with overall dementia, Alzheimer disease, vascular demen-
tia, or cognitive impairment [22], which is inconsistent with our findings. The cause of this dif-
ference might be the sample size.
Our study showed that there was an interaction between coffee and tea that associated with
stroke and dementia. There are several mechanisms whereby the combination of coffee and
tea may be related to stroke and dementia. First, coffee is the primary source of caffeine and
contains phenolics and other bioactive compounds with potential beneficial health effects.
Likewise, tea contains caffeine, catechin polyphenols, and flavonoids, which have been
reported to have neuroprotective roles such as antioxidative stress, anti-inflammation, inhibi-
tion of amyloid-beta aggregation, and antiapoptosis [18,50,51]. Coffee and tea are distinct bev-
erages with both overlapping and different contents [14]. One potential mechanism may be
related to the combined protective role of the different antioxidant and other biological con-
tents in these 2 beverages [16]. Second, coffee and tea have a specific polyphenolic content,
characterized by hydroxycinnamic acids in the former, and catechins in the latter, which have
demonstrated potential benefits in ameliorating endothelial function, insulin resistance, and
anti-inflammation, and have different target molecules [52]; thereby, the specific polyphenolic
contents of coffee and tea may play a combined protective role in the pathogenesis of stroke
and dementia. Third, both coffee and tea were related to lower cardiometabolic risks, includ-
ing type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and CAD [25,48,49]. Thus, consuming the 2 beverages in
combination may have a joint health benefit for preventing the risk of stroke and dementia.
Fourth, the interaction between coffee and tea drinking for both stroke and dementia may
have arisen due to chance. Finally, consumption of coffee and tea may jointly modulate certain
cytokine activation [53–55]. Further validation in animal experiments is warranted to examine
coffee and tea’s potential joint associations on dementia.
Strengths of this study include its large sample size of UK Biobank participants, the pro-
spective design, and long-time follow up. Our present study also had several limitations. First,
coffee and tea intakes were self-report at baseline, which may not reflect long-term consump-
tion patterns. Potential changes in coffee and tea consumptions after the baseline examination
may have influenced our risk estimates. Future research is needed to investigate the impact of
changes in coffee and tea intake over time on stroke and dementia risk. Second, coffee and tea
intakes are all self-reported measures, which could lead to inaccurate responses, although most
large epidemiological studies rely on self-reported questionnaires. Third, people who volunteer
for the UK Biobank cohort tend to be, on average, more health conscious than nonpartici-
pants, which may lead to underestimation prevalence and incidence of stroke and dementia
[56]. Fry and colleagues reported that UK Biobank participants generally live in less socioeco-
nomically deprived areas; are less likely to be obese, to smoke, and to drink alcohol; and have
fewer self-reported health conditions, with evidence of a “healthy volunteer” selection bias
[56]. Fourth, similar to most observational studies, the bias that may be caused by unmeasured
confounding factors remains (e.g., mental disease, sleep pattern, and genetic predisposition),
even though multiple sensitivity analyses have been carried out in the current study. Further-
more, given the low absolute proportions of participants who developed the primary events,
there is likely to be residual confounding based on the baseline demographics and risk factors,
as well as the unmeasured confounding on healthy lifestyle that could more likely occur in
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some types of tea and coffee drinkers. Thus, the conclusions could be tempered by the low
absolute risk and the likely residual confounding. Finally, since most of the UK Biobank partic-
ipants were of white British (96%), our findings may only be generalizable to demographically
similar cohorts, and this limitation precludes the generalization of these findings to the general
population.
Among neurological disorders, stroke (42%) and dementia (10%) dominate [10]. Strokes
can lead to cognitive impairment and even lead to poststroke dementia. In addition, covert
stroke and silent brain ischemia contribute to cognitive impairment and dementia [10].
Hence, preventing the risk of stroke and dementia is particularly important. Despite advances
in understanding the pathophysiology of stroke and dementia, clinical treatment of stroke and
dementia continues to be suboptimal. Therefore, identifying the preventable risk factors for
stroke and dementia is of high priority. Our findings raise the possibility of a potentially bene-
ficial association between moderate coffee and tea consumption and risk of stroke and demen-
tia, although this study cannot establish a causal relationship. Lifestyle interventions, including
promotion of healthy dietary intake (e.g., moderate coffee and tea consumption), might benefit
older adults by improving stroke as well as subsequent dementia. From a public health per-
spective, because regular tea and coffee drinkers comprise such a large proportion of the popu-
lation and because these beverages tend to be consumed habitually throughout adult life, even
small potential health benefits or risks associated with tea and coffee intake may have impor-
tant public health implications. Further clinical trials on lifestyle interventions will be neces-
sary to assess whether the observed associations are causal.
Conclusions
In conclusion, we found that drinking coffee and tea separately or in combination were associ-
ated with lower risk of stroke and dementia. Moreover, drinking coffee alone or in combina-
tion with tea was associated with lower risk of poststroke dementia. Our findings support an
association between moderate coffee and tea consumption and risk of stroke and dementia.
However, whether the provision of such information can improve stroke and dementia out-
comes remains to be determined.
Supporting information
S1 Checklist. STROBE ChecklistAU :AbbreviationlistshavebeencompiledforthoseusedthroughoutS1Checklist;S7Table;andS3andS4Figs:Pleaseverifythatallentriesarecorrect:.STROBE, Strengthening the Reporting of Observational
Studies in Epidemiology.
(DOCX)
S1 Text. Analysis plan.
(DOCX)
S1 Table. Diet component definitions used in the UK Biobank study.
(DOC)
S2 Table. Detailed information on missing covariates.
(DOC)
S3 Table. Baseline characteristics by the combination of coffee and tea intake in the UK
Biobank cohort.
(DOC)
S4 Table. Correlation between coffee and tea intake and other covariates.
(DOC)
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S5 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort (unadjusted
models).
(DOC)
S6 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort (unad-
justed model).
(DOC)
S7 Table. HRs of stroke and dementia for participants who drank both coffee and tea com-
pared to those who only drank either coffee or tea. HR, hazard ratio.
(DOC)
S8 Table. Association of coffee and tea with poststroke dementia in the UK Biobank cohort
(unadjusted models).
(DOC)
S9 Table. Risk of incident stroke according to coffee types in the UK Biobank.
(DOC)
S10 Table. Risk of incident dementia according to coffee types in the UK Biobank.
(DOC)
S11 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort by age.
(DOC)
S12 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort by age.
(DOC)
S13 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort by sex.
(DOC)
S14 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort by sex.
(DOC)
S15 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort by smoking
status.
(DOC)
S16 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort by smok-
ing status.
(DOC)
S17 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort by alcohol
status.
(DOC)
S18 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort by alco-
hol status.
(DOC)
S19 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort by physical
activity.
(DOC)
S20 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort by physi-
cal activity.
(DOC)
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S21 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort by BMI.
(DOC)
S22 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort by BMI.
(DOC)
S23 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort by diet pat-
tern.
(DOC)
S24 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort by diet
pattern.
(DOC)
S25 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke after exclusion of stroke occurring
during the first 2 years of follow-up in the UK Biobank cohort.
(DOC)
S26 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia after exclusion of dementia occur-
ring during the first 2 years of follow-up in the UK Biobank cohort.
(DOC)
S27 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke after exclusion of individuals with
major prior diseases in the UK Biobank cohort.
(DOC)
S28 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia after exclusion of individuals with
major prior diseases in the UK Biobank cohort.
(DOC)
S29 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort (including
participants younger than 50 years old).
(DOC)
S30 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort (includ-
ing participants younger than 50 years old).
(DOC)
S31 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort (detail
adjusting for smoking and alcohol statuses).
(DOC)
S32 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort (detail
adjusting for smoking and alcohol statuses).
(DOC)
S33 Table. Association of coffee and tea with stroke in the UK Biobank cohort: Results
from competing risk regression models.
(DOC)
S34 Table. Association of coffee and tea with dementia in the UK Biobank cohort: Results
from competing risk regression models.
(DOC)
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Coffee, tea, stroke, dementia, and post-stroke dementia
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S1 Fig. Flowchart of participant selection. (A) Association of coffee and tea with stroke and
dementia. (B) Association of coffee and tea with poststroke dementia.
(DOC)
S2 Fig. The distribution of combination of coffee and tea intake.
(DOC)
S3 Fig. Unadjusted restricted cubic spline models for the relationship between coffee, tea,
and their combination with stroke, dementia, and poststroke dementia. (A1) Coffee and
stroke. (A2) Tea and stroke. (A3) Combination of coffee and tea on stroke. (B1) Coffee and
dementia. (B2) Tea and dementia. (B3) Combination of coffee and tea on dementia. (C1) Cof-
fee and poststroke dementia. (C2) Tea and poststroke dementia. (C3) Combination of coffee
and tea on poststroke dementia. The 95% CIs of the adjusted HRs are represented by the
shaded area. HR, hazard ratio.
(DOC)
S4 Fig. Association of coffee and tea intake with dementia among participants with stroke.
Note: Multivariable model is adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity (White, Asian or Asian British,
Black or Black British, and Other ethnic group), qualification (college or university degree, A
levels/AS levels or equivalent, O levels/GCSEs or equivalent, CSEs or equivalent, NVQ or
HND or HNC or equivalent, other professional qualifications, or none of the above), income
(less than £18,000, 18,000 to 30,999, 31,000 to 51,999, 52,000 to 100,000, and greater than
100,000), BMI (<25, 25 to <30, 30 to <35, and 35 kg/m
2
), smoking status (never, former,
and current), alcohol status (never, former, and current), physical activity (low, moderate, and
high), diet pattern (health and unhealth, created by fruits, vegetables, fish, processed meats,
unprocessed red meats, whole grains, and refined grains), consumption of sugar-sweetened
beverages, HDL, LDL, cancer, diabetes, CAD, and hypertension, and we adjusted for coffee in
tea analysis or for tea in coffee analysis. A, Advanced; AS, Advanced Subsidiary; BMI, body
mass index; CAD, cardiovascular arterial disease; CSE, Certificate of Secondary Education;
GCSE, General Certificate of Secondary Education; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HNC,
Higher National Certificate; HND, Higher National Diploma; HR, hazard ratio; LDL, low-
density lipoprotein; NVQ, National Vocational Qualification; O, Ordinary.
(DOC)
Acknowledgments
We thank the participants of the UK Biobank. This research has been conducted using the UK
biobank Resource under the project number of 45676.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Yaogang Wang.
Data curation: Yaogang Wang.
Formal analysis: Yuan Zhang.
Funding acquisition: Yaogang Wang.
Investigation: Yuan Zhang, Yaogang Wang.
Methodology: Yuan Zhang.
Project administration: Yaogang Wang.
PLOS MEDICINE
Coffee, tea, stroke, dementia, and post-stroke dementia
PLOS Medicine | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003830 November 16, 2021 18 / 22
Resources: Yaogang Wang.
Software: Yuan Zhang, Hongxi Yang.
Supervision: Yaogang Wang.
Validation: Yaogang Wang.
Visualization: Yuan Zhang, Hongxi Yang.
Writing – original draft: Yuan Zhang, Yaogang Wang.
Writing – review & editing: Shu Li, Wei-dong Li, Yaogang Wang.
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